10
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter deals with some theoretical reviews used in the research. There are two main parts in this chapter, namely theoretical description and
theoretical framework. The theoretical description consists of theories that are relevant to the research and provides a review of related study, while the
theoretical framework provides the theoretical answers to the research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher provides some theories about error analysis, Research Proposal of Thesis Writing, and document analysis that were stated by
some experts in language teaching. 1.
Error a.
Errors and Mistakes Brown 2000 said that mistakes and errors are two different phenomena
. A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip”. It
fails to utilize a known system correctly. Error is the noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, which reflects the competence of the learner.
Ellis 1997 in Second Language Acquisition, differentiated the definition of error and mistake. Based on Ellis, error is usually reflecting gaps in a learner’
knowledge; it occurs because the learner does not know what is correct. While,
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11 mistake is reflecting occasional lapses in performance; it occurs because, in
particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows p. 17. Brown 2000 stated that human learning is fundamentally a process that
involves the making of mistakes. From the mistakes, human can obtain the feedbacks from the environment, and that feedbacks are used to make new
attempts that successively approximate desired goals. In other words, it can be said that language learning is like any other human learning.
Brown 2000 gave an illustration of the children learning their first language making countless “mistakes” from the point of view of adult
grammatical language. The children learn how to produce the acceptable speech in their native language from the feedbacks that they receive every time they make
mistakes. Brown 2000 added that:
“…second language learning is a process that is clearly not unlike first language learning in its trial-and-error nature. Inevitably learners will
make mistakes in the process of acquisition, and that process will be impede if they do not commit errors and then benefit from various forms
of feedback on those errors”.p. 217
Language learning process may lead language learners to produce mistakes. As the process goes by, the language learners will get feedback from
their environment leading them to learn from their mistakes and then know the concepts which are correct.
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12 b.
The Nature of Errors Ellis Barkhuizen 2005 stated about the nature of errors, that is the
learners sometimes produce errors and sometimes do not; in making errors, they do not always use the same non-target form. Corder 1967, as cited in Ellis
Barkhuizen 2005, divided the significant learner errors in three ways: 1 they serve a pedagogic purpose by showing teachers what learners have learned and
what they have not yet mastered; 2 they serve a research purpose by providing evidence about how languages are learned; and 3 they serve a learning purpose
by acting as devices by which learners can discover the rules of the target language.
Ellis 1997 stated reasons of some studies that focus on errors, they are: 1 the studies are conspicuous feature of learner language, 2 it will be useful for
teachers to know what errors learners make, and 3 making errors may actually help learners to learn when they self-correct the errors they make.
2. Error Analysis
Based on Ellis Barkhuizen 2005, error analysis consists of a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner errors. Error
analysis is the study of the errors made by the language learners in their speech and writing. Brown 2000 said what was called by error analysis was that the
fact where the learners did make errors, and those errors could be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the
learner, and guide into the study of learners’ errors. Corder 1967, as cited by Brown 2000, noted that:
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13 “A learner’s errors…are significant in that they provide to the researcher
evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery of the language.”
p.217
As stated by Brown that error analysis can keep us to focus on specific languages rather than viewing universal aspects of language. By doing an error analysis
research, the researcher can understand why the learners lead to errors.
There are some steps to conduct an error analysis research. Corder 1974 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005 explained the steps to conduct an error
analysis: 1
Collection of a sample of learner language In this step, the researchers need to be aware that the nature of the sample
that is collected may influence the nature and the distribution of the errors observed. It is possible for the researchers to wish to sample errors more generally
by collecting a broad sample reflecting different learners, different types of language and different production conditions. Based on Ellis 1987 as cited in
Ellis Barkhuizen 2005, the sample was collected as part of a study designed to investigate how different conditions of production i.e. planned vs. unplanned
affected learner language. 2
Identification of errors The second step is identifying the errors. It involves a comparison between
what the learner has produced and what a native speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. The researcher identifies the errors and categorizes
the errors into the errors classification.
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14 3
Descriptions of errors There are two kind of taxonomy used in describing errors based on Dulay,
Burt, Krashen 1998 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005. They are 1 a linguistic taxonomy and 2 a surface taxonomy.
a Linguistic Taxonomy
Linguistic taxonomy is usually related to descriptive grammar of the target language. Ellis Barkhuizen gave a list of such a grammar included general
categories relating to basic sentence structure, the verb phrase, verb complementation, the noun phrase, prepositional phrases, adjuncts, coordinate and
subordinate constructions, and sentence connection. Then each category can be divided into some subdivision For example in verb phrase errors can be divided
into some categories relating to the different of verb tenses, aspect, subjunctive, auxiliary verbs, and non-finite verbs. The other categories can also be divided into
some subdivided categories. b
Surface Structure Taxonomy Dulay, Burt, Krashen 1982 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen’s Analyzing
Learner Language 2005, stated that surface structure taxonomy is based on the ways surface structures are altered in erroneous utterancessentences. There are
principals in which learners modify target forms. The first is omission. The example is the omission of copula “be” in the
utterance “My sisters very pretty. The second is addition. Addition is when the presence of a form that does not appear in a well-formed utterance. It is sub-
categorized into regularization for example is eated for ate, double-marking for
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15 example is He didn’t came., and simple additions or the additions that not
describable as regularizations or as double-markings. The third is misinformation. It is the use of the wrong form of the
morpheme or structure. It is categorized into regularization for example Do they be happy?, archi-forms the learners use me as both a subject and object
pronoun, and alternating forms for example is Don’t +V and No +V. The forth is misordering. It is the error which characterized by the incorrect placement of a
morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance as in She fights all the time her brother.
James 1998 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005 adds one further category called blends error. As Cook Stevensen 2010 say that blends error is
an error in combining a prefix of source word with a suffix of another source word. There may be overlap in the contribution of the source words, as in
fantabulous fantastic and fabulous. This can be also resulted from over- inclusion as in the sentence The only one thing I want which is an amalgam of The
only thing I want and The one thing I want.
4 Explanation of errors
It involves determining their sources in order to account for why they were made. It is the most difficult part and it needs several strategies to do so. The
researchers can find and determine the possible sources of errors in this step. Corder 1974 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005 stated a view that error
analysis should focus attention on errors. Brown 2000 stated three possible
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16 sources of errors; they are interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, and context
of learning. a
Interlingual Transfer Corder 1974, as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005, stated that
interlingual errors are the result of mother tongue influences p. 65. Brown 2000 said that interlingual transfer is a significant source of error for all learners.
Similar to Corder, the errors resulted from this process are influenced by the native language. The learners are familiar with the native language before they
know the second language Brown, 2000. Here, Brown also gave example of English learners often say “the book of Jack” instead of “Jack’s book”.
b Intralingual Transfer
Corder 1974 as cited in Ellis Barkhuizen 2005, stated that intralingual is an error which reflects the operation of learning strategies that are
universal, i.e. evident in all learners irrespective of their L1 p.65. Brown 2000 stated that once, learners have begun to acquire parts of the new system, more and
more intralingual transfer-generalization within the target language-is manifested. Learners who are in the progress of second language learning will be influenced
by their previous experience, and they take the lesson from their experience then begin to include structures within the target language itself Brown: 2000. In this
explanation, Brown also gave the examples of the learners’ language errors. “Does John can sing?” and other examples of abound-utterances like “He goed”
for meaning “He went”.
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17 The intralingual errors are categorized into some types; they are false
analogy, misanalysis, incomplete rule application, exploiting redundancy, overlooking co-occurrence restrictions, and a system-simplification. Here is the
summary of strategies in analyzing errors of intralingual transfer provided by James 1998 in Ellis Barkhuizen book.
The first is false analogy. This is an error caused by a kind of over- generalization. For examples are word boy
Æ boys and childÆ childs.The second is misanalysis. In this strategy, the errors are seen because of the learners wrongly
assume that the singular possessive pronoun -s is always forming plural. For example is in possessive pronoun its is plural because it followed by –s. The third
is incomplete rule application. It is the under-generalization error. For example is the failure in utilizing indicative word order in Nobody knew where was Barbie.
The forth is exploiting redundancy. It is omitting grammatical features that do not contribute to the meaning of an utterance.
The fifth is overlooking co-occurrence restrictions. It is the error in failing to recognize two words that have similar meaning, but sometimes it cannot be
used in the same context. For examples are words quick and fast. They have similar meaning, but when they combined with food, fast food is more accepted
rather than quick food. The last is system-simplification. It is an error because of simplifying the burden of learning by substituting a single form where the target
language uses two or more. The example is the use of that as a ubiquitous relative pronoun.
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18 c
Context of Learning Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005 stated that it is resulted because of the way
the language was taught in the classroom. Brown 2000 stated the third source is the error that is resulted from the context of learning process. Context here is
referring to the place where the learners learn something or the language concept, or the materials or textbook they used to learn something or language concept.
Ellis Barkhuizen 2005 called this process as natural or induced error. Brown added that the students often make errors because of misleading explanation from
the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was rote memorized in a drill but improperly
contextualized.
5 Error evaluation
It involves determining the gravity of different errors with a view to deciding which ones should receive instruction.
3. Document Analysis
Document analysis is included in descriptive research. Ary et. al. 1990 stated that it is usually called documentary or content analysis. Usually, one
researcher wants to investigate specific topics or themes such as level of difficulty of textbooks, evidence of bias or prejudice, and prevailing practices. The data of
this research is interpreted into descriptive data. The data gathered are generally expressed as frequency counts in various relevant categories.
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19 As Merriam 2009 said about documents used in the research included
anything in existence prior to the research at hand. The examples of documents are official records, letters, newspaper accounts, poems, songs, corporate records,
goverment documents, historical accounts, diaries, autobiographies, and so on. In this research, the researcher uses students’ writing products as the document.
Documents could give rich descriptive information towards the research. It is supported by Bogdan Biklen 2003 that qualitative researchers are turning to
documents as their primary source of data. They also said that the findings of document research are as well as the other research.The findings are rich of
information. The strengths of documents to be used as the instrument in research as
stated by Merriam 2009 are the documents can be the best source of data on a particular subject, better than observations and interviews. It is because
documents are easily to access, free, and they contain information that is needed by the researchers. Documents are the best source of data would be studies that
rely on technical expertise such as medical reports, and studies of personal relaionships that is not observable. The data found in documents can be used the
same as data from observations and interviews. The data can give the descriptive information. Using documents in the research also shows its stability.
Documentary data are objective sources of data compared to other forms. The data results from the documents are unaffected by the research process.The more
documents the researcher analyze, the more valid the conclusion from the study will be.
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20
4. Thesis Writing Course
KPE 475 Thesis Writing Course is one of compulsory courses in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. The students
are required to produce a research proposal as the final assignment of this course. Writing a proposal of research can be the most crucial and exciting step in
the research process Ary et.al., 1990. In this part, the researchers must demonstrate what they want to find through the research and they have to
persuade others that their researches are worthwhile. Research proposal produced before the researchers collect data. Research proposal must be contained the
introduction, statement of the problem, review of the literature, and questions andor hypotheses, methodology subjects, instruments, procedures, Analysis of
Data data organization and statistical procedures, significance of the study implications and applications, and budget and time schedule budget and time
schedule. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen 2006 said that a qualitative research proposal is flexible. It means that a qualitative research proposal which begins
with a broad picture of the related study, the details of the study, the questions and research procedures, can be changed during the process of research. But, it does
not mean that the research later on can be different. A research proposal should reflect the format and the style of the final product the final product here means
the research or thesis.
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21 5.
Review of Previous Research There are several undergraduate theses of Sanata Dharma University,
which deal with Error Analysis. However, there is only one thesis that has a relationship with the issue discussed in this study. The thesis is written by
Pambudi. The title of the thesis is A Study Grammatical Errors In The 20012002 PBI Students’ English Compositions. As it has been sketched previously,
Pambudi, in the thesis, has given details about the characteristics of errors and the underlying sources. Pambudi classified and explained the errors based on Krashen
and Corder’s errors taxonomy. In the thesis, Pambudi coded the errors made by 20012002 PBI students’ English compositions and noted it in the table. He also
made the corrections in the next table. In the thesis, Pambudi found the underlying sources of students’ errors by doing interview.
Pambudi’s research is similar to the research that is done by the researcher. Both of the studies aim to know the errors made by the seventh
semester students of English Language Education Study Program and also the possible source underlying the errors. The differents are, in this research, the
researcher does not specify the errors that will be analyzed. The researcher conducts an error analysis research in research proposal produced by English
Language Education Study Program students. The researcher also does not use interview to find the possible sources underlying the errors. The researcher is
analyzing the errors based on Brown’s theory of error source. Some of the same theories related to the research will be used by the researcher, such as the theory
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22 of errors taxonomy by Krashen. In this research, the researcher uses Dulay, Burt,
and Krashen’s theory to classify and explain the errors.
B. Theoretical Framework
Kategori