THE COST OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
3. THE COST OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
While the cost of HAI can be aptly demonstrated in the literature, evidence for the cost of antimicrobial resistance is not quite so robust (Coast et al., 1996). This is despite the fact that an increasing proportion of HAI is due to resistant organisms (Edmond et al., 1999; Schaberg et al., 1991). Hospitals seek to pro- vide guidance for the use of antibiotics, but an empirical regimen without tar- geted cover, or dosed too low to provide optimal therapy, will not eradicate a pathogen. It will also encourage the development of resistance, which then increases patient morbidity and mortality (Paladino et al., 2002). Concomitant higher rates of treatment failure and the need for an increase in either the num- ber or duration of hospital admissions will almost certainly be associated with
a huge economic burden (Paladino et al., 2002; Singer et al., 2003). Infections with resistant pathogens lengthen the stay in hospital, likely to be one of the most significant contributors towards the economic consequences of resistant bacteria (Brooklyn Antibiotic Resistance Task Force, 2002; Kollef and Fraser, 2001; Nathwani, 2003). Managerial costs are increased when infection involves these organisms, as well as unnecessary and prolonged therapy (Niederman, 2001a). Treatment of resistant bacteria is associated with increased drug costs, as the newer, broad spectrum and often far more potent drugs are usually far more expensive than the narrower spectrum agents employed for less- resistant pathogens (Janknegt, 1997). These powerful drugs bring their own par- ticular adverse effects, including the problems generated by overgrowth or superinfection of naturally resistant organisms (Drew et al., 2000; Khare and Keady, 2003; Sanyal and Mokaddas, 1999). Other factors to consider are the prohibitive costs required to develop new antimicrobial agents, and the imple- mentation of broader infection control and public health interventions aimed at curbing the spread of resistant pathogens (Kollef and Fraser, 2001).
The Real Cost of MRSA 285 The economic evaluation of HAI due to resistant organisms is often
confounded by the same risk factors that are associated with poor outcomes (Holmberg et al., 1987). Resistance is an important risk factor for inadequate empirical therapy. Such therapy is itself a potent determinant of a number of adverse outcomes, including mortality (Niederman, 2001b). Another practical difficulty in actually measuring the economic impact of resistance is the iden- tification of a suitable control population (Coast et al., 2002; Niederman, 2001b). Nevertheless, for both HAI and community-acquired infections, the mortality, the likelihood of hospitalisation, and the length of hospital stay is usually at least twice as great for patients infected with drug-resistant strains as for those infected with drug-susceptible strains of the same bacteria (Holmberg et al., 1987). The likely cost per capita of healthcare-associated S. aureus infection in Denmark and the Netherlands is lower than that in the United States, because MRSA infections, which are rare in both of these coun- tries, cost significantly more than do MSSA infections (Farr and Jarvis, 2002; Farr et al., 2001; Janknegt, 1997). A Danish patient with healthcare-associated S. aureus would be treated with an old-fashioned -lactam antibiotic with faster response, higher cure rate, and quicker hospital discharge at lower over- all cost to society (Farr and Jarvis, 2002).
Although the adverse, economic, and health effects of drug-resistant bacte- rial infections can only be roughly quantified, it is concluded that antimicro- bial resistance is an important health problem and an economic burden to society (Holmberg et al., 1987). Future evaluation of interventions aiming to contain resistance might benefit from the use of modelling as a means of mea- suring optimal policy response, as well as trying to resolve some of the diffi- culties associated with such interventions (Coast et al., 1996, 2002).
Parts
» Antibiotic Policies: Theory and Practice
» THEORIES OF FACILITATING CHANGE
» OTHER APPROACHES TO GUIDELINE DEVELOPMENT
» QUALITY ASSURANCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDS
» DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL STANDARDS IN SCOTLAND
» WHICH QI INTERVENTIONS HAVE BEEN STUDIED IN CAP?
» LINKING PROCESS OF CARE TO OUTCOMES IN QI
» WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE THAT QI INITIATIVES IMPROVE PROCESS OF CARE IN CAP?
» WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE THAT QI INITIATIVES IMPROVE OUTCOMES IN CAP?
» Designing and implementing a CAP intervention
» LEVEL OF AGGREGATION OF ANTIMICROBIALS
» ANTIMICROBIAL USAGE MEASURES
» Relationships based on patient-specific data
» Relationships based on aggregate usage
» ANTIBIOTIC CONSUMPTION; ALTERNATIVE UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
» ANTIBIOTIC CONSUMPTION CALCULATOR
» BENCHMARKING FOR REDUCING VANCOMYCIN USE AND VANCOMYCIN- RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCI IN US ICU S
» THE HARVARD EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT QUALITY STUDY
» ANALYSIS BY INDIVIDUAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
» BENCHMARKING WITH OTHER ANTIMICROBIAL UTILISATION DATA
» STATE OF THE ART OF ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS IN SURGERY
» AUDITING AND IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS IN SURGERY
» TYPES OF STUDIES TO OBTAIN QUALITY DATA ON A PATIENT LEVEL
» MULTIDISCIPLINARY ANTIMICROBIAL MANAGEMENT TEAMS
» THE ROLE OF THE PHARMACIST IN INFECTION MANAGEMENT
» TRAINING AND SUPPORT IN INFECTION MANAGEMENT FOR PHARMACISTS
» ANTIBIOTIC POLICY IN THE TERTIARY CARE CENTRE
» ANTIBIOTIC CONSUMPTION IN ICU S
» ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN ICU
» The impact of antibiotic policies and antibiotic consumption on antibiotic resistance
» IT and benchmarking to improve antibiotic prescribing
» COST OF HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED INFECTION
» THE COST OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
» Costs of screening/surveillance cultures
» Isolation, cohorting, and contact isolation
» EPIDEMIOLOGY OF INVASIVE FUNGAL INFECTIONS
» Antifungal resistance in Candida species
» Antifungal resistance cannot be transmitted by extrachromosomal DNA
» RATIONAL USE OF ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS
» THE CHANGING FACE OF VIRAL INFECTIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
» PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ANTIVIRAL THERAPY
» ANTIVIRAL TREATMENT STRATEGIES
» ANTIVIRAL PROPHYLAXIS STRATEGIES
» ANTIBIOTIC CONCENTRATIONS AT TARGET SITES
» An infant with aplastic anaemia
» A long-standing E. coli infection of liver cysts
» BREAKPOINTS: A SHORT HISTORY AND OVERVIEW
» PHARMACODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS AND EMERGENCE OF RESISTANCE
» EVALUATION OF THE ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE SURVEILLANCE DATA PUBLISHED IN THE MEDICAL LITERATURE
» PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM
» Multivariate analysis methods
» Evolutionary genetic approaches
» Study of the relationship between bacterial resistance and antimicrobial consumption
» To predict the short-term evolution of resistance
» To evaluate interventions to control antibiotic resistance
» DISINFECTANTS: TYPES, ACTIONS, AND USAGES
» Evidence of bacterial resistance to biocides
» Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to biocides
» EVIDENCE OF CROSS-RESISTANCE BETWEEN BIOCIDES AND ANTIBIOTICS
» DISINFECTANT USAGE AND ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
» METHODS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
» PROBLEMS WITH INTERPRETATION OF PUBLISHED STUDIES
» Distribution of educational materials
» Audit and feedback with or without other educational materials
» Educational group meetings or seminars
» Educational outreach/academic detailing
» Financial/healthcare system changes
» EFFECT OF INTERVENTIONS ON ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
» DDD/1,000 INHABITANTS AND DAY (DID)
» PRESCRIPTIONS/1,000 INHABITANTS AND YEAR
» INDICATIONS FOR ANTIBIOTIC PRESCRIPTIONS
» POSSIBLE CAUSES FOR OBSERVED VARIATIONS IN ANTIBIOTIC USE
» DETERMINANTS OF ANTIBIOTIC CONSUMPTION
» COLLECTIVE AWAKENING AND PROGRESSIVE MOBILIZATION OF FRENCH PUBLIC HEALTH AUTHORITIES
» ANTIBIOTIC USE AND COST TRENDS
» IMPACT ON HEALTH BUDGETS OF ANTIBIOTIC USE
» ACCESS TO ESSENTIAL ANTIBIOTICS AT ALL LEVELS OF CARE
» EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
» THREAT OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
» ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
» FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DEVELOPMENT AND SPREAD OF RESISTANCE
» STRATEGIES FOR CONTAINMENT OF RESISTANCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
» Antibacterial resistance and policies
» Policies, guidelines, and education on antibacterial use
» Discovery, development, and commercialization in the face of policies
» Antibacterial development, labelling, and benefits
» WHAT CAN BE DONE NOW ABOUT ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE?
» HOW CAN THE DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY HELP?
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