THEORETICAL REVIEW LITERATURE REVIEW
17 context, teaching process and learning process have their own factors to indicate
the quality in teaching as the interpretation of the curriculum. Table 2.1 Criteria For Effective Curriculum
adapted from Richards, 2001
No. Category
Criteria 2.
1 Institution The
organizational culture
1. A sense of mission
2. A strategic plan
3. Quality assurance mechanism
4. A sound curriculum
5. Flexibel organizational framework
6. Internal communication
7. Professional treatment of teachers
8. Oppotunities for teacher development
2 Teaching context
1. Size and staff structure
2. Equipment
3. Support staff
4. Teacher work space
5. Teacher resource room
6. Teaching facilities
7. Class size
8. Teachers skills and qualifications
9. Support for teachers orientation, adequate materials,
course guides, division of responsibilities, further training, teaching release, mentors, feedback, rewards,
help lines, review 3
Teaching process 1.
Teaching model and principles 2.
Maintaining good teaching monitoring, observation, identification and resolutions of problems, shared
planning, documenting and sharing of good practices, self- study of the program
3. Evaluating teaching
4 Learning process
3. Understanding of the course
4. Views of learning learning styles, motivation, support
Curriculum entails official and hidden curriculum. Simply speaking official curriculum is goals, objectives, and the plans of the teaching learning
process that is stated and documented. On the other hand, hidden curriculum is another aspects of curriculum related to the real implementation that is not stated
and documented. Further discussion of these two curriculum is as follow.
18 a.
Official Curriculum As stated previously, official curriculum is the stated documentation of
the goals, objectives, and the plans of the teaching learning process. Official curriculum is related to the academic achievement of the students. Its goals and
objectives lead to the good grade which the students are required to attain. Moreover, it focuses on fulfilling the requirement written in the curriculum.
In Indonesia, as stated in Dokumen Kurikulum 2013 issued by Education and Culture Ministry ECM on 2012, curriculum is viewed as one of educational
aspects which contributes significantly to develop students quality. In a more complete description, curriculum in Indonesia is formulated conceptually,
pedagogically, and juridically as follow
Conceptually, curriculum is a respon of education towards the need of nation and community to build the youth. Pedagogically, curriculum is an education
plan which gives opportunities for learners to develop their potentials in a comfortable learning atmosphere and suitable for their abilities to have the
quality required by the nation and community. Yuridically, curriculum is a public policy based on the nation philosophy and yuridicial decision of
education aspect.
Dokumen Kurikulum 2013 2012: 2 Hence, curriculum is a guidaline formulated based on community needs and
nation philosophy to develop students quality in an appropriate and fun situation and condition.
Based on law no. 20 2003 and government regulation no. 19 2005, curriculum is a package of plans and regulation of goals, content, and materials as
well as the implementation as a guidance for teaching and learning process to achieve a particular educational goal. Therefore, it contains the guideline provided
by ECM consisting core competences, standard competences, objectives and
19 indicators. The official curriculum is usually the same for all schools at the similar
level. Official curriculum in Indonesia is developed by considering national
education standard. National education standard consists of eight standards. They are graduate competency standard, content standard, process standard, personnel
standard, infrastructure standard, management standard, funding standard, and assessment standard. As stated in chapter 38 of law 20 2003, the guideline and
structure of primary and secondary schools is formulated by the government. It is developed by each school and is monitored by the province for secondary schools.
Since the independence day, curriculum in Indonesia has undergone eight changes. The changes were mostly related to the approach applied and the
implementation as well as the materials used during the learning process. Below is the chronological order of the changes.
Figure 2. 1 Curriculum Changes In Indonesia As seen in figure 2.1, the implementation of English teaching changes from the
independence day, 1953, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004, 2006, and 2013. Despite of the
after indep
enden ce
GTM
1953 audio-lingual
1975 communicative
1984 communicative
1994 meaning-
based
2004 competency-
based 2006
competen- cy-based
2013 scientific
approach
20 changes, through out the years three main approaches are applied. Two old
methods were applied i.e. GTM after independence day and audiolingual method in 1953 until around the change in 1975. After 1975, as world wide English
education also applied, communicative approach has dominated English teaching and learning process until recent days.
The early years of English education in Indonesia implemented two methods, which are now considered old and out of date. After the independence
day, English education in Indonesia implemented GTM. This method was the left over of the Dutch Dardjowidjojo, 2000. GTM is a classic method emphasizing
on the mastery of grammar rules, vocabulary, and translation of texts Brown, 2000: 18. In GTM, the classes are taught in mother tongue, vocabulary is taught
mostly, and lengthy and detailed explanation are given. Moreover, students start read complicated classical text from early years. However, since the focuses are
on grammar, vocabulary, and text; pronunciation is given less attention. The texbook used during this period were
Abdurachman‟s English Grammar, Tobing‟s Practical Exercises, and de Maar and Pino‟s English Passages for
Translation. After the training granted by Ford foundation in 1953, audiolingual method was introduced to English teachers. Audiolingual method emphasizes on
the memorization of a series of dialogues and the role practice of language structures. Brown, 2000: 22-23. It is applied to develop oral language
proficiency. Hence, language for this method is seen as speech and a set of habit. In Indonesia, it was implemented through the English teaching materials and
textbooks. The textbooks used were English for SLTP which was written in 1958- 1962 and English for SLTA which was written in 1968-1972.
21 After the changes in 1953, English curriculum was oriented on
communicative skills. Communicative language teaching CLT emphasizes interaction in both the learning process and the goal of study Brown, 2000: 42-
45. In CLT, teachers are as facilitators and guides. Moreover, the main goal in this approach is for the learner to become communicatively competent Hymes in
Richards Rodgers, 2001. Further, Richards Rodgers 2001 mentioned four characteristics of CA view of language i.e. language is a system for the expression
of meaning, the primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication, the structure of language reflects its functional and
communicative uses, and the primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features but categories of functional and
communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. The techniques used are authentic materials, scrambled sentences, language games, picture strip story, and
role play Brown, 2000 and Harmer, 2001. In Indonesia, the focus on communicative skills dominated the changes of
curriculum in 1975, 1984, and 1994. However, Dardjowidjojo 2000 and Madya 2008 noted that the real practice of English language teaching ELT on those
years were still structurally oriented. Both the guidance and ELT still focused on grammatical structures. Even, the textbook used was very structural with
sentence-based orientation Dardjowidjojo, 2000 and Madya, 2008. During the implementation of 1984 curriculum, clear explanation of the pragmatic aspects in
the teaching materials was not clearly provided. As the result, „the textbooks were mostly misguided and misinterpreted
‟. Furthermore, communicative competence was hardly implemented since English is a foreign language in Indonesia which
22 was not commonly used outside the schools, even the classroom. Hence, most
students preferred using more local language or Indonesian than English. For this reason, ELT in Indonesia focused on cognitive knowledge instead of the
communicative target Dardjowidjojo, 2000. After the era of communicative approach, ELT was then driven by
competence-based learning CBL for the implementation of curriculum 2004 and 2006. In CBL language is taugth in relation with the social context Brown, 2000.
Moreover, it emphasizes knowledge, skills and attitude. The characteristics of CBLT are described by Schneck1978,vi:
Competency –based education has much in common with such approaches
to learnig as performance-based instruction, mastery learning and individualised nstruction. It is outcome-based and is adaptive to the
changing needs of students, teachers and the community .... competencies differ from other stduent goals and objectives in that they describe the
student‟s ability to apply basic and other skills in situations that are commonly encountered in everyday life. Thus CBE is based on a set of
outcomes that are derived from an analysis of tasks typically required of students in life role situations.
Richards, 2001 Hence, the focus of CBL is learning language in the real situations or everyday
life. In 2004 curriculum, ELT focused on four important competences i.e. linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, discourse competence and
strategic competence while 2006 curriculum emphasized competency-based curriculum that was developed by schools based on school and students‟
necharacteristics. Therefore, 2006 curriculum is called KTSP Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan. In KTSP, learners are expected to communicate effectively
by achieving the required competences.
23 After 2006 curriculum, scientific approach is implemented. Scientific
approach marked the use of 2013 curriculum K-13. It covers observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking in the learning process.
During the implementation of K-13, ELT emphasizes learner-centeredness. The ELT models of this approach are interactive learning, resiprocal learning,
cooperative learning, service learning, and discovery learning. However, lots of critics are given to K-13 due to various reasons. Further discussion of K-13 and
scientific approach is described in separated part of this chapter.
b. Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum is the unstated curriculum covering the actual practice in the teaching learning process. It is often not written nor documented. Hidden
curriculum depends on each school since it is characterized by the school‟s context, teachers and learners. Hence, it is a school-based curriculum.
Different from official curriculum, hidden curriculum is related to classroom demand Jackson, 2004. It is the actual practice in the classrroonm
dealing with the teachers, learners and materials. It focuses on the developmnet and improvement of the students‟ competence and skills. Hidden curriculum
supports the official one in achieving the goals of the curriculum. While developing and improving students‟ competence and skills, hidden curriculum is
able to improve the grade as well. Hence, this hidden one completes the official curriculum and determines the success and failure of the teaching learning process
Jackson, 2004. Specifically, several definitions of hidden curriculum have been
formulated. First, it refers to the “implicit values or goals in a curriculum or
24 educational system
” which is used to “ impart the values and ideology of a particular society or to socialize students into the dominant political and economic
system and the values of that system ” Richards and Scmidt, 2010: 261. Simply
speaking, in the practice of ELT, hidden curriculum emphasizes the values and goals related to the social context. Along with the communicative approach
adopted in the English education in Indoensia, the teaching learning process focuses on the effort to enhance students‟ comunicative skills. Hence, hidden
curriculum made by the teachers will determine the success of the students in achieving both good grade and the communicative skills required. Second, hidden
curriculum is “instructional norms and values not openly acknowledged by
teachers or school officials” Vang, 2006: 20 in Barrett, Solomon, Singer, Portelli and Mujuwamariya, 2009: 678. Since the values and norm are not stated openly
then they are not written and documented but they do exist and are practiced in the schools by both the teachers and students. Third, hidden curriculum is “the set of
influences that function at the level of organisational structure and culture including, for example, implicit rules to survive the institution such as customs,
rituals, and taken for granted aspects” Lempp and Seale, 2004: 770. Here, hidden curriculum refers to the rules, tradition, and activities made by the schools
and teachers for the sake of the students to acquire the competence and skills needed. This might be in the form of English day event or English club in the
schools which are made to encourage the students speak in English and to familiarize them with the English environment. Speaking in English with all
Englis h teachers is also a tradition made to stimulate and motivate the students‟
will to communicate in English.
25 From those definition, it can be concluded that hidden curriculum is
unstated values or goals in the form of implicit rules and activities related to the social context. As explained previously, it is not written and documented as the
official curriculum is. It is closely related to the classroom demand and students‟ needs. The covert curriculum is formulated for achieving the goals in the official
c urriculum as well as for enhancing students‟ competence and skills. Moreover,
Since it is hidden, the curriculum is not overtly stated in the official curriculum and to the students. The students will only know that they need to obey some rules
and do some activities without realizing the goals and benefits of those rules and activities.
Teaching-learning process is depicted more in the hidden curriculum. Harmer states that the actual variety of the language depends on
“the wishes of the student, the variety the teacher herself uses, the learning materials that are on
offer, or the school or education authority policy ” 2007: 24. This implies that the
curriculum implemented in the schools should consider the students‟ needs. The students‟ needs mostly deal with the classroom demands. Teachers, despite of the
guideline provided in the official curriculum, must consider the students‟ condition, ability and competence in planning the lesson. By noticing students‟
needs, teachers will be able to formulate activ ities which will enhance students‟
competence and skills by making variations on the activities intended for the students. The plan and activities created by the teachers depend on the needs of
the students and the creativity of the teachers. The more teachers understand students‟ needs and the more creative they are, the better the plan will be.
Moreover, it cannot be denied that supporting materials such as books chosen for
26 the students will also give a great effect in the success of English lesson in the
classroom. English textbook and workbook which suit best for students are the books which are adjusted to develop and improve their competence and skills.
Furthermore, the support from the institution or school‟s authority will also affect the teaching learning process. Those details in the teaching learning process are
covered in the hidden curriculum formulated by the schools and teachers. Further, the process of teaching and learning as the unpacking and
reshaping tasks can be seen from the hidden curriculum because the unpacking and reshaping are the results of the interpretation of the official curriculum into
the real process which involve social and cultural context to support the teaching and learning process. “Curriculum must be carefully selected and carefully
structured due to the purpose to shape learners in particular ways. This shaping can be realized through teaching and learning. Teaching and learning is the
process of unpacking and repacking of the structure in curriculum Hamilton, 1990: 42.
... the teacher‟s task is to unlock the potential of the curriculum whereas the
learner‟s task is to reshape themselves in the light of the curriculum‟s potential. Teachers have the prior knowledge of the lesson taught, the prior
access of the curriculum syllabus and at the same time the‟experience‟. ...
typically, too, teachers have prior access to the cultural codebooks that govern the preservation or codification of human experience. Teaching
and learning, therefore, are more than the handling on the experience. They are more complex activities. Teachers not only have to unpack the
curriculum storehouse, they also have to trabslate experience into a form that is accessible to learners. Likewise, learning can only be accomplished if
learners can find ways to link their own prior experience to the experiences offered by their teachers.
Hamilton, 1990: 42
27 c.
2013 Curriculum 2013 curriculum K-13 is the newest curriculum applied in Indonesia. The
implementation of K-13 is officially started at the beginning of a new school year on 15 July 2013 The Jakarta Post, July 19, 2013. As stated in Dokumen
Kurikulum 2013, K-13 is a response of the vast cases of students anarchy and improper behaviour.
Recently, the tendency to solve problems with violence and by forcing someone‟s will often happens in Indonesia. This tendency is also found
among young generations such as in the case of mass fighting. Eventhough no study that relates violence and curriculum has been
conducted yet, some education practitioners and public figure stated that one of the causes is the implementation of curriculum which emphasizes
the cognitive aspect and the isolation of students in the classroom without challenging activity. Therefore, the curriculum needs to be reoriented and
reorganised related to the burden of study and the teaching learning process which can solve this problem.
Dokumen Kurikulum 2013: 8 Moreover, the problems faced when implementing KTSP were also the
reasons of the change into K-13. Sahiruddin 2013 noted eight problems in the implementation of KTSP. The reasons are as follow.
However, the 2006 curriculum had several problems; a too many subjects being learnt by students and many competences were
overlapping each other ignoring the cognitive development of the students, b curriculum was not fully based on competency, c
competency did not holistically reflect domain of knowledge, skills and affective behavior, d some competences were not accomodated such as
character building, active learning methodology, e the equilbirium of developing soft skills and hard skills, f standard of learning process is
still teacher-oriented, g standard of assessment and evaluation still neglects process and end product, and h KTSP was still open for multi
interpretation by many educators and teachers in real practice.
Diknas, 2012 in Sahiruddin, 2013: 570
Hence, the minister of education and culture at that time decided to change 2006 curriculum which emphasized the cognitive aspect into K-13 which emphasizes
28 character building or affective aspect. Moreover, Fadillah 2014 stated that K-13
is developed to improve and balance soft skills and hard skills of learners. Three characteristics of K-13 are posited Fadlillah, 2014. The first is
scientific approach. Scientific approach is an approach which is used through the scientific process. It includes the process of observing, questioning,
experimenting, associating, and communicating. In observing, learners firstly notice the examples, pictures, or any materials related to the lesson they are
studying. Having observed, they can question what they have seen. With all questions they pose, they are expected to have the experiment to find the answers.
Having found what they are looking for, they should be able to relate the new knowledge with the real situation of their daily lives by associating. The last
activity in scientific approach is to communicate what they have found to their friends and teachers. Hence, students are expected to experience and understand
the knowledge themselves. This approach enables students to actively particpate in constructing knowledge instead of receiving it from their teachers. Moreover,
these activities are expected to maximize the attitudes, skills and knowledge of students. Second is graduate competence. Graduate competence is related to the
competence of attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Originally, this competence is already in the previous curriculum with different terms; for instance attitudes for
affective, knowledge for cognitive, and psychomotor for skills. The third characteristic is assessment. It uses authentic assessment which views assessment
a whole instead of per subject and includes the readiness of learners, processes, and learning outcomes. The integration of the readiness of learners, processes, and
29 learning outcomes describe the capacity, style, and the acquisition of learners or
even able to produce instructional and nurturant effect of learning. K-13 curriculum structure covers subjects, time allocation, and educational
calender. It is a little bit different from the previous curriculum. Subjects includes compulsory subjects and elective subjects. Compulsory subjects are the subjects
of study learned by all students in a school while elective sucjects are the subjects of study chosen by the students themselves. These two types of subjects are
developed in senior high and vocational schools only. They have not been implemented in elementary and junior high schools due to the age and
psychological development of the learners Dokumen Kurikulum 2013, 2012: 13. Besidess the changes on the subjects of study, the time allocation also undergoes
some changes especially for English. For junior high schools, each level VII, VIII, and IX has 38 learning hours per week and each learning hour is 40
minutes. For senior high schools, each level X, XI, and XII has 43 learning hours per week and each learning hour is 45 minutes. The complete subjects and
time allocation as copied from Dokumen Kurikulum 2013 is presented in the following tables.
Table 2. 2. Curriculum Structure of Junior High School
SUBJECT TIME ALLOCATION PER WEEK
VII VIII
IX Group A
1 Religion
3 3
3 2
Civics 3
3 3
3 Indonesian
6 6
6 4
Mathematics 5
5 5
5 Science
5 5
5 6
Social Studies 4
4 4
7 English
4 4
4
30
Kelompok B 1
Culture including local content 3
3 3
2 Physical education including local
content 3
3 3
3 Art including local content
2 2
2 Time Allocation per week
38 38
38
In K-13 the learning hours of English per week in junior high school is reduced into four learning hours. When KTSP was still implemented or for schools which
are still implementing KTSP, English has six learning hours per week.
Table 2. 3 Curriculum Structure of Senior High School
SUBJECT TIME ALLOCATION
PER WEEK X
XI XII
Compulsory 1
Religion 3
3 3
2 Civics
2 2
2 3
Indonesian 4
4 4
4 Mathematics
4 4
4 5
History 2
2 2
6 English
2 2
2 7
Culture 2
2 2
8 Art
2 2
2 9
Physical Education 2
2 2
Compulsory Time Allocation per Week 23
23 23
Elective Elective Academic Subject Senior High School
20 20
20 Elective Academic and Vocational Subject Vocational
28 28
28
Similar to junior high school, English learning hour is also reduced 2 learning hours. In K-13 English only has two learning hours per week from four learning
hours in the previous implemented curriculum.
31 However, senior high school has more benefit from the elective subjects.
Senior high school students can still have more time of learning English when they choose to have English as their elective subject. They can have additional
three to four learning hours per week to deepen their knowledge of English as seen from table 2.4 below. Nevertheless, the elective classes are not directly
giving impact to the mastery of English due to the goal of elective English class is more on the literature.
Table 2. 4 Elective Subjects
SUBJECT Class
X XI XII Compulsory
23 23 23
Science and Mathematics Elective Group I
1 Mathematics 3
4 4
2 Biology 3
4 4
3 Physics 3
4 4
4 Chemistry 3
4 4
Social Elective Group II 1 Geography
3 4
4 2 History
3 4
4 3 Sociology and Anthropology
3 4
4 4 Economics
3 4
4 Language Elective Group
III 1 Indonesian Language and Literature 3
4 4
2 English Language and Literature 3
4 4
3 Other Foreign Language and Literature 3
4 4
4 Sociology and Anthropology 3
4 4
Elective Subject Choice of Interest or Cross Interest
6 4
4 Available Time of Study
73 75 75
Time of Study to Achieve 41 43
43
At its first implementation, K-13 was only applied for selected schools and levels. The pilot schools for K-13 are schools which are ready with the resources;
human and non-human. The pilot schools are 6,221 schools throughout Indonesia http:nasional.kompas.comread2014121713355681Dilema.Kurikulum.2013
both public and private schools. The levels having K-13 at the beginning were
32 only grade I, IV, VII, and X. However, as planned and stated in Dokumen
Kurikulum 2013, started on July 2014 the levels having K-13 are grade I, II, IV, V, VII, VII, X, and XI. Then, started on July 2015 all grades from I, II, III, IV, V,
VI, VII, VII, IX, X, XI and XII have already implemented K-13. Unfortunately, English was banished from elementary curriculum. Hence, elementary students
from grade I – VI of schools implementing K-13 do not have English as their
compulsory subject. Nevertheless, schools are still given the right to have it as extracurricular or additional subject showing the particular characteristic of the
school. Curriculum changing is usually followed by changing on the textbooks
used in the classroom. K-13 has also its special textbooks written and published by the government. Based on Dokumen Kurikulum 2013, the development of the
textbooks for students and guideline textbooks for teachers were conducted from 2012
– 2014. By having the government in charge for developing the textbooks, it is expected that the quality of the materials can be guaranteed. Moreover, it was
planned that at the beginning of July 2013 or the beginning of the implementation of K-13 the textbooks were ready and both students and teachers had the
textbooxs already. For English, the textbooks made are When English Rings a Bell for junior high school and Bahasa Inggris for senior high school. further, for
elective English class, students have more choices of textbooks which are chosen and recommended by ECM. The list of the textbooks is presented in table 2.5
below.
33 Table 2. 5 List of Textbook for Elective English Class
taken from Permendikbud no. 001 2015
Despite of the positive goal of K-13, it has faced lots of critics during its implementation. The main critic is related to teachers‟ readiness in implementing
K-13. The training for teachers was not sufficient since it was conducted near the beginning of new academic year and the first implementation of K-13. Moreover,
the training was mostly about the guidelines and theory instead of real practices. Since it focuses on active learning and teachers function as facilitators only,
teachers need more examples and practices. It was due to the implementation of the previous curriculum which was teacher-centered and teachers are already
accustomed to this kind of learning instead of giving more time to students to be
34 active. Further, not all teachers were having the training. The other critic was
related to the textbooks. The texbook and teacher guidance were not well distributed. Some schools in Jakarta, Purbalingga, Bekasi, Depok, Bogor,
Indramayu, Garut, Tsikmalaya, Bima, Mataram, Medan, Batam, and Sumenep have not received the textbooks even until the implementation of K-13. Another
problem arose when the number of the books are not sufficient for all students http:edukasi.Kompas.comread2014082022384511Membaca.Kurikulum.201
3 .
Finally, after lots of critics and consideration, K-13 was then being evaluated
at the
academic year
20142015 with
three choices
http:nasional.kompas.comread2014121713355681Dilema.Kurikulum.2013 . First, the termination of K-13. Second, schools which have no problem with the
implementation of K-13 can remain having K-13 while schools which are not ready may reimplement KTSP in the next semester. Third, K-13 is still being
implemented in all schools with evaluation on the flaws of the curriculum. The choice taken by ECM was to terminate K-13 in all schools and only focus on
6,221 pilot schools of K-13. Therefore, started on the second semester of 20142015 academic year, schools other than the pilot schools returned to KTSP
as the official curriculum.
2.National-Standard Secondary Schools English is the first foreign language taught at Indonesian schools. Since
Indonesia is in the expanding circle Kachru, 1998, the role of English is as an international language. Thus, English is not exploited severely in all government
35 institution or in daily communication. Instead, it is used for communicatiing
globally only and is taught in schools. Since independence, English has become the popular language taught in secondary level junior and senior high schools
Julia, 2014: 9. Recently, it is taught from elementary year 4 and even, in some particular schools, it is taught from year 1.
Responding to the demand of globalization era, the goverrnment has set the so-called prestigious program of international classes Julia, 2014: 9.
International classes are intended to produce graduates who are able to compete at a national and international level. It is enunciated in Law No. 202003. The law is
then elaborated in the Government Regulation No. 232006. The government regulation covers the “the standard of graduates‟ competency at elementary, junior
and senior high school level as well as improving intelligence, personality, morality and skills for independent life and be able to continue to further
education ” Julia, 2014: 9. Moreover, Law No. 202003 obviously states about
the policy on international classes which was then called as Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional RSBI. Article 50 of the law specifies the rule as follow
“Government andor local government implement minimally one school in all level of education to develop towards international standard educational
institution. ”
Law No. 202003 chapter 50 article 3
Schools are required to fulfill the eight-standard of schooling before gaining the status of SBI permendiknas no. 78 2009. Those eight standards are
stipulated in the Government Regulation No. 19 2005 about national education system. All levels of education, from elementary to secondary schools, must
achieve these eight standards. The eight standards are described as follows:
36
1. Graduate Competency standard refers to the ability of graduates possessing the intellectual, spiritual and physical resources required for further education or
earn a living in a community. This means that [junior high school] graduates must have sufficient life skills to enable them to pursue these alternatives ECM
Regulation No. 232006,
2. Content standard refers to the scope of materials and level of competences which is embodied within the criteria concerning graduate competences, graduate
study materials, subjects studied and learning competences syllabus which must be fulfilled by participants in education in particular levels and types of education
ECM Regulation No. 222006,
3. Process standard refers to planning of teaching and learning, covering syllabus and lesson plan which contains aims, teaching materials, methods,
sources and assessment ECM Regulation No. 412007,
4. Personnel standard refers to physical and intellectual performance required of teachers and school staff, including their educational background, pre-service
educational criteria, physical and intellectual suitability and in-service training ECM Regulation No. 122007, No. 132007, No 162007, No. 242008, No.
252008, No. 262008,
5. Infrastructure standard refers to the minimum standards for classrooms, sports centre, prayer space, library, laboratory, playground, learning resources,
and information technology equipment of schools ECM Regulation No. 242007,
6. Management standard refers to the planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating of educational activities for all levels of education to achieve their
effectiveness and efficiency ECM Regulation No. 192007,
7. Funding standard refers to all the components and the amount of operational funding for each level of education for each year ECM Regulation No. 692009,
8. Assessment standard refers to the mechanisms, procedures and instrumentation for assessing the learning outcomes of participants in education
ECM Regulation No. 202007.
Julia, 2014:12 Based on the eight standards, schools are classified into three categories.
First, potential Schools. Potential schools are also known as Standard Formal Schools. Potential Schools are the schools whihc have not achieved the eight
standards yet, but have the potential to achieve them. Second, National Standard Schools NSS. It is usually called Sekolah Standar Nasional. National Standard
Schools are the schools which have achieved the eight standards. Third, Pilot Schools of International Standard PSIS. It is known as Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf
37 Internasional RSBI. Schools which had the status of PSIS have achieved the
eight standards of education graduate competency standard, content standard, process standard, personnel standard, infrastucture standard, management
standard, funding standard and assessment standard and have developed much more than the expected national standard.
Selected NSSS here refers to the schools which once became pilot school of international standard PSIS or RSBI-Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Nasional.
Some of the schools implement different curriculum of English which are adopted from abroad institution. The English teachers also have more opportunities to
explore the teaching learning process in order to promote students‟ English competence. However, due to some reason, this kind of schools have been
cancelled and the PSIS status has been changed into national-standard school NSSS again. Despite of the status, English teaching learning process in some
schools still continue with the hidden curriculum of English such as by adopting abroad English curriculum and teaching learning process.
3.Teaching and Learning This part describes important aspects of teachers and learners. For
teachers, the knowledge of being effective teachers will do a great favour in teaching. The cognitive and affective aspects present the criteria for being
effective teachers. Those aspects includes the knowledge, tasks, skills, personality, adaptibility, roles and rapport. Grasping those aspects provide
teachers a picture of making them good and effective teachers. Furthermore, knowing learners differences will be also helpful in recognizing the students needs
38 and conditions. The awareness of teachers and learners may have a great impact
for language educators.
a. Teachers’ Beliefs
In planning and conducting courses, teachers cannot be separated from the beliefs they hold. The beliefs that teachers have will influence the decision of
choosing a particular teaching method. For teachers believing the importance of grammar, they will expose more grammar learning to students. For others
believing the importance of communicative skills, they may give more chances to students to communicate in the classroom. The more teachers are aware of their
own beliefs, the easier they decide what kind of teaching method they apply in the class.
However, articulating beliefs is not as easy as it may seem Johnson, 1998 in Graves, 2000: 26. Some teachers may not be aware of the beliefs they hold.
They may implement a certain kind of teaching method just because they feel it will work well for their students without realizing the beliefs they have. Some
others may not have the opportunities to practice what they believe because of the institution they are working at. Some institutions or schools usually have already
had their own value to practice. This value may or may not comform to the beliefs teachers have. Hence, they do not have the chances to articulate their own beliefs.
Beliefs come from teachers‟ experiences as learners, teachers, and colleagues Graves, 2000:
26. Beliefs may arise from teachers‟ past experiences as learners. A particular teaching method gained from the former teachers when
they were in senior high school, for example, may influence the choice of teaching method they apply in their own class. For instance, when a teacher have a past
39 experience of having extensive drill, he may implement similar method for his
own students. Either with or without awareness of the beliefs, teachers tend to recall what they have had in the past experiences when deciding a particular point
of view in teaching. Experiences from working place may also influence teachers beliefs. As teachers, they have experienced teaching in some classes with different
kinds of context and types of learners. Therefore, they can start sorted a certain method which works best and which do not work well. From the experience, they
usually apply the successful method they have practiced. Moreover, by observing or sharing with other teachers, they may also find a particular method they can use
in their own classroom. Coleague‟s opinion on a certain method they have implemented can influence the beliefs they have.
The frameworks for articulating beliefs include teachers‟ views about language, social context, learning and learners; and teaching Graves, 2000: 28-
31 and is summarized in figure 2.2. below.
Figure 2. 2 Beliefs and the Articulation These four views may influence the decision teachers make on how and what they
teach in the class. Grammar-oriented teachers may emphasize accuracy on grammar when learning language. Other teachers may emphasize the need to
adjust one‟s culture to the culture of target language. Learner-centered- oriented teachers may invlove students in solving problem in the class as one way of
40 teaching. Also, teachers may position themselves as either facilitator or decision
maker in the classroom. Articulating their beliefs in those four frameworks may have great influence to their decision of teaching. Each framework is described
below. Teachers‟ beliefs about language affect what they teach and how they
teach the language. Language focuses can be in the pronunciation, grammar, lexis, discourse Bailey, 1998 in Graves, 2000: 28, can be as form, meaning and use
Larsen-Freeman, 1990 in Graves, 2000: 28 or can be as model of commuicative competence Canale and Swain, 1980; Omaggio Hadley, 1993 in Graves, 2000:
28. The choice teachers make about what they believe about language influences their choice of teaching. Teachers who tend to emphasize discourse will expose
their students to learn language through the real example such as from reading newspaper in taget language or analysing advertisement in target language.
Teachers who has strong beliefs in meanig-based learning will emphasize on the relevance of learning language in the class with the context students have such as
asking students to compose an essay responding to the actual issue in their surrounding.
Teachers‟ beliefs on society also influences their decision in choosing proper teaching method. It includes sociolinguistics, sociocultural, and
sociopolitical issues in ELT. Sociolinguistics issues concern with the relation of language and the social context. They focus on the adaptability of language into
the social context. For example, students learn that they must use different kind of language and different level of formality when they write a letter to the teacher
compared to when they write letters to their friends. Sociocultural issues concern
41 with language and culture interaction. They encompass „different dimensions of
culture such as social values e.g., gender differences, attitudes e.g., towards rules of men and women, norms e.g., ways of greeting, eating, customs e.g.,
marriage customs, and “products” e.g., literature, art.‟ Graves, 2000: 29. An example of
this issue may be related with the understanding of students‟ own culture and the target language culture because they may be different.
Sociopolitical issues concern with „how a given language or social group ethnic, gender, etc. is viewed by other social groups, access to language and services,
and a critical awareness of how language is used‟ Graves, 2000: 29. Teachers with this belief may ask students to analyse and respond to a topic of news which
affects them. Teachers‟ views on learning and learners are fundamental issues in
deciding the teaching method. The way teachers perceive learners in the process of language learning has a great influence on the real practice inside the
classroom. Teachers may view learners as knowledge maker who solve problems and discover knowledge by themselves or knowledge receiver who accept
knowledge first from the teacher to solve problems. Learning may be perceived as a cognitive process which involves „mental activity‟, an affective process which
involves „emotional connection and risk taking, and a social process which involves „learning with others‟ Stevick, 1998 in Graves, 2000: 30. It may also be
perceived as „involving different intelligences such as visual, kinesthetic, aditory, and so on
‟ Gardner, 1983 in Graves, 2000: 30. Moreover, it may occur individually or in group. Teachers must notice learners condition and situation in
42 deciding the teaching method. As an example, teaching students at noon requires
teachers to provide ice breaking or games to attract tired students to study. Related to beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching is another
fundamental issue. Teachers may position themselves as facilitators, knowledge sources, knowledge transmitters, decision makers, or negotiators. The choice they
made will influence the method they choose. As facilitator teachers will let students explore knowledge by themselves, as knowledge sources or transmitter
teachers will transfer the knowledge they have directly. Often, teachers have contradiction with t
heir own beliefs when they must deal with learners‟ needs Graves, 2000: 30-31. The position teachers have taken may be negotiated when
students require different kind of method. An example of this is when a teacher believe that drilling is not effective but the students can have a better process and
result through drilling, he has to accept that drilling is the best method to apply in the classroom.
Articulating beliefs is an important phase of designing language course or plan. The beliefs influence the way teachers teach and what to teach. The choices
taken determine the teaching method implemented in the classroom. One‟s beliefs may not be the same as others. Therefore, one‟s method applied in a class will not
be the same as other teachers‟ methods. Awareness of their own beliefs is beneficial for teachers. Being aware of the beliefs provide more insight and
realization of teaching and learning process. Hence, they are able to formulate better teaching method.
43 b.
Effective Teachers A survey conducted by Riddell proves that being a knowledgable teacher
is not sufficient 2014: 12. Teachers with good knowledge of the materials being delivered is not yet considered as effective teachers. Mastering the material does
not automatically make a good teacher. Based on the survey, besidess understanding the materials, teachers must give interesting lesson, know their
students, be passionate and patient, and help them make progress on the lesson Riddell, 2014: 13-16. Hence, being a teacher who master all the materials solely
is not enough to make a good and effective teacher. Being an effective teacher requires cognitive and affective aspects of the
teacher. Cognitive aspect covers the knowledge, tasks and skills a teacher should possess Hammer, 2007: 27-32. The knowledge includes the materials of the
lesson such as the mastery of language system, materials and resources, classroom equipment and being up-to-date. The tasks a teacher must perform are related to
the preparation of the lesson, the record of the lesson, and the consistency of practicing the rules that have been made in the class. The skills a teacher must
demostrate are related to the management of the class including the variaty of tasks and grouping, and the learning outcome the teacher is going to achieve.
Different from cognitive aspect, the affective aspect focuses on the personality of teachers and the relation built by them. This covers the presentation teachers show
in front of the students, the adapatibility to respond to different situation in the classroom, the roles they prefer during the lesson, the rapport whether they
recognize their students, listen to them, respect them, and demonstrate equal
44 treatment among students. The summary of effective teacher criteria can be seen
from figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2. 3 Criteria of Effective Curriculum adapted from Harmer, 2007: 23-32
1 Cognitive aspects The first cognitive aspect is knowledge. Knowledge encompasses the
mastery of language system, understanding of materials and resources, ability to handle equipment in the classroom, and being up-to-date. Those categories of
knowledge are posited further as follow. Teachers need to master is language system. Language system covers the
understanding of grammar and lexical system Harmer, 20017: 30-31. Teachers must grasp the way language works. They are required to know how words are
shaped to form meaning based on different grammatical function as well as to be aware of sounds, stress and intonation as parts of pronunciation features ibid.
However, being effective teachers does not mean mastering all grammar and lexical system with a high degree of understanding straight away at one time
Riddell, 2014: 12. Teachers can learn them gradually as they are preparing the teaching. It is not necessary to master all kind of tenses at a time. Mastering one
topic at one time of teaching will eventually help them understand the whole grammar and lexical system during the course of teaching.
45 Aside from language system, understanding the materials and resources
used in the lesson is also crucial for effective teachers. Good teachers must know where to find the answers of students‟ questions Harmer, 2007: 31. Nowadays,
resources books and materials are produced excessively. Various books can be found discussing similar topic. Teachers must be competence in choosing the
most appropriate source for their students based on the level they are in. Printed books, e-books, internet sources or dictionaries are available with a great variety.
It does not mean that teachers need to select the best or most expensive ones. Instead, they must decide the one which covers the need of the students.
Moreover, good teachers must possess thorough understanding of the resources they are using and implementing.
Another aspect of knowledge teachers must deal with is the classroom equipment. Various types of classroom equipments have growth incredibly over
the last decades. Blackboard with chalk have been replaced with whiteboards and colorful markers, even interactive whiteboards in particular schools. Overhead
projectors are left behind by computers and data projectors LCDs. Language laboratory substitutes the tape recorders in the classroom although they are still
used sometimes. These various types of technology enable teachers to teach in a more modern way. Moreover, the advent of computer program such microsoft
words and powerpoint which uses are increasing greatly also influences the way teachers deliver the lesson in the class. However, these technology development
come in consequence with a greater learning for teachers. They do not need to master all of them but they must make sure that they are able to make use of the
technology they have elected Harmer, 2007: 31. Furthermore, effective teachers
46 should not let these advanced technology prevent them from deciding the
important aspects of teaching by merely focusing on the technology used. The last aspect of knowledge is being up-to-
date. „Knowledge is not static‟ Harmer, 2007: 32. It keeps on changing. The development of teaching methods
is fast. Effective teachers need to actively read teacher‟s magazine and journals to keep up-to-date with the development in teaching learning process. Attending
seminars and trainings are essential in opening new horizon of teaching. Sharing with other teachers will be beneficial in solving problems they may encounter.
Reading books and learning new technology that can be impelemented in the classroom are important to cope with the current trends in teaching.
Another cognitive aspect to consider is teacher tasks. Having the knowledge of the language only is not sufficient for making effective teachers.
Teachers need to understand their particular tasks to perform Harmer, 2007: 27. Preparation is on
e of several tasks they need to consider. „Effective teachers are well-
prepared‟ Harmer, 2007: 28. They should know what they are going to do in the classroom. Before teaching, they ought to know the learning outcome they
want to achieve. Students will notice whether their teacher is well-prepared or not. By telling them the outcome expected from the lesson and the appropriate method
teachers implement in the class, students will feel comfort in joining the lesson ibid. Another task is related to records teachers must keep. Doing administration
stuff can be frustrating ibid. Nevertheless, the record of teaching is crucial for teachers in tracking the history of the lesson. Teachers can easily find the record
of the previous teaching materials, can recall the noted-down homework or questions from the students which have not been discussed yet as well as can
47 evaluate the method that works and does not work. In brief, keeping record is
important for teachers in helping their work organized. The last one is „being
reliable‟ ibid. Once teachers make a pact with the students, they must be consistent in practicing the rules both to the students and the teachers themselves.
For instance, if there is a rule for coming late, both students and teachers must obey that rule. Either late teacher or student must get the consequence they have
decided before. Being punctual in assessing test is also an example of being reliable.
The last cognitive aspect to describe is teachers‟ skills. They include class management,
students‟ tasks and groups management, and variety of activities. Class management is related to the choice of activities, procedures of the
activities and how students work in class. Teachers need to have a deep thought of the activities selected for the students. This includes the procedures, whether they
do the activity in groups, pairs or individuals, whether they need to change the seat arrangement, whether they do it inside or outside of the classroom, whether
the teachers need to operate the LCD, to use powerpoints or to create a game. Another essential aspect needs to consider is the prevention of what may happen
or come during the activities. Teachers need to predict and „disruptive behaviour‟ and to deal with it Harmer, 2007: 29. Similar to class management, task and
group management should be well crafted. Teachers need to notice that one task might not be appropriate for different groups or classes ibid. One important key
in managing task and group is by defining interesting way to deliver the lesson. Once the activity is fun and interesting, it might be suitable for all groups or levels
of students. Hence, careful thought of the activities choice is crucial in designing
48 the lesson to be effective. It is also related to the variety of activities elected by the
teachers. By having different types of activities, teachers will be able to avoid boredom in the classroom ibid. Various method of teaching will also be helpful.
Group discussion cannot be implemented all the time in the whole semester. Dynamic ways of teaching and activities can motivate students to learn since they
are curious with the topic and method applied by the teachers. 2 Affective aspects
Riddell‟s survey on a certain number of students shows that „it is not enough to know your
subject‟ 2014: 12. Further he „underlines the point that it is not enough for a teacher to go
into a classroom and effectively „give a lecture‟ while students make notes.
‟ ibid. Therefore, cognitive aspect alone is not sufficient for making effective teachers. The relation between teachers and
students and how teachers present themselves in front of their students are also essential for building a condusive atmosphere of learning. It is not enough just to
show up in front of the students and explain the materials to them. Moreover, teachers, different from other professions, deal with living things daily who can
respond to any act and treatment given to them. Hence, being effective teachers require them to „respond to their students‟ personalities, attitudes, needs and
backgrounds‟ Riddell, 2014: 11. As effective teachers, what they are in front of the class is very important since it presents who they are as the real persons and as
what apparents in front of the class Harmer, 2007: 24. Hence, affective aspects are crucial in supporting the cognitive aspects.
The first affective aspect is teacher personality. Harmer defines the personlaity of effective teachers as „a blend between who we really are, and who
49 we as teachers. In other words, teach
ing is more than just „being ourselves‟ 2007: 24. Every teacher is different. They may present themselves as what they want to.
However, in ay form they choose, teachers must „be able to present a professional face to the students which they find both in
teresting and effective.‟ ibid. They need to think carefully on how they want their students to see them. It does not
mean that they need to follow a certain stereotype of teachers. What they need to do is asking themselves what they want their students see them. Hence, they need
to think carefully on how they want to appear in front of the students. The second is teacher adaptibility. A challenge teachers may encounter is
when the class is going further away from the plan they have prepared. However well-prepared taechers are, the real situations with the students may not go as
smoothly as expected ibid. Hence, effective teachers must be ready for any changes and disruptive behaviours that may interrupt the plan they have made.
„good teachers need to be flexible enough to cope with unforeseen events, and it is because they know that they may have to adapt to changing circumstances that
they understand that a lesson plan is not fixed in stone.‟ Harmer, 2007: 157. This ability to adapt to any situations happening during the lesson is one requirement
effective teachers should possess. „Unforeseen problem‟ is not the only challenge for teacher adaptibility. „Magic moment‟ when students, for instance, propose
something interesting during a discussion is precious Harmer, 2007: 157. This unplanned „magic moment‟ may provoke a more interesting activity. Teachers
should respond wisely to this instead of ignoring it and go on with their own plan. Next affective aspect is teacher roles. Effective and good teachers must be
able to adopt different roles in the class. They may act as controllers, prompters,
50 assessors, resource or tutors Harmer, 2007: 25. Teachers should select the proper
role at the proper times. They may be controllers and tutors at a time or prompters, assessors and resource. Whatever roles they choose, they need to think carefully
and to consider the position of teachers and students. Different activities also require different roles they need to adapt ibid. The act when listening to students
and when tutoring them will provoke different roles. Teachers‟ flexibility and ability in performing those different roles will facilitate „the many different stages
and facets of learning‟ ibid. They must be able to perform those roles with „the same
care and ease‟ in whicever roles they are involved in. Last aspect is rapport. Rapport covers the interaction betweeen teachers
and students. Effective teachers must have good rapport since it is „a significant feature in the instrinsic motivation of stu
dents‟ ibid. Good relationship with the students is a prove of good rapport. For achieving a good rapport teachers should
perform several acts. First, recognize the students. Remembering students‟ names is one way to show that they care. Although it is hard to do, especially when they
deal with more than nine groups of students, it is worth doing since the students will feel recognized in the classroom. Moreover, remembering names must be
followed by remembering some details about them also. Another way is by listening to them. Students will respond well to teachers who listen to them. Being
aware of students‟ reaction of our lesson is important to keep the good rapport. Listening to them attentively and showing interest on what they are talking about
are parts of having good and professional personality Harmer, 2007: 26. Next, effective teachers must show respect to their students, especially when correcting
or giving feedback Harmer, 2007: 26-27. Teachers must avoid being rude, using
51 sarcasm or mocker
y when correcting students‟ mistakes ibid. They must realize that students have different learning styles and intelligences. Therefore, whichever
method they use in giving correction, they must make sure that they show respect to their students. Besides mistake correction, problem behaviour is also one that
they need to handle with care. They should not react neagtively with anger or ridicule to the students having problem in the classroom. Instead, they must be
able to see the positive side of that student and respond wisely ibid. The last one is being equal to students. Avoid taking side or choosing the one that they like
only. All students should be treated equally. This way the students will respect the teachers more. Furthermore, treating students equally not only shows good rapport
but also shows professionalism of the teachers Harmer, 2007: 27.
c. Learners Differences
Every English learner has their own differences from the other English learners. The differences lie on the reasons for taking English language lesson, the
age of the learners, the motivation, learning styles, level and the context of learning. Those differences are the crucial factor in learning. They should not be
neglected by both teachers and learners. Those factors are the ones determining the success and failure of English learning. Each of those factors is discussed
further below. Learning English as a compulsary subject and as learners‟ own choice are
the reasons behind learning the language. In some countries, both English- speaking-countries and non-English-speaking-countries, English may become
one of subjects which students must learn at school. For the students of those countries, English then becomes a compulsory subject that they must learn due to
52 the curriculum such as at primary or secondary schools. This kind of English is
considered as general English which has no specific reason of learning Harmer, 2007: 11. In general English, students learn any knowledge of the language
which enables them to „speak and read and write the language effectively for wherever and
whenever this might be useful for them „ ibid. For others, learning English may become their own choice to develop their English based on a
particular goal s they intend to achieve. Some of them probably learn English for the preparation of living in the English-speaking-country such as England, Canada
or Australia. Some others may learn English for a specific purpose ESP. For this kind of learners, English is learnt specifically such as in the area of business,
nursing or medication. Hence, they have a certain need to cover in learning the language.
The motives learners have become the „bedrock‟ of their extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is the motivation to learn gained from outside of
the classroom Hamer, 2007: 20. This kind of motivation arises from external factors. Realizing their reason to learn is one of external factors able to motivate
them in learning English. By recognizing the reasons for learning, learners will have more desire to learn. This desire enables them to learn more and more in the
classroom. Other external factors come from the society, family and peers ibid. Living in the society using English actively, supplementary facilities supported
from the family and having friends sharing similar interest of English learning may help them sustain the motivation for learning.
Besides external factors, internal factors will also be crucial in sustaining motivation. It is due to the fact that extrinsic motivation solely is not able to
53 sustain the learner‟s motivation. Hence, inetrnal factors play important roles as
well. These internal factors are known as intrinsic motivation. Intrisic motivation is the motivation gained from inside the classroom. This kind of motivation
includes th e teacher‟ methods, the activities given, or the perception of the
students‟ success or failure Harmer, 2007: 20. Boredom may arise eventhough the learners have a great interest on the subject. The methods teachers use in
teaching determine the sustaining of motivation. When teachers are able to provide activities which encourage students to learn more, they have help students
sustain the motivation for learning. Hence, this internal factors are crucial in sustaining the motivation.
Several aspects need to consider to sustain students‟ motivation. First, the
level of challenge. As the level of study ascending, students also need more and more challenge. Giving more challenge in learning can help maintain the
curiousity towards the subject. However, teachers must select the appropriate level of challenge for different level of students to avoid providing too easy task
for clever students or too difficult ones to weak students. Hence, the interest of students to the subject can be sustained. Second, the affection issue. Showing care
to the students during the laerning process is essential. Besidess bonding the realtion between learners and the teacher., it can motivate learners more by paying
attention to even the smallest progress they have made during the lesson. Showing the affection and support will definitely sustain the motivation of the students.
Last, students as the agents. Positioning students as the doers in the class can laso motivate them to keep on learning. Since they become the agents during the
laerning process, they can have the decision power to, for instance, choose the
54 activities in the class. Being improtant and influencing during the learning process
can motivate them more Harmer, 20017: 20-21. Besides the motives and motivation differences, English learners are also
distinguished based on the age they are learning which determines different characteristics as well. Based on their ages, English learners are classified into
children, teenangers or adolescents and adult. Basically children are those between the ages of around 2 to around 14 years old, teenagers are those between
the ages of about 12 to 17 Harmer, 2007: 14. Futher Harmer classifies learners between the ages of 16 and 20 into young adults ibid. The rest of the the ages is
adult. The characteristics of children as learners are having short attention span especially young learners between the ages of 5 to 9, receiving new language
easily if given sufficient exposure but easy to forget as well, requiring all senses stimulation when learning, absorbing information from what being taught and the
surrounding. Adolescents or teenagers are distinguished from children in that they „have developed a greater capacity for abstract thoughts‟ in their process of
growing up Harmer, 2007: 15. Adult who are already older than the other two learners are of course more disciplined than them. They are supposed to have a
clear understanding about the reasons of learning and „sustain their motivation by perceiving and holding on to long-t
erm learning goals.‟ ibid. Since this study is focusing on secondary students, as the consequence the
focus of the discussion is on teenagers. Harmer defines the characteristics of teenagers as follow.
... have developed a greater capacity for abstract thought as they have grown up. In other words, their intellects are kicking in, and they can talk about
more abstract ideas, teasing out concepts in a way that younger children find
55 difficult. Many adolescents readily understand and accept the need for
learning of a more intellectual type. At their best, adolescent students have a great capacity for learning, enormous potential for creative thought and a
passionate commitment to things which interest them. Adolescence is bound up with a search for identity and a need for self-esteem. This is often the
result of the students‟ position within their peer group rather than being the consequence of teacher approval.
Harmer, 2007: 15 Being growns up, teenagers have developed some characteristics from
their childhood. They have longer attention span and are ready to have a deeper understanding which enables them to receive abstract ideas such as the structures
of a sentence or other grammar matters which cannot be taught effectively to children. Moreover, they ar
e in their critical ages with a „great capacity of learning‟, having creative thought and being enthusiatic for interesting thing.
Nevertheless, teenagers‟ critical stages may provoke problem behaviours. It is plausible that they do not like the subject, their friends or even the teacher
Harmer, 2007: 15. Teachers need to choose intersting topics for them or manage the topic and classroom into such a way that will interest them. Teachers must
also be aware of their need to be acknowledged among their peer and groups. Therefore, correction or feedback must be delivered with gentle care to avoid
hurting them. When assigning them into groups or pairs, teachers must also pay careful consideration instead of bluntly put them into group. They have also many
issues outside the classroom to deal with since they are in the age of identity and self-esteem search ibid. Personal interaction with the students may help a lot to
understand them. by undersatnding the students, teachers are able to manage the classroom w
ell to deal with teenagers‟ problem behaviours. Harmer generalizes the different levels into beginners, intermediate
students and advanced students. Beginners is considered as the easy stage for
56 teachers to arrange the students. If the teacher can make a good arrangement, the
students will definitely gain success and vice versa. Intermediate is the stage when students already attain lots of achievement but sometimes fail to notice the
improvement they have made. This is known as plateau effect Harmer, 2007: 18. A various tasks providing more challenge and analysing skill will help them
develop more. Helping them set a clear goal to achieve is helpful in showing the progress they make and have made. Advanced students already gain greater
knowledge of English. Therefore they are still in the danger of plateau effect. The learning does not focus on grammatical matter anymore. Instead, it focuses on
style adn perceptions ibid. This level of students can be encouraged to use language „more subtlety‟, to take bigger responsibility for self-learning ibid.
However, in the similar span of ages, differences of the level exist. Several classifications is found depending on the institution. In Europe, the Council of
Europe and the Association of Language Testers of Europe ALTE have distinguished learners‟ competency levels into beginner, elementary, pre-
intermediate, intermediate, upper intermediate and advanced. With similar classification, Riddell adapts the guide of competency level from SKOLA
Schools, London. They are beginner, elementry, pre-intermediate, intermediate, upper intermediate and advanced. The differences on what each level goals and
targets are summarized in the table below. Table 2. 6 SKOLA Schools Guide of Competency level
taken from Riddell, 2003: 258-260
What to do and know Beginner
- The alphabet
- Tell the time
- Give simple information about himself herself
- Ask other people for simple imformation about himself herself
- Communicate in a simple terms in everyday places
57
e.g. ask for directions order a meal
make suggestions buy items in a shop store
- Listen to and understand simple, natural speech and
conversation, and complete simple tasks -
Read some authentic texts such as time tables or brochures and find the information they need
- Do simple writing tasks such as taking or leaving a message
Elementary -
Talk about past time -
Make future plans or arrangements -
Describe people using simple adjectives -
Describe places using simple adjectives -
Express his her hopes or intentions -
Ask people to do something for them -
Cope in simple social situations e.g. talk about the weather
describe simple physical problems give advice
- Listen to natural speech and conversation, and understand the gist
of what is being said -
Use authentic newspapers and find specific information required -
Write simple letters and be able to link ideas together Pre-intermediate
- Talk about more abstract ideas
- Participate in discussions and be able to politely interrupt, and
take turns in communicating -
Give a logical argument to support a view -
Converse with relative ease in everyday social situations -
Use formal and infromal English in appropriate social situations -
Help people with problems by making suggestions and giving advice
- Listen to natural speech and conversation and begin to
understand nuances and subtleties -
Read most authentic texts and books for pleasure -
Write letters, both formal and informal Intermediate
- Express her or his opinion
- Agree or disagree with other people‟s opinions
- Express how he or she is feeling and their general emotions
- Use conventional social language in greeting and welcoming
people -
Talk about hypothetical situations in the past and present -
Talk about past habits -
Speculate about the present and future -
Listen to natural speech and conversation, and uderstand detail -
Read authentic texts such as newspapers and magazines and understand the general meaning
- Write letters to friends
Upper intermediate -
use all the main structures and tenses in English with a high degree of acuracy
- begin to express sarcasm and irony
- use appropriate speech in a wide range of social situations
- understand and express humour
58
- argue an opinion with confidence
- follow lectures and other monologues and be able to take notes
- read most authentic texts and be able to understand them with
relative ease -
write letters, compositons, reports, summaries Advanced
- express himself herself easily
- integrate well with people whose first language is English
- vary stress and intonation to affect meaning
- follow and understand most forms of entertainment
- use a vocabulary of about 3,000 words
- study for a high-level qualification in English
From table 2.6. it can be concluded that any age may achieve a certain level which may be higher than the other learners with similar age. It depends on
when they start learning and how fast they attain the knowledge of the language. Two six-years-old young learners may gain different level from each other
because they receive different portion of input. A child with high exposure of Englih may even gain higher level than an adult who gets limited exposure.
Another crucial difference is the learning styles each learner has. Based on the idea of mutiple intelligences, every student has their own prominent
intelligent. Some students are mathematical intelligent, some others are interpersonal and spatial, some are emotional. A student may develop well in one
intelligent and may be weak in the other intelligents. Different intelligent requires different way of learning. Hence, teachers must be aware of this difference and
must formulate a learning process which enables all kind of learners to acquire the knowledge well. By recognizing the different ways of learning, teachers can give
various tasks and activities which are suitable for a different range of intelligent Harmer, 2007: 16. This is to accomodate different ways of learning each student
has. Nonetheless, they must be able also to figure out activities which are good for
59 all students. The activities may cover giving homework, reading for pleasure or
any speaking activities ibid.