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moreover include the use not only of two languages, but of any number of languages. We shall therefore consider bilingualism as the alternate use of
two or more languages by the same individual Mackey, 1970: 555 as cited in Hoffmann, 1991: 16
Besides, Brisk 1998 makes a similar point and describes the difference in the way the term ‘bilingual education’ is used in different countries. Brisk said that in
the United States, bilingual education refers to the education of children whose home language is not English. It means that bilingual education refers to
education in two valued language. He added that it is common for European countries to offer bilingual education school where children are instructed in two
languages Brisk, 1988 as cited in Bialystok, 2001: 235 The government in Indonesia actually has made the regulation about the
bilingual school. The existence of Bilingual School is based on the Government Law of National Education System UU No. 20, 2003 article 50 verse 3. It states
that the government carries out at least one level of education to be developed becoming International School.
2. International Class
According to one of the teacher of SMA N 1 Wonosari, who becomes the leader of RSBI Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional program in SMA N 1
Wonosari , international class is one kind of classes in bilingual school of SMA N 1
Wonosari which has main characteristics, that are using English 40 and
Indonesian 60 in the teaching and learning process, using media which is based on technology information, combining KTSP Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan and Cambridge curriculum, adapting and adopting the materials of
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hard science such as Biology, Physics, Chemistry from a country that become a member of Organization for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOECD
Interview, December. Based on the decision letter no. 697C4MN2007, SMA N 1 Wonosari
has been stated as an International school. Afterwards, this school divided the classes into three kinds, namely regular, acceleration, and international
classes.
3. Bilingual Classroom “In recent years, bilingual education has sparked as much controversy as
any other education issue” Cromwell, 1998. She stated that many educators and parents agree that the main goals of bilingual education are mastery of English
and the content of academic areas. She added that there are several methods used by teachers to instruct students whose English is limited. They are as follows.
a. Immersion In immersion, the teachers generally use simple English to teach students.
This method lets students learn English while learning academics subjects. b. Transitional Bilingual Education
In transitional bilingual education, the teachers gave some instructions in their native language while simultaneously providing instructions in English.
c. Developmental Bilingual Education In developmental bilingual education, the teachers tried to increase students’
skills in their native language as they learn English as a second language.
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In addition, Dr. Suzanne Irujo 2004 stated that in transitional bilingual classrooms, the teachers teach academic content in native language. In this case,
the students can continue to progress in subject areas while they are learning English. It can not be denied that the acquisition of English proficiency, both
social and academic, is also primary goal of bilingual classroom. She added that to achieve this goal, the teachers need to be aware of how much they spend using
each language.
4. Foreign Language Immersion Program According to Myriam Met 1993, immersion is defined as a method of
foreign language instruction in which the regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of the language. The foreign language is the vehicle for
content instruction. It is not the subject of instruction. She added that there are two important goals of Immersion Program. The first is developing a high level of
proficiency in the foreign language and the second is gaining skills and knowledge in the content areas of the curriculum in keeping with stated objectives
in these areas. There are two kinds of immersion program, namely total immersion and
partial immersion. Met stated that in a total immersion the whole teaching learning process is conducted in a foreign language, including reading and
language arts. It differs from a partial immersion. In a partial immersion, the teaching learning process is conducted in both a foreign language and a local
language. She added that in a partial immersion, reading and language arts are
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always taught in English. However, the other subjects are taught in language that has been decided by the school.
In addition, there are some keys to successful Immersion Program, among others administrative support, community and parental support, qualified teachers
and students, appropriate materials in the foreign language, time for teachers to prepare instructional materials in the language, and ongoing staff development
Met, 1993. “Studies have consistently shown that immersion students do as well as, and may even surpass, comparable non-immersion students on measures of
verbal and mathematics skills in English Holobow et al., 1987; Swain Lapkin, 1991 as cited in Met, 2003. Met 1993 also stated that class sizes in public
school immersion programs generally range from 20-35. Obviously, small classes are desirable.
5. Basic Principles of Language According to Lewis and Hill 2002: 22, language is complex aspects. It
can be viewed as many different meanings, namely language is a system, as a habit, as a set of conventions, as a means of communication, as a means to an end,
and as a natural activity. They suggested that teachers from any subjects should have a clear idea about the subjects they are teaching and the nature of the subject,
including the language they use. “Good language teaching will reflect a variety of aspects of language” Lewis and Hill, 2002b: 22.
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a. Language is a system Lewis and Hill 2002c: 22 stated that language as a system means that
certain structures in a language can only be understood by relation to other structures, for example in English present tense is different from present continues
tense. They are different because as a system they have different structure. Language as a system cannot be learned easily. It needs to be understood and
internalized. “The teacher who understands language as a system will see the necessity for activities which lead to understanding” Lewis and Hill, 2002d: 22
b. Language is a habit Lewis and Hill 2002e: 22 stated that language as a habit means that a
language can be learned through repetition and intensive oral practice. The focus on this aspect is not on understanding but on the ability to respond automatically.
It is like a habit if teacher asks to the students “How are you?” then the students will answer automatically “I’m fine, thanks”.
c. Language is a set of conventions Lewis and Hill 2002f: 22 explained that language can be defined as a set
of conventions. As the example above, the students give response to the teacher by saying “I’m fine thanks”. In some countries, that positive response can be a
part of social conventions.
d. Language is a means of communication Lewis and Hill 2002g: 23 added that language can be used as a means of
communication. The teachers have to use communicative language in teaching so
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that they can convey information well to the students. Sometimes, the teachers use the language which leads to students’ misunderstanding. Therefore, using
communicative language is an important thing in teaching learning process. e. Language is a means to an end
Lewis and Hill 2002h: 23 suggested that language has to be used for a purpose. Therefore they defined language as a means to an end. There are some
purposes in using language, among others to convey information, to express the feeling, to entertain, to instruct the activities, and to help the memory in note
taking. f. Language is a natural activity
Lewis and Hill 2002i: 24 stated that language as a natural activity is similar to the term language-like behaviour. They provided an example that often
found in many classroom activities. A : Is Peter shorter or taller than Alan?
B: Alan is shorter than Peter. A : Ah, so Alan is not as tall as Peter.
They explained that the words and the structures are English but sometimes people do not believe that there are two real people would ever talk to each other
like conversation above. Actually, it is not language yet it is language-like behaviour.
6. Teaching Steps Teaching steps consist of three main categories, such as set induction,
main activities, and set closure.
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a. Set Induction “Set induction
is about preparation, usually for a formal lesson. When the students are set, they are ready to learn” Straker, 2002. Straker added that the
purpose of set induction is to attract students’ interest so that they will be more ready for the subject or topic they are going to learn. He explained that there are
some significant aspects of set induction, among others how to start the lesson by greeting and welcoming the students, how to relate the previous learning to the
new topic, how to understand their expectation by explaining the objectives of the new topic.
In addition, Perrott 1982 identified four purposes of set induction. 1 Focusing attention on the new material by gaining the interest of students.
2 Moving from the previous material to the new one by relating those two materials.
3 Providing a structure for the lesson and setting expectations of what will happen.
4 Giving meaning to a new concept from a new material, such as giving example.
Dr. Cheryl Grable 1999 added that there are some techniques for involvement of
the learner in the learning, such as giving questions, using pictures or objects and telling the stories. He stated that these techniques can provide a reference point
between what the students know and the new material. In addition, it will create a link from one material to the next.
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b. Main Activities Main activities includes questioning skills, reinforcement skills, stimulus
and variation skills 1. Questioning Skills
Based on Concordia University 2003, the purposes of giving some questions to the students are to increase the students’ critical awareness, to arouse
the students’ interest and their curiosity in the topic, to refocus the previous or related issues, to help the students find the answer and concentrate on the topic
under discussion. According to Bloom 1956, there are some types of questions which are well known with Bloom’s taxonomy.
a. Knowledge Questions This type of questions test students’ ability to memorize and recall specific
information. The examples of knowledge questions are “Find the meaning of …?”, “What is …?”, “Describe what happened at …?”, “Can you tell why …?”,
“Which is true or false …?” b. Comprehension Questions
These questions allow students to summarize, describe, interpret or translate information. It means that students can use their own words. The
examples of comprehension questions are “What is the main idea?”, “Can you distinguish between …?”, “What are the differences between …?”, “Can you
explain it with your own words?”. c. Analysis Questions
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These questions encourage students to break material into parts, describe patterns and relationships among parts. The purposes are to subdivide information
and to show how it is put together. The examples of analysis questions are “What are the parts or features of …?”, “Classify …. according to …?”, “How was this
similar to …?”, “Can you compare your …. with that presented in …?”, “How is …. similar to …?”, “What are some of the problems of …?”, “Analyze why it
happened?”. d. Application Questions
These questions allow students to apply information to a new situation or to produce new result. The examples of application questions are “ How is ….
related to …?”, “Why is …. significant?”, “Can you apply the method used to some experience of your own …?”, “From the information given, can you develop
a set of instructions about …?”. e. Synthesis Questions
These questions encourage students to create something new by using a combination of ideas from different sources to form a new whole. The examples
of synthesis questions are “What ideas can you add to …?”, “What would you predict or infer from …?”, “What might happen if you combined …?”, “What
solutions would you suggest for …?”, “How would you create a new …?”.
f. Evaluation Questions These questions allow students to make judgments using information and
to develop opinions about issues based on specific criteria. The examples of
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evaluation questions are “Do you agree …?”, “What do you think about…?”, “What is the most important …?”.
2. Reinforcement Skills Based on Concordia University 2003, the purpose of giving
reinforcement is to enhance the learning environment by providing encouragement to the students. In addition, there are four kinds of reinforcements.
a. Positive verbal reinforcement: “Yes”, “Correct”, “Absolutely”. b. Positive non-verbal reinforcement: nodding, smiling, making eye contact,
looking at the student and moving toward the student. c. Positively qualified reinforcement: Yes, very good, you have part of the
answer right” . Then the teacher asks to other students “What is the rest?
d. Delayed reinforcement: highlight the part of the answer which is correct and recall for the students. An earlier contribution could provide a clue to the rest of
the answer: Yes, thats partly correct. But there is a clue in what we mentioned earlier?
3. Stimulus and Variation Skill Based on San Francisco State University 2003, stimulus and variation
skills are used to stimulate the students, to help students understand the lesson, to increase the students’ participation and to avoid boredom during the teaching and
learning process. In addition, stimulus and variation skill have some components.
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a. Movements It means that the teachers can stimulate students’ attention by making
movements from one place to another with some purposes. b. Gestures
The teachers make the movements of head, hands and body parts to attract student’s attention and to express teacher’s emotion.
c. Change in Speech Pattern It happens when the teachers want to show their emotion or to emphasize a
particular point. In this situation, the teachers can suddenly change their volume, tone and speed of their speech. The change in speech pattern can make students
more interested to the teachers’ explanation. d. Change in Interactions Style
To maintain students’ attention, the teacher must use different interactions style in class, such as: the teacher communicates to the class and vice versa, the
teacher communicates to the student and vice versa, the students talk to the students and vice versa.
e. Focusing The teacher can draw students’ attention by using verbal focusing and non-
verbal focusing. In verbal focusing, the teacher can make the statements, such as “Look here”, “Listen to me”, “Note it carefully”. In addition, the teacher can
make non-verbal focusing by pointing towards some objects with fingers and underlining some important points on the blackboard.
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f. Pausing It means that the teacher stops talking for a moment. When the teacher
becomes silent during teaching, it can draw students’ attention. The students will pay attention to the teacher.
c. Set Closure According to Majid 2007, set closure is an activity conducted by a teacher
to close the lesson. The goals are to conclude the lesson that has been learned, to end the learning-teaching activity and to prepare the students for a new subject in
the next meeting. He added that set closure is important to measure the teaching learning success and students’ comprehension. In addition, there are some ways to
close the lesson. 1. Concluding the important points of the materials which have been learned by
the student. 2. Consolidating students’ attention towards those important points in order to
increase students’ interest in learning that material more deeply. 3. Giving post test, both orally and written.
4. Giving suggestion to increase students’ insight and knowledge. 5. Giving assignments to the students.
7. Content – Based Instruction According to Larsen-Freeman 2000: 137, using content from other
discipline in language courses is not a new idea. For years, specialized language courses have included content relevant to a particular profession or academic
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discipline. She emphasizes that the special contribution of content-based instruction is that it integrates the learning of language with the learning of some
other content, often academic subject matter. In this case, the academic subjects are learned through the medium of a foreign language. Furthermore, in conducting
Content-Based Instruction a teacher have to support the students through the use of particular techniques and materials. It offers the important advantage that
second language students do not have to postpone their academic study until their language control reaches a high level. “Usually, the students are often highly
motivated because they are learning content that is relevant to the academic requirements of the program in which they are enrolled” Larsen-Freeman, 2000:
142 In sum, what all models of content-based instruction have in common is
learning both specific content and related language skills. In content-based language teaching, the claim in a sense is that students get ’two for one’-
both content knowledge and increased language proficiency Wesche, 1993 as cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 142.
8. Curriculum Development
Curriculum planner need to be aware of social change to ensure that curricula are not dated and irrelevant Brady, 1992: 62. In addition, the process of
curriculum development involves teachers, individually or in groups, deciding a view of knowledge, interpreting the nature of society Brady, 1992: 65. He added
that since teachers are both the curriculum designers and implementers, it is essential to consider the characteristics of the school, teaching staff, the students
and also the nature of subject matter. Brady stated that in developing the curriculum there is the changing nature of the subject matter.
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Changes in the subject matter to be taught are largely a reflection of cultural and social change. The most apparent change is the attempt to
select significant content by cutting across traditional subject boundaries and integrating the knowledge of many subjects into broader areas of
inquiry Brady, 1992: 41.
B. Theoretical Framework
