CONVERSATIONAL STRATEGIES IN POLICE INTERROGATION OF DRUG SUSPECTS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, the writer would like to express her very special deepest grateful to the Almighty God for his love and blessing which guided her in completing this thesis. Clearly, this thesis could not have been written without the many visible and invisible contributions from her advisors. The writer would like to thank: To Prof. Dr. Berlin Sibarani, M. Pd., as her first advisor for sharing his concern from the beginning of this thesis, valuable time in giving the comments and constructive criticism in completing this thesis.

To Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M. Pd., as her second advisor for spending his time in giving his ideas in the process of fininshing this thesis.

To Dr. Rahmad Husein, M. Ed. as the Head of the English Applied Linguistics Study Program and also her reviewers, Dr. Rahmad Husein, M. Ed., Dr. Siti Aisyah Ginting, M. Pd., and Dr. Tyrhaya Zein, M.A. for their feedback and contribution.

To her husband, Ir. B. Lumbantobing, and her beloved sons, Gilbert Lumbantobing and Johannes Lumbantobing for their love, prayer and patience for completing this thesis.

To her parents, K. Padang, and R. Siahaan for their love and prayer for the success of her study.

To her sister, Sri Mega and her brothers, Juliat Roiman and Rondi Pramuda for their love and support in her life.

To her lovely friends Eka, Erna, Adawiyah, Riris, and Jefry (Friends for revival), for the time and great working together, to faithful friends in SMA Sutomo 2 Medan and SMP Negeri 23 Medan for their support and help.

Finally, to the police officers in Direktorat Reserse Narkoba Polda Sumatera Utara for their sincerity to give their time and good cooperation in completing this thesis.

Medan, 22 April 2016

Helmida

Reg. Number: 809112029 iii

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1The Background of the Study ... 1

1.2The Problems of the Study ... 7

1.3The Objectives of th Study ... 7

1.4The Scope of the Study ... 7

1.5The Significance of the Study ... 8

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1Conversational Strategy ... 10

2.1.1 Types Conversational Strategies ... 11

1. Ambiguity Strategie... 12

2. Blocking the Target’s Words ... 29

3. Hit and Run Strategy ... 30

4. Ignoring the Target When He Says “No” ... 31

5. Scripting Strategy ... 33

2.2Police Interrogation ... 35

2.2.1 Police Interrogation and Discourse ... 37

2.2.2 Police Interrogation Features ... 38

1. Turn Taking in Police Interrogation ... 40

2. Domination in Turn Taking ... 44

3. Adjacency Pairs ... 47

4. Interrogating and Questioning ... 48

5. Interrogating Structure and Participation Frameworks ... 52

6. Topic Control ... 54

2.3The Cognitive of Police Interrogator ... 58

2.4Verbal Aggression ... 59

2.5Drugs ... 61

2.6Previous Related Research ... 68

2.7Conceptual Framework ... 74

3. RESEARCH METHOD ... 75

3.1Research Design ... 75

v

3.3The sources of Data ... 76

3.4The Technique for Data Collection ... 76

3.5The Technique of Data Analysis ... 76

3.6Trustworthiness of the Study ... 80

4. DATA ANALYSIS 4.1Types of Conversational Strategies in Police Interrogation ... 81

4.2 Conversational Strategies Use in the Police Interrogation ... 81

1. Ambiguity Strategies ... 82

2. Blocking the Target’s Words ... 87

3. Hit and Run Strategy ... 88

4. Ignoring the Target When He Says “No” ... 89

5. Scripting Strategy ... 90

4.2.1 Summary of Types of Conversational Strategies in Police Interrogation ... 93

4.2.2 Clusters for Words and Sentences in Conversational Strategies in Police Interrogation ... 96

4.2.3 Types of Ambiguity ... 97

4.2.4 Comparison of Conversational Strategies Use in the Police Interrogation ... 97

4.3Findings ... 105

4.4Discussions ... 106

5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 107

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 ... 19

Table 2.2 ... 26

Table 2.3 ... 33

Table 2.4 ... 49

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Background of the Study

If Indonesia meets its deadline, we should be living in an ‘Indonesia drug free’ by 2015. Within Indonesia there is a large bureaucracy that monitors trends in the production and consumption of drugs such as cocaine, cannabis and heroin. The reports produced by these bodies show the 2015 target to be hopelessly unrealistic. A cursory reading of the drug-related documentation produced by BNN leads to the conclusion that an ‘Indonesia drug-free’ is itself an unachievable and utopian objective.

In fact, Indonesia has faced the narcotic emergency condition. Even, it has been in emergency one. Many individuals operate such as producers, distributors, buyers, and consumers. There is considerable social interest in drugs activity, demonstrated by widespread media coverage of drugs abuse: productivity and health, addiction, family disintegration, loss of employment, failure in school, domestic violence, child abuse, and doing crimes.

To represent a public issue, a drug crime creates difficulties for the police investigation. Evidence in drug crime cases is limited. Once a suspect was caught, he would try to deny other’s involvement. He works through network. There are also difficulties involved in extracting comprehensive statements from the suspect. Therefore, drug crime investigations frequently rely on establishing the reliability of suspect testimony through the effective implementation of the police interrogation.

2

The aims of this research are to examine how police officers talk to suspected drug criminals. Talking is a central activity in social life. Much of our daily lives is spent talking to one another, in both ordinary conversation and more specialized settings such as meetings, interviews, classrooms, and courtrooms. It is largely through conversation that the major institutions of our society – economy, religion, politics, family, and law – are implemented. When we engage in various kinds of activities: we ask and answer questions, agree and disagree with each other, and tell stories and provide feedback when listening to stories, for example. Shortly, it can be said that we talk to one another to negotiate meaning in that way we are able to communicate our purpose in different settings.

Consider the following conversation. Norman Fairclough in Woods (2006) presents the following data taken from an interview between a police officer (P) and a witness (W).

(1) P: Did you get a look at the one in the car? (2) W: I saw his face, yeah.

(3) P: What sort of age was he? (4) W: About 45. He was wearing a… (5) P: And how tall?

(6) W: Six foot one. (7) P: Six foot one. Hair?

(8) W: Dark and curly, Is this going to take long? I’ve got to collect the kids from school. (9) P: Not much longer, no. What about his clothes?

(10) W: He was a bit scruffy-looking, blue trousers, black… (11) P: Jeans?

(12) W: Yeah.

(Fairclough 2001: 15)

Much can be learned about the nature of spoken legal interrogations from this short extract. Examine, for example, how the police officer uses multiple questions to exert control over the interview. Question-answer structures are an example of adjacency pairs, a concept that has been particularly productive in the conversation analysis approach towards explaining the sequencing of discourse.

3

Adjacency pairs are probably best understood by an example. When someone gives a compliment, for instance, he typically expects a reply, and, if he does not receive one, he may feel that the compliment has been ‘wasted’. Similarly, when one greets a friend or acquaintance, he expects a greeting in return. He considers himself badly or rudely treated if his compliments or greetings (first pair parts of adjacency pairs) are not ‘balanced’ with appropriate expressions of thanks or returned greetings (second pair parts). Questions typically function as the first pair parts of adjacency pairs, and they demand responses (second pair parts) that are relevant to the questions asked.

Beyond the sequential pairing, questions may also secure the return of the third turn to the questioner. By presenting the witness with a checklist of questions, the police officer therefore exerts considerable control over what follows: control not only of the organization and the ordering of speaking turns in the interview, but also of the topic to be spoken about in each turn.

The power and authority of the police officer is also revealed in the use of interruptions: at lines 5 and 11 the officer interrupts the witness’s account of what the suspect was wearing. Furthermore, a little later in the interview, note how the police officer leads the witness into a certain response regarding the suspect’s clothes: at line 11, the officer prompts ‘jeans’ in response to the reference to ‘blue trousers’, and the witness agrees.

This research is going to study conversation in police institution. One aspect of language and social contexts is to do with how the rules of our society (some written, many not) and its rituals and customs affect the way we use language in both spoken and written (Coultas, 2003:4). One of the most obvious

4

rules is around what we should not say in certain situations; for example, it would not be considered legal to accuse a suspect of a crime without being proved and confessed guilty by law enforcement officials.

Crime is an enduring social problem. As a result, we rely on law enforcement officials to temper crime and to protect and serve the citizens of our communities. A major factor in the reduction of crime and determining guilt is suspect interrogation. Police talk is key to the art of interrogation. Interrogations are conducted by police in an effort to seek confessions and develop details about crime (Heuback, 2009:1).

Gibbons (2004) describes the importance of studies of language and the law generally, and police interviews in particular for applied linguistics, because the law is such an important and influential institution, and because it is packed with language problems. Most of our common everyday activities are carried out within a legal frame.

Moreover, Momeni (2011) clarifies legal language is a widespread issue in forensic area, which covers the language of police, language of lawyers, language of judges and prosecutors, language of witness etc. Cao (2010) says that police interview embedded in police genre is a sub-branch of legal talk. As we see there are some linguistic features in legal talk, it is also expected to see some linguistic features in police interview.

The purpose of the speakers is to make the suspects in criminal cases to have said or agreed to something that they have not (Shuy, 2005) . Shuy’s studies examine how unfair conversational strategies can be used in criminal strategies. The suspect is made have agreed to or participated in the past illegal activities.

5

During the police interrogation, some suspects may eventually break down and admit to crimes that they never actually committed. This is generally referred to as the false confession (Leo and Ofshe, 1997).

There are some cases, for instance, when the police put the suspects into prison due to their lack of knowledge of purposed questions (Walsh, 2010). Ket San, a citizen of Sambas in West Kalimantan, was forced to sign the confession of being guilty to keep two pills of ecstasy with him when he was caught by the police on the way home in 2009 (Detiknews, 2014). He tried to convince the police that the pills did not belong to him, yet the police insisted on his keeping the pills. The latest example is a sixty three-year- old woman, Asyani, was sent to prison as the suspect of stealing two pieces of teak wood trunk of PT Perhutani. (Kompas, 2015). However, there were some successfully cases done by police such as investigating the death of an eight year old girl called Angeline, and Namaona Denis (Malawi), Marcho Archer Cardoso Moreira (Brazil), Daniel Enemuo (Nigeria), Ang Kiem Soei (Belanda), Tran Thi Bich Hanh (Vietnam), dan Rani Andriani (WNI). Dan juga tahap II (28/4), yaitu: Myuran Sukumaran (Australia), Andrew Chan (Australia), Martin Anderson (Ghana), Raheem Agbaje (Nigeria), Sylvester Obiekwe Nwolise (Nigeria), Okwudili Oyatanze (Nigeria), Rodrigo Gularte (Brazil), and Zainal Abidin (WNI) of drug crimes. All of the drug criminals mentioned above were sentenced to put to death.

There are several conversational strategies can be used in criminal strategies. They are ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies (Shuy: 2005). This study will seek to answer which strategies are used in certain situations. Cognitive

6

complexity and verbal aggressiveness will also be looked at to determine whether the two have a relationship to successful interrogations. Since there is a direct relationship between cognitive complexity and communication effectiveness (Delia), it can be expected that officers with a high level of cognitive complexity are successful at interrogating. However, many people assume that officers that interrogate are verbally aggressive, yet people who are especially aggressive have lower communication skills (Infante, Trebing, Shepherd & Seeds, 1984).

Based on the above phenomena, it can be concluded that there are problems in police interrogation, namely: how the conversation is managed, what conversational strategies are used by the police, and if cognitive complexity and verbal aggressiveness impact the interrogation.

To expound the above idea, the researcher decided to focus on analyzing interrogations between police officers and persons suspected of having committed crimes in the basis of conversational strategies and cognitive complexity. The researcher uses Roger W. Shuy for her main theoretical framework and some more from others such as Jessie Delia for cognitive complexity. Besides, our knowledge about police interrogation in Indonesia is currently very limited. This lack of knowledge makes the study of police interrogation an important and worthwhile endeavor. The setting was focused on the analysis of spoken language between police officers and persons suspected of having committed crime in Indonesia police institution, specifically in Medan.

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1.2 The Problems of the Study

The problems of the study are formulated as the following:

1. What types of conversational strategies are used in police interrogation? 2. How are the conversational strategies used by the police?

3. Why are the conversational strategies used by the police as the way they are?

1.3 The Objectives of the Study

In line with the problems of the study, the objectives of the study are

1. To identify types of conversational strategies in the police interrogation. 2. To describe how the conversational strategies used by the police.

3. To elaborate the reasons why the conversational strategies are used by the police the way they are.

1.4 The Scope of the Study

This study applies the Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson’s Conversation Analysis, Shuy’s conversational strategies, and some more from others such as Jessie Delia for cognitive complexity The analysis is aimed at investigating the conversational strategies such as: ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies in the police interrogation in POLRESTA MEDAN Sumatera Utara.

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1.5 The Significance of the Study

The findings will be expected to be worthwhile theoretically and practically. Theoritically, the findings will broaden the horizons to the application of Conversational Strategies and Conversation Analysis (CA) with reference to spoken form. Practically, the findings can be utilized for the literature to conduct further research in more various contexts. They are as follows:

1. The junior students of LTBI get the benefit of studying of

conversational strategies in legal language. The legal language is presented in a framework of the analysis of police interrogation. The application of analytical tools to the data consists of police–suspect interactions and is combined to reveal assumptions to underlying the police approach. The analytical tools are drawn from conversational strategies and conversation analysis. It is hoped that the application of these analytical tools is powerful in the study of conversation.

2. Teachers at school are very close to society to transfer knowledge. By knowing legal language, they can teach students the norms of righteousness and the consequences of disobeying. They can apply question-answer strategy. They teach the students to listen and think questions critically before answering. Since the language of law is not the mother tongue in Indonesia, lecturers and

curriculum designers are responsible for teaching English to law students. They themselves may have trouble in understanding the cognitive complexity of legal documents, and the linguistic realization of that complexity. Once understood, training students to master it is a pedagogical challenge. Teachers may also need to train law students in oral interactive techniques to master the power laden language of the court. There are also ethical issues involved in both the

9

promulgation of this register that excludes so many ordinary people, particularly second language speakers, and in training people to use language to manipulate and distort the testimony of others. Lawyers, law students, legislative translators and legal interpreters are all users of English for Legal Purposes (ELP) but their language learning needs will differ depending upon their communicative purposes and learning contexts. Moreover, these factors influence decisions about the professional background and knowledge base required by language educators in this field. ELP is part of the English for Specific Purposes branch of Applied Linguistics.

3. Police realize the first information gathering stage from a suspect is interrogation. The aim of interrogation is to get successful fulfillment of

institutional requirement in which they will have the confession sign of being guilty from suspects. It is crucial to the successful prosecution of a defendant that the confession is voluntary and not a product of threats or physical violence and that any written confession is a true and accurate record of the suspect’s words during the interrogation.

4. Meanwhile, the society, as citizens, get aware of the kind of linguistic unfairness that can land people in prison or turn into a very serious matter—the loss of one’s freedom—or even worse. Citizens are hoped to be independent, and critical towards the information they obtain and share.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

The primary aim of this research has been to investigate the role of police institutional discourse in the construction of a police-suspect interrogation, in terms of the conversational strategies to negotiate power relations between participants and the successful fulfillment of institutioanl requirements. In order to achieve the aim, several phases of analysis wee undertaken and the findings were presented in Chapter 4.

Having the data been analyzed, the conclusions can be stated as the following:

1. There are five types of conversational strategies in police interrogation. They are ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies.

2. How the police used the conversational strategies can be seen through the utterances they produced during the interrogation. The context of ambiguity happened because some certain words were used differently based on the speaker’s background knowledge, and the other one was because of the limited understanding of the lexical choice. Creating ambiguity varies among them. Creating ambiguity in context and violating maxims: manner, relevance, and quality are used to elicit more information. The use of these strategies helped the police negotiate their purpose to get the suspects’ feeling of incrimination. The conversational

110

strategy used by the police ignoring the target when he says “ no” was also different. Of the four police, only two used that strategy because their suspects were cooperative.

3. The reasons why the police used the conversational strategies the way they are are categorized. They are learning and developing interrogation skills, the technique of interrogation, verbal aggression, and experience.

5.2 Suggestions

Based on the above conclusions, there are some suggestions listed:

1. It is suggested that the conversational strategies which cover ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies be used in interrogating suspects to elicit relevant information. The analysis of the research showed that the conversational strategies were not only usable in the writer’s original country but also in Indonesia. This could be seen in the process of analyzing data through the participants frameworks and the use of CA s a way of describing discourse in terms of the roles occupied by the speakers. These were the bases for focusing the detailed analysis on certain structural features.

2. With regard to the expected answer of this research, it represents a distinctive exploration of the types of conversational sttrategies between police officres and drug suspects. The findings provide an understanding of how language uses shape the progression of the investigative interrogation and offer guidelines about resolving dilemma of the clash of keeping the talk on.

111

3. A discourse based training program could be devised to help police officers effectively interrogate drug suspects. A training program could encourage the police to examine conversational strategies and recognize the implications of those five strategies for eliciting information.

4. There is significant potential for further research in this field. There were a number of potential contributory factors, not mentioned in this study, which could be observed in future aalysis.

112

REFERENCES

Benneworth, K. 2004 A Discursive Analysis of Police Interviews with Suspected

Paedophilia: the Implications of “Open” and “Closed” Interviewing

for Admission and Denial, Published Disertation, Leicestershire:

Loughborough University

Bogdan, R.C., and Biklen, S.K. 1992 Qualitative Research for Education. An

Introduction toTheory and Methods, Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Brayley , H. (eds) 2015 The Value of Crime Scripting: Deconstructing Internal

Child Sex Trafficking, Oxford Journals Law Policing Volume 5,, Issue 2

Pp. 132-143

Burleson, B. And Waltman, M. 1988-Using the Role Categoy Questionnaire

Measure. A Handbook for the Study of Human Communication: Methods and Instrument for Observing, Measuring, and Assessing Communication

Process. Edited by Charles Tardy: Ableck Publishing Corporation

Cao, D. 2010 “Legal Translation:Translating Legal Language” in The Routledge

Handbook of Forensic Lingustics, London & New York: Routledge

Coultas, A. 2003 Language and Social Context, London & New York: Routledge Creswell, J. W. 1994 Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, California: Sage Publication

Cutting, J. 2000 Analyzing the Language of Discourse Communities, Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd

Delia, J. 2008 Constructivism. A First Look at Communication Theory, Griffin, Em

Drew, P. And Heritage, J. 1992 ‘Analyzing Talk at Work. In P. Drew and

Heritage (eds), Talk at Work (pp. 3-65), Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press

Gibbons, J. And Turell, M. T. 2010 Dimension of Forensic Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company

Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003 The Psychology of In terrogations and Confessions, London: John Wiley and Sons

113

Heuback, J. 2009 Suspect Interrogation: Strategies and Key Personality

Constructs. Advances in Communication Theory and Research

Heydon, G. 2005 The Language of Police Interviewing. Basingstoke/NewYork: Palgrave MacMillan

Inbau, F. E., J. E., Reid, and J. P., Buckley 2001 Criminal Interrogation and

Confession in Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003 The Psychology of In terrogations

and Confessions, London: John Wiley and Sons

Leo, R. A. 1996 Police Interrogation and Social Control.Social and Legal Studies, Vol. 3, 93-120

MacLeod, N. J. 2010 Police Interviews with Women Reporting Rape: A Critical

Discourse Analysis, Publised Disertation: Aston University

Miles, H.B., and Huberman, A.M. 1984 A Source Book of New Method:

Qualitative Data Analysis, California: Sage Publication

Momeni, N. 2011 Police Genre: Interruption and Its Classification as a Sign of

Asymmetry in Police Interview/Interrogation. International Journal of

Criminology and Sociological Theory, Vol.4 No. 1, June 2011, 615-625 Oxbourgh, G. E., Mykleburst, T. And Grant, T. 2010 The Question of Question

Types in Police Interrogation: A Review of Literature from Psychological

and Literature Perspective. International Journal of Speech Language and

the Law, Vol.17, N0. 1

Peters, R. 2014 How Turn-Taking Inufluences the Perception of a Suspect in

Police Interviews, Published Disertation, Enschede: University of Twente

Schegloff, E. 2007 Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in

Conversation Analysis, Vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Shuy, R.W. 2005 Creating Language Crimes:How Law Enforcement Uses

(and Misuses) Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Walsh, D. and Bull, R. 2010 What really is effective in Interviews with Suspects?

A study comparing interviewing skills against interviewing outcome.s The

British Psychological Society, Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15, 305-321

Walton, D. 1995 A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press

Walton, D. N., and Krabe, E. C. W. 1995 Committment in Dialogue: Basic

Concept of Interpersonal Reagsoning, Albany: State University of New

114

William, J. W. 2000 Interrogating Justice: a critical analysis of the police

interrogation and its role in the criminal justice process. Canadian Journal

of Criminology 42, 209-241

Woods, N. 2006 Describing Discourse, London: Hodder Education Yule, G. 1996 Pragmatics, Oxford: Oxford University Press

109

CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

The primary aim of this research has been to investigate the role of police institutional discourse in the construction of a police-suspect interrogation, in terms of the conversational strategies to negotiate power relations between participants and the successful fulfillment of institutioanl requirements. In order to achieve the aim, several phases of analysis wee undertaken and the findings were presented in Chapter 4.

Having the data been analyzed, the conclusions can be stated as the following:

1. There are five types of conversational strategies in police interrogation. They are ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies.

2. How the police used the conversational strategies can be seen through the utterances they produced during the interrogation. The context of ambiguity happened because some certain words were used differently based on the speaker’s background knowledge, and the other one was because of the limited understanding of the lexical choice. Creating ambiguity varies among them. Creating ambiguity in context and violating maxims: manner, relevance, and quality are used to elicit more information. The use of these strategies helped the police negotiate their purpose to get the suspects’ feeling of incrimination. The conversational

strategy used by the police ignoring the target when he says “ no” was also different. Of the four police, only two used that strategy because their suspects were cooperative.

3. The reasons why the police used the conversational strategies the way they are are categorized. They are learning and developing interrogation skills, the technique of interrogation, verbal aggression, and experience.

5.2 Suggestions

Based on the above conclusions, there are some suggestions listed:

1. It is suggested that the conversational strategies which cover ambiguity, blocking the target’s words, hit and run, ignoring the target when he says no, and scripting strategies be used in interrogating suspects to elicit relevant information. The analysis of the research showed that the conversational strategies were not only usable in the writer’s original country but also in Indonesia. This could be seen in the process of analyzing data through the participants frameworks and the use of CA s a way of describing discourse in terms of the roles occupied by the speakers. These were the bases for focusing the detailed analysis on certain structural features.

2. With regard to the expected answer of this research, it represents a distinctive exploration of the types of conversational sttrategies between police officres and drug suspects. The findings provide an understanding of how language uses shape the progression of the investigative interrogation and offer guidelines about resolving dilemma of the clash of keeping the talk on.

3. A discourse based training program could be devised to help police officers effectively interrogate drug suspects. A training program could encourage the police to examine conversational strategies and recognize the implications of those five strategies for eliciting information.

4. There is significant potential for further research in this field. There were a number of potential contributory factors, not mentioned in this study, which could be observed in future aalysis.

REFERENCES

Benneworth, K. 2004 A Discursive Analysis of Police Interviews with Suspected Paedophilia: the Implications of “Open” and “Closed” Interviewing for Admission and Denial, Published Disertation, Leicestershire: Loughborough University

Bogdan, R.C., and Biklen, S.K. 1992 Qualitative Research for Education. An Introduction toTheory and Methods, Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Brayley , H. (eds) 2015 The Value of Crime Scripting: Deconstructing Internal Child Sex Trafficking, Oxford Journals Law Policing Volume 5,, Issue 2 Pp. 132-143

Burleson, B. And Waltman, M. 1988-Using the Role Categoy Questionnaire Measure. A Handbook for the Study of Human Communication: Methods and Instrument for Observing, Measuring, and Assessing Communication Process. Edited by Charles Tardy: Ableck Publishing Corporation

Cao, D. 2010 “Legal Translation:Translating Legal Language” in The Routledge Handbook of Forensic Lingustics, London & New York: Routledge

Coultas, A. 2003 Language and Social Context, London & New York: Routledge Creswell, J. W. 1994 Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, California: Sage Publication

Cutting, J. 2000 Analyzing the Language of Discourse Communities, Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd

Delia, J. 2008 Constructivism. A First Look at Communication Theory, Griffin, Em

Drew, P. And Heritage, J. 1992 ‘Analyzing Talk at Work. In P. Drew and Heritage (eds), Talk at Work (pp. 3-65), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gibbons, J. And Turell, M. T. 2010 Dimension of Forensic Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company

Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003 The Psychology of In terrogations and Confessions, London: John Wiley and Sons

Heuback, J. 2009 Suspect Interrogation: Strategies and Key Personality Constructs. Advances in Communication Theory and Research

Heydon, G. 2005 The Language of Police Interviewing. Basingstoke/NewYork: Palgrave MacMillan

Inbau, F. E., J. E., Reid, and J. P., Buckley 2001 Criminal Interrogation and Confession in Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003 The Psychology of In terrogations and Confessions, London: John Wiley and Sons

Leo, R. A. 1996 Police Interrogation and Social Control.Social and Legal Studies, Vol. 3, 93-120

MacLeod, N. J. 2010 Police Interviews with Women Reporting Rape: A Critical Discourse Analysis, Publised Disertation: Aston University

Miles, H.B., and Huberman, A.M. 1984 A Source Book of New Method: Qualitative Data Analysis, California: Sage Publication

Momeni, N. 2011 Police Genre: Interruption and Its Classification as a Sign of Asymmetry in Police Interview/Interrogation. International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory, Vol.4 No. 1, June 2011, 615-625 Oxbourgh, G. E., Mykleburst, T. And Grant, T. 2010 The Question of Question Types in Police Interrogation: A Review of Literature from Psychological and Literature Perspective. International Journal of Speech Language and the Law, Vol.17, N0. 1

Peters, R. 2014 How Turn-Taking Inufluences the Perception of a Suspect in Police Interviews, Published Disertation, Enschede: University of Twente Schegloff, E. 2007 Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in

Conversation Analysis, Vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Shuy, R.W. 2005 Creating Language Crimes:How Law Enforcement Uses (and Misuses) Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Walsh, D. and Bull, R. 2010 What really is effective in Interviews with Suspects? A study comparing interviewing skills against interviewing outcome.s The British Psychological Society, Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15, 305-321

Walton, D. 1995 A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press

Walton, D. N., and Krabe, E. C. W. 1995 Committment in Dialogue: Basic Concept of Interpersonal Reagsoning, Albany: State University of New York Press

William, J. W. 2000 Interrogating Justice: a critical analysis of the police interrogation and its role in the criminal justice process. Canadian Journal of Criminology 42, 209-241

Woods, N. 2006 Describing Discourse, London: Hodder Education Yule, G. 1996 Pragmatics, Oxford: Oxford University Press