The main Clitic How to make words — stems and endings

p.20 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. Negative forms Verbs can also have specifically Negative endings, to describe what doesn’t, won’t, can’t or shouldn’t happen. The Negative forms of balath‐ ‘hit’ and warraj‐ ‘go’ are summarised in Table 29 together with the positive forms. There are no Negative Hortative forms. ‘hit’ ‘go’ Positive Indicative balatha or bala warraja or warra Imperative balaga warraja Hortative balagi warraji Desiderative balada warrada Negative Indicative balatharri warrajarri Imperative balana warrana Desiderative balanada warranada Table 29. Summary of Positive and Negative verb forms

2.5 The main Clitic

Most sentences in Ganggalida have a Clitic which expresses information about Subjects, Object and Goals, and about when the action happens: in the past, present or future. The Clitic has no stem. Instead, it is made entirely from endings, and then it attaches itself to the end of other words. The Clitic has three main parts: • Part A expresses information about the Person and Number of the Goal. • Part B expresses information about the Person and Number of Subject and Objects. • Part C expresses information about when the action happens, and whether it really happens or it only could have or should have happened. These ideas can be called Tense and Mood. Part III also expresses information about whether the sentence is Transitive or not. To make the complete Clitic, you put the parts A, B and C together. This section goes though each part: A, B and C. The forms for Part A of the Clitic Part A of the Clitic expresses information about the Goal. If there is no Goal in the sentence, then the Clitic does not have part A, only parts B and C. If the sentence does have a Goal, and p.21 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. it is Singular, then the form of Part A of the Clitic is given in Table 30. The symbol ‘ø’ means “nothing”. Goal: 1sg ‘me’ ‐thu‐ 2sg ‘you’ ‐ba‐ 3sg ‘him, her, it’ ‐rna‐ or ø Table 30. Part A of the Clitic, for singular Goal An example of a sentence with a First Person singular Goal is 5. You can see that the Clitic begins with ‐thu. 5 Dathina=thu‐ganda mirralaya ngijuwa miyarl‐da. That=1sgG‐TR.PST makeIND 1sg.DAT spear‐ABS ‘That man made a spear for me.’ If the Goal is Non‐singular, then the form of Part A of the Clitic depends on the Goal’s Person and Number, and on whether the Subject of the sentence is Singular or Non‐singular. Subject: Singular Non‐singular Goal: 1inc.du ‘me and you’ ‐gurruwa‐ ‐gurra‐ 1inc.pl ‘me and you lot’ ‐guluwa‐ ‐gurra‐ 1exc.du ‘us two, not you’ ‐ngarrawa‐ ‐ngarra‐ 1exc.pl ‘us lot, not you’ ‐ngalawa‐ ‐ngarra‐ 2du ‘you two’ ‐rrawa‐ ‐rrawa‐ 2pl ‘you lot’ ‐lawa‐ ‐rrawa‐ 3du ‘them two’ ‐wurruwa‐ ‐wurra‐ 3pl ‘them lot’ ‐wuluwa‐ ‐wurra‐ Table 31. Part A of the Clitic, for Non‐singular Goal The forms for Part B of the Clitic Part B of the Clitic expresses information about the Subject and, if the sentence is Transitive, about the Object. We can begin with cases where the sentence is Transitive. In those sentences, if the Subject is Singular, then the form of part B of the Clitic is given in Table 32. The grey square in Table 32 tells you that the combination of Third Person Singular Subject and First Person Singular Object never occurs, so the Clitic does not need to have a form for it. p.22 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. Subject: 1sg ‘me’ 2sg ‘you’ 3sg ‘he, she, it’ Object: 1sg ‘me’ ‐nga‐ ‐nki‐ 2sg3sg ‘you, he, she, it’ ‐nga‐ ‐yi‐ ø 2du3du ‘you two, them two’ ‐ngarrngu‐ ‐rrnguyi‐ ‐rrngu‐ 2pl3pl ‘you lot, them lot’ ‐nganbunga‐ ‐nbuyi‐ ‐nbu‐ Table 32. Part B of the Clitic for Transitive sentences, for Singular Subject Table 33 shows the forms of part B of the Clitic if the Subject is Non‐singular. The ‘?’ symbol shows a combination of Subject and Object which has not been recorded. The final line of Table 33 is an alternative form which can be used when the Object is Second or Third Person Non‐singular. Subject: 1inc.du ‘me you’ 1inc.pl ‘me you lot’ 1exc.du ‘us two not you’ 1exc.pl ‘us lot not you’ Object: 1sg ‘me’ 2sg3sg ‘you, he, she, it’ ‐gurr‐ ‐gul‐ ‐ngarr‐ ‐ngal‐ 23nonsg ‘youthem twolot’ ‐gurr‐ ‐gul‐ ‐ngarru‐ ‐ngalu‐ alternative ‐gurru‐ ‐gurru‐ ‐ngarru‐ ‐ngarru‐ Subject: 2du ‘you two’ 2plu ‘you lot’ 3du ‘them two’ 3pl ‘them lot’ Object: 1sg ‘me’ ‐nkurr‐ ‐nkul‐ 2sg3sg ‘you, he, she, it’ ‐wurr‐ ‐wul‐ ‐rr‐ ‐l‐ 23nonsg ‘youthem twolot’ ‐wurru‐ ? ‐rr‐ ‐l‐ alternative ‐wurru‐ ‐wurru‐ ‐rru‐ ‐rru‐ Table 33. Part B of the Clitic for Transitive sentences, for Non‐singular Subject Table 34 shows the forms of part B of the Clitic in a Transitive Imperative sentence, where the Subject will be Second Person: ‘you’, ‘you two’ or ‘you lot’. p.23 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. Subject: 2sg ‘you’ 2du ‘you two’ 2pl ‘you lot’ Object: 1sgO ‘me’ ‐nki ? ‐nkul‐ 3sgO ‘him, her, it’ ø ‐rr‐ ‐l‐ 3duO ‘them two’ ‐rrngu ‐rru ‐rru‐ 3plO ‘them lot’ ‐nbu ‐rru ? Table 34. Part B of the Clitic for Transitive Imperative sentences Table 35 shows the forms that are recorded, for part B of the Clitic in a Transitive Hortative sentence. Object: 3sg ø 3du ‐yarr‐ 3pl ‐yal‐ Table 35. Part B of the Clitic for Transitive Hortative sentences In Intransitive sentences, a different set forms are used for part B of the Clitic. If the Subject is Singular, then the forms depends on what the TenseMood is, shown in Table 36. Subject: 1sg ‘me’ 2sg ‘you’ 3sg ‘he, she, it’ TenseMood: Present ‐ga‐ ‐nyi ‐ngga‐ Past ‐ga‐ ‐nyi‐ ø Past Irrealis ‐ga‐ ‐nyi‐ ‐rni‐ or ‐ni‐ Future ‐tha‐ ‐yini‐ ‐rni‐ or ‐ni‐ Table 36. Part B of the Clitic for Non‐transitive sentences, for singular Subject If the Subject is Non‐singular, then the form of part B of the Clitic depends whether the Sentence has a Non‐singular Goal or not. The forms are shown in Table 37. p.24 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. Subject: 1inc.du ‘me you’ 1inc.pl ‘me you lot’ 1exc.du ‘us two not you’ 1exc.pl ‘us lot not you’ with Non‐singular Goal ‐gurr‐ ‐gurr‐ ‐ngarr‐ ‐ngarr‐ otherwise ‐gurr‐ ‐gul‐ ‐ngarr‐ ‐ngal‐ Subject: 2du ‘you two’ 2plu ‘you lot’ 3du ‘them two’ 3pl ‘them lot’ with Non‐singular Goal ‐wurr‐ ‐wurr‐ ‐rr‐ ‐rr‐ otherwise ‐wurr‐ ‐wul‐ ‐rr‐ ‐l‐ Table 37. Part B of the Clitic for Non‐transitive sentences, for Non‐singular Subject If the sentence is Imperative, then the Subject will be Second Person: ‘you’, ‘you two’ or ‘you lot’, and the form of part B of the Clitic will depend on the Number of the Subject, and on whether the sentence has a Non‐singular Goal or not. The forms are shown in in Table 38. Subject: 2sg ‘you’ 2du ‘you two’ 2pl ‘you lot’ with Non‐singular Goal ø ‐wurr‐ ‐wurr‐ otherwise ø ‐rr‐ ‐l‐ Table 38. Part B of the Clitic for Non‐transitive Imperative sentences Table 39 shows the forms that are recorded, for part B of the Clitic in a Transitive Hortative sentence. Subject: 3sg ‐ø 3pl ‐yal‐ Table 39. Part B of the Clitic for Intransitive Hortative sentences Under specific circumstances — when the Goal is Non‐singular, and the Subject is Non‐singular and Second or Third Person — Ganggalida optionally allows parts A and B of the Clitic to be replaced with the alternative forms shown in Table 40. p.25 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. Subject: 23nonsg ‘youthem twolot’ Goal: 1inc.du ‘me and you’ ‐gurruwa‐ 1inc.pl ‘me and you lot’ ‐guluwa‐ 1exc.du ‘us two, not you’ ‐ngarrawa‐ 1exc.pl ‘us lot, not you’ ‐ngalawa‐ 2du ‘you two’ ‐rrawa‐ 2pl ‘you lot’ ‐lawa‐ 3du ‘them two’ ‐wurruwa‐ 3pl ‘them lot’ ‐wuluwa‐ Table 40. Alternative to Parts A B, for certain combinations of GoalSubject The forms for Part C of the Clitic Part C of the Clitic expresses information about TenseMood. Table 41 shows the forms for Transitive sentences. Table 42 shows the forms for Intransitive and Semi‐transitive sentences. In both cases, the forms can depend on the last sound of the first two parts of the Clitic. Mood Tense After a After i, u or ø After l or rr Indicative Desiderative Present ‐rri ‐garri ‐garri Past ‐nda ‐ganda ‐ganda Irrealis Past ‐ndi ‐gandi ‐gandi Future ‐ndi ‐gandi ‐gandi Imperative Hortative Present ø ø ‐a Table 41. Part C of the Clitic for Transitive sentences Mood Tense After i After a, u or ø After l or rr Indicative Desiderative Present ø ø or di ‐a or ‐adi Past ‐ngga ‐yingga ‐ingga Irrealis Past ‐nggi ‐yinggi ‐inggi Future ‐nggi ‐yi ‐ayi Imperative Hortative Present ø ø ‐a Table 42. Part C of the Clitic for Non‐transitive sentences p.26 Comments welcome e.rounduq.edu.au. Please do not cite without permission. 3 How to make sentences This section describes how sentences are made in Ganggalida. The section is divided into many individual topics, starting with some simple cases, and gradually working up to the most complex sentences in the language. Throughout this section you will see many example sentences. Each sentence is numbered, so that it’s easy to talk about them. In the sentences, each word is broken into its parts and labeled, and there is a translation of the Ganggalida sentence into English at the bottom. The meanings of the labels are listed in Table 43, and you can read more about many of those ideas in sections 1 and 2. ABL Ablative O Object ABS Absolutive PRIV Privative ALL Allative PROP Proprietive DAT Dative nonsg Non‐singular Number DES Desiderative Mood NTR Non‐transitive DIR Direct NEG Negative DUAL Dual Number pl Plural Number du Dual Number PAST Past Tense ERG Ergative PRES Present Tense exc Exclusive Person PROP Proprietive FUT Future Tense PRIOR Prior Tense G Goal REL Relative clause GEN Genitive S Subject HORT Hortative Mood sg Singular Number inc Inclusive Person STAT Stative IND Indicative Mood TR Transitive IMP Imperative Mood 1 First Person IRR Irrealis Mood 2 Second Person LOC Locative 3 Third Person Table 43. Labels for endings and word forms

3.1 Describing what something is