Fig. 3. DPSIR framework for integrated environmental assessment.
levels. Several authors have also suggested the application of IEM to coastal zones, introducing
the concept of integrated coastal zone manage- ment ICZM Turner and Adger, 1996. ICZM is
a continuous planning process in which interested parties, stakeholders and regulators reach general
agreement on the best mix of conservation, sus- tainable resource use and economic development
for coastal areas Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 1998.
We suggest that the adoption of IEM principles and methodology, taking into account the scales
of analysis at which oceans problems occur, can provide relevant guidance for the development of
sustainable oceans governance, providing a robust and
analytically sound
framework for
management.
2. Integrated environmental management process
IEM is a complex process which involves the study of the complete environmental cycle associ-
ated with each environmental problem. This cycle includes resource extraction e.g. fishing and gen-
eration of emissions e.g. toxins release by socioe- conomic activities, the evaluation of their effects
on natural resources and environmental quality, and the impacts on ecosystem functions and hu-
man welfare. These, in turn, can limit the develop- ment of human activities and create the need for
policy response Fig. 1.
IEM is, therefore, an adaptive process which has to consider interactively problem assessment,
policy priorities, and the formulation and imple- mentation of policies through adequate instru-
ments and measures, taking into account the multiple perspectives of the stakeholders involved
Santos et al., 1991. Integrated environmental management implies the accomplishment of sev-
eral tasks, namely:
1. Problem identification and assessment; 2. Modeling and formulation of scenarios of pos-
sible environmental change; 3. Identification of priority issues and establish-
ment of targets for environmental policy; 4. Search and evaluation of policy alternatives,
including environmental management instru- ments
and measures
which best
meet objectives;
5. Implementation and
evaluation of
policy performance.
Table 1 Integrated environmental assessment of oceans
a
Problem Pressure
Driving forces State
Impact Fish catches
Stock depletion Over fishing
Decrease in capture per Population growth
Food needs Ecosystem changes
unit of effort Ecological effects
Urban and indus- Contamination from
Water quality Emissions from land-
Health effects in marine trial development
land-based activities species
based activities indicators
Resource extraction Agriculture, aqua-
Eutrophication Human health
culture Sediments toxicity
Damage to wetlands and Resources needs
other coastal ecosystems Biological indicators
Tourism and recreation losses
Urban and indus- Dumping at sea
Waste dumping Water quality
Health effects in marine species
trial development Resource extraction
Sediments toxicity Human health
Biological indicators Port activities
Oil spills accidental and Need for trans-
Health effects in marine Release of toxins
Water quality species
indicators portation
operational Resources needs
Damage to coastal areas Port activities
Urban and indus- Destruction of coastal
Occupation of areas Biodiversity losses
Water quality indicators
trial development Emissions
ecosystems Changes in biological pro-
ductivity Changes in water
Port activities Need for tourism
Increased vulnerability Dredging
motion recreation
Ecological productivity Overcrowding
Health of key coastal Resource needs
Fishing industry losses Destructive fishing tech-
Disturbance in sediment Coastal erosion
ecosystems wetlands, mangroves, and coral
niques flow and siltation
reefs Beach and bottom
Coastal dynamics Occupation of areas
Urban and indus- Land, property and in-
erosion frastructures losses
trial development Flooding of low-lying ar-
Dredging Disturbance in
Need for tourism Channelisation
sediment flow and recreation
eas Coast protection works
siltation Increased vulnerability
CO
2
; CFCs and other; Average temperature
Changes in biological Population growth
Climate change Urban and indus-
GHG emissions Sea level rise
productivity trial development
Increased populations at Need for trans-
Saltwater intrusion in risk
portation Land, property and in-
freshwater frastructures losses
Resource needs Storminess
Coastal erosion rates Flooding of low-lying ar-
eas
a
This table describes some underlying causes of marine environmental problems, but does not consider marine resource related market failures which shape the ‘intensity’ of the pressures on the environment, such as ill-defined property rights, as well as factors
related to the behavior of the actors.
Table 2 Measures and instruments for sustainable oceans governance
Problem Command and
Measures Economic instruments Informationvoluntary
control Total allowable catch
Reduce fishing effort Over fishing
Share-based fisheries Eco-label for fish
Technology to reduce by- products
TAC Incentives for fleet
Increased awareness catch
reduction Mesh regulations
Closed areas Marine protected areas
Incentives to regulations
aquaculture Days at sea DAS
Tax catchesfishing Aquaculture
effort Information about
Effluent treatment Emissions standards
Emissions and Contamination from
product taxescharges land-based activities
quality e.g. blue flag Waste treatmentdisposal
Prohibitions for waste Eco-label
Transferable Non-point source pollution
dumping control
Technological Discharge permits
Environmental Audits standards
Improved production Subventions
Voluntary agreements processes
Liability systems Regulations for
covenants agricultural practices
Improved resource efficiency Reduce agricultural inputs
Waste treatment facilities Prohibitions
Environmental Environmental audits
Dumping at sea assurance bonding
systems Liability systems
Clean-up Reduce risk of accident
Safety requirements Oil spills accidental and
Environmental Provision of information
for the safe navigation assurance bonding
for tankers e.g. operational
double hull tankers of ships
systems Definition of
Clean-up Liability systems
navigation routes Increased limit of
Restoration responsibility of ship
owners Waste oil treatment facilities
Transferable Marine and coastal parks-
Limited access to Destruction of coastal
Eco-label for tourism resources
ecosystems resorts
development rights Coastal zones
Public provision Visitdiving fees
Restoration Taxes de se´jour for
management plans Protection
Zoning tourists
Reduce occupationuse Zoning
Resource extraction Coast protection works
Coastal erosion Restoration
Limited access to taxes
resources Land use planning in
coastal areas Climate change
GHG emissions reduction Emission standards
Carbon tax Eco-label for energy
Energy efficiency Technological
Tradable emission efficient products
Renewable energy standards
reduction targets Retreat
Incentives to energy saving equipment
Protection
Fig. 2 illustrates the IEM process indicating also the major tools that can be used in the several stages.
In the following sections we willbriefly discuss for each of these steps major issues related to the
application of IEM for oceans.
IEM is essentially adaptive, involving a contin- uous learning process that cannot be separated into
research, design and implementation stages Wal- ters, 1986. A stage of equilibrium involving full
knowledge and optimal allocation of coastal and marine resources will probably never be reached. In
this context, the stages mentioned above are not performed in a linear one-time sequence; instead
they are all performed simultaneously in a contin- uous process of identification – design – implementa-
tion – evaluation and revision.
The involvement of stakeholders at stages and the establishment of adequate governance institutions
are essential for the success of the IEM approach. These issues will be discussed in Section 8.
3. Problem identificationassessment