Integrated environmental management process

Fig. 3. DPSIR framework for integrated environmental assessment. levels. Several authors have also suggested the application of IEM to coastal zones, introducing the concept of integrated coastal zone manage- ment ICZM Turner and Adger, 1996. ICZM is a continuous planning process in which interested parties, stakeholders and regulators reach general agreement on the best mix of conservation, sus- tainable resource use and economic development for coastal areas Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 1998. We suggest that the adoption of IEM principles and methodology, taking into account the scales of analysis at which oceans problems occur, can provide relevant guidance for the development of sustainable oceans governance, providing a robust and analytically sound framework for management.

2. Integrated environmental management process

IEM is a complex process which involves the study of the complete environmental cycle associ- ated with each environmental problem. This cycle includes resource extraction e.g. fishing and gen- eration of emissions e.g. toxins release by socioe- conomic activities, the evaluation of their effects on natural resources and environmental quality, and the impacts on ecosystem functions and hu- man welfare. These, in turn, can limit the develop- ment of human activities and create the need for policy response Fig. 1. IEM is, therefore, an adaptive process which has to consider interactively problem assessment, policy priorities, and the formulation and imple- mentation of policies through adequate instru- ments and measures, taking into account the multiple perspectives of the stakeholders involved Santos et al., 1991. Integrated environmental management implies the accomplishment of sev- eral tasks, namely: 1. Problem identification and assessment; 2. Modeling and formulation of scenarios of pos- sible environmental change; 3. Identification of priority issues and establish- ment of targets for environmental policy; 4. Search and evaluation of policy alternatives, including environmental management instru- ments and measures which best meet objectives; 5. Implementation and evaluation of policy performance. Table 1 Integrated environmental assessment of oceans a Problem Pressure Driving forces State Impact Fish catches Stock depletion Over fishing Decrease in capture per Population growth Food needs Ecosystem changes unit of effort Ecological effects Urban and indus- Contamination from Water quality Emissions from land- Health effects in marine trial development land-based activities species based activities indicators Resource extraction Agriculture, aqua- Eutrophication Human health culture Sediments toxicity Damage to wetlands and Resources needs other coastal ecosystems Biological indicators Tourism and recreation losses Urban and indus- Dumping at sea Waste dumping Water quality Health effects in marine species trial development Resource extraction Sediments toxicity Human health Biological indicators Port activities Oil spills accidental and Need for trans- Health effects in marine Release of toxins Water quality species indicators portation operational Resources needs Damage to coastal areas Port activities Urban and indus- Destruction of coastal Occupation of areas Biodiversity losses Water quality indicators trial development Emissions ecosystems Changes in biological pro- ductivity Changes in water Port activities Need for tourism Increased vulnerability Dredging motion recreation Ecological productivity Overcrowding Health of key coastal Resource needs Fishing industry losses Destructive fishing tech- Disturbance in sediment Coastal erosion ecosystems wetlands, mangroves, and coral niques flow and siltation reefs Beach and bottom Coastal dynamics Occupation of areas Urban and indus- Land, property and in- erosion frastructures losses trial development Flooding of low-lying ar- Dredging Disturbance in Need for tourism Channelisation sediment flow and recreation eas Coast protection works siltation Increased vulnerability CO 2 ; CFCs and other; Average temperature Changes in biological Population growth Climate change Urban and indus- GHG emissions Sea level rise productivity trial development Increased populations at Need for trans- Saltwater intrusion in risk portation Land, property and in- freshwater frastructures losses Resource needs Storminess Coastal erosion rates Flooding of low-lying ar- eas a This table describes some underlying causes of marine environmental problems, but does not consider marine resource related market failures which shape the ‘intensity’ of the pressures on the environment, such as ill-defined property rights, as well as factors related to the behavior of the actors. Table 2 Measures and instruments for sustainable oceans governance Problem Command and Measures Economic instruments Informationvoluntary control Total allowable catch Reduce fishing effort Over fishing Share-based fisheries Eco-label for fish Technology to reduce by- products TAC Incentives for fleet Increased awareness catch reduction Mesh regulations Closed areas Marine protected areas Incentives to regulations aquaculture Days at sea DAS Tax catchesfishing Aquaculture effort Information about Effluent treatment Emissions standards Emissions and Contamination from product taxescharges land-based activities quality e.g. blue flag Waste treatmentdisposal Prohibitions for waste Eco-label Transferable Non-point source pollution dumping control Technological Discharge permits Environmental Audits standards Improved production Subventions Voluntary agreements processes Liability systems Regulations for covenants agricultural practices Improved resource efficiency Reduce agricultural inputs Waste treatment facilities Prohibitions Environmental Environmental audits Dumping at sea assurance bonding systems Liability systems Clean-up Reduce risk of accident Safety requirements Oil spills accidental and Environmental Provision of information for the safe navigation assurance bonding for tankers e.g. operational double hull tankers of ships systems Definition of Clean-up Liability systems navigation routes Increased limit of Restoration responsibility of ship owners Waste oil treatment facilities Transferable Marine and coastal parks- Limited access to Destruction of coastal Eco-label for tourism resources ecosystems resorts development rights Coastal zones Public provision Visitdiving fees Restoration Taxes de se´jour for management plans Protection Zoning tourists Reduce occupationuse Zoning Resource extraction Coast protection works Coastal erosion Restoration Limited access to taxes resources Land use planning in coastal areas Climate change GHG emissions reduction Emission standards Carbon tax Eco-label for energy Energy efficiency Technological Tradable emission efficient products Renewable energy standards reduction targets Retreat Incentives to energy saving equipment Protection Fig. 2 illustrates the IEM process indicating also the major tools that can be used in the several stages. In the following sections we willbriefly discuss for each of these steps major issues related to the application of IEM for oceans. IEM is essentially adaptive, involving a contin- uous learning process that cannot be separated into research, design and implementation stages Wal- ters, 1986. A stage of equilibrium involving full knowledge and optimal allocation of coastal and marine resources will probably never be reached. In this context, the stages mentioned above are not performed in a linear one-time sequence; instead they are all performed simultaneously in a contin- uous process of identification – design – implementa- tion – evaluation and revision. The involvement of stakeholders at stages and the establishment of adequate governance institutions are essential for the success of the IEM approach. These issues will be discussed in Section 8.

3. Problem identificationassessment