The English sound changes among Javanese students of the English language education study program of Sanata Dharma University.

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vii ABSTRACT

Margana, R. M. G. (2016). The English Sound Changes among Javanese Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

People need language to interact with one another. Language can be expressed by writing or speaking. In speaking, pronunciation plays a role in articulating sounds. Accurate pronunciation certainly helps people to understand the information spoken by the speaker. Unfortunately, many speakers mispronounce the words, especially second language words, for example, Javanese people who mispronounce English words in speaking. This condition causes misunderstanding when they interact with English native speakers, and is caused by some sounds of English not existing in their native language. Therefore, they tend to pronounce the words by changing the original sounds to the nearest equivalence that they know.

This research was conducted to observe the occurrence of sound changes among Javanese Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. There are two formulated problems in this study: 1) what are the types of the English sound changes which occurred among Javanese students of the English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University? and 2) what are the distributions of the occurring sound changes among Javanese English learners of English Language Education study program?

This study is classified as a qualitative research. The participants of this research were the English Language Education Study Program 2015 students whose first language is the Javanese language. The researcher used document analysis method in analyzing data in form of audio recordings of Javanese Learners of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta.

Based on the research, the researcher found seven types of sound changes observed in participants‟ pronunciation. They are lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, and abnormal sound changes. From those seven types, the researcher also found that the dominant sound change occurrence among the participants belonged to lenition and fortition, while the least dominant occurrence belonged to sound addition and fusion.

Keywords: sound change, pronunciation, Javanese students of English Language Education Study Program

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viii ABSTRAK

Margana, R. M. G. (2016). The English Sound Changes among Javanese Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Manusia memerlukan bahasa dalam berinteraksi dengan manusia lainnya. Dalam interaksi, bahasa menjadi media dalam menjembatani informasi antara penutur dan mitra tutur. Bahasa dapat diekspresikan dalam tulisan maupun ujaran. Dalam berujar atau berbicara, pengucapan berperan penting dalam mengartikulasikan bunyi. Pengucapan secara akurat tentu memudahkan mitra tutur untuk memahami kata yang diucapkan penutur. Namun, masih banyak penutur mengucapkan kata secara tidak akurat terutama dalam mengucapkan kata dalam tuturan menggunakan bahasa kedua. Contohnya adalah penutur bahasa Inggris berbahasa ibu bahasa Jawa yang dapat menyebabkan kesalahpahaman dalam bertutur dengan penutur bahasa Inggris asli. Mereka cenderung mengucapkan bunyi yang tidak lazim diucapkan oleh penutur bahasa Inggris asli akibat ketersediaan bunyi dalam sistem kebahasaannya.

Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk melihat perubahan bunyi yang terjadi dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa berbahasa ibu bahasa Jawa yang tergabung dalam prodi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris angkatan 2015 di Universitas Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta. Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini yakni 1) apa saja jenis perubahan bunyi dalam pengucapan kata bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa berbahasa ibu bahasa Jawa prodi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma? dan 2) bagaimana distribusi perubahan bunyi yang dilakukan oleh para partisipan?

Penelitian ini tergolong sebagai penelitian kualitatif. Partisipan atau responden dari penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa prodi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta dengan bahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu mereka. Peneliti menggunakan metode analisis dokumen untuk menganalisis data yang berupa rekaman suara para partisipan.

Dari penelitian yang dilakukan, peneliti menemukan tujuh tipe perubahan bunyi yang terjadi yakni lenition dan fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dan abnormal sound changes. Dari ketujuh jenis tersebut, peeliti juga menemukan bahwa lenition dan fortition menjadi jenis perubahan suara yang paling dominan terjadi dan sound addition serta fusion menjadi jenis perubahan suara yang paling sedikit terjadi dalam penemuan penelitian yang telah dilakukan.

Keywords: sound change, pronunciation, Javanese students of English Language Education Study Program

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THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG JAVANESE

STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain a Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Rafael Marion Galley Margana Student Number: 111214171

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG JAVANESE

STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain a Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Rafael Marion Galley Margana Student Number: 111214171

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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ASarjana Pmdidilan Ttesis on

TIIE ENGLISH

SOUND

_{CIIANGES AMONG JAVANESE}

STUI}ENTS

_OT'TIIE

_{ENGLISH LANGUAGE}

_EDUCATION

STUDY

_{PROGRAM OF'SANATA}

_{DHAR]VIA UNTVERSITY}

Rafael lv{arion Galley Margana

Studert Ntrmber:

_{l1l2l4l7 I}

Approved by

Date

FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.pd., Ed.D.

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THE ENGLISH

SOUND CHANGES

AMONG

JAVANESE

STUDENTS

OF'THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION

STUI}Y PROGRAM OF'SANATA

DHARMA UI{IVEBSITY

RAFAEL MARION GALLEY MARGANA

Student Number:

lll2l4l7 I

Defended before the Board of Examiners

on November 8e 2016

and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners

Chairperson : Yohana Venirand4 S.pd., M.Hum., ph.D.

Secretary

: Christina Lhaksmita Anmldtri, S.pd., Ed.M.

Me,mhr

: FX. Ouda TedaEna S.pd., M.pd., Ed.D.

Member

: Paulus Kuswandono, ph.D.

Member

: Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.pd., Ed.M.

Yogyakarta, November 8ft ZO16

Faculty of Teachers Training and Education

Smata Dharma Uaiversity

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“As long as there are games to play, it is not over.”

-Sir Alex Ferguson-

Former Manchester United Coach

I DEDICATE THIS THESIS FOR MY LITTLE SISTER AND BROTHER

CATHERINE ARQUETA GLENDA MARGANA

&

BORROMEUS BRAVE GRADY MARGANA

I know life is getting harder and harder as we grow up. Wherever you are, whatever happens, I would not stop to finish this game of my life to see you

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STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY

Ihestly

declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work

E ptrts of

the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the

ftftrtnces, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakart4 14 October 2016

ley Margana

ttt2t4t7t

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LEMBAR PER}IYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama

: Rafael Marion Galley Margana

Nomor Mahasiswa :

lll2l4l7l

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

.IIIE

_ENGLISH_SOTIND_CIIANGES_AMONG_JAVANESE_STUDENTS OF ENGLISH LAIIGUAGE EDUCATION STT'DY PROGRAM OF

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY"

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,

mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan

daa mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta

ijin

dari saya

maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. ..

Demikan pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenamya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 14 Oktober 2016

VI Rafael Nlarion Galley Margana

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vii ABSTRACT

Keywords: sound change, pronunciation, Javanese students of English Language Education Study Program

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viii ABSTRAK

Keywords: sound change, pronunciation, Javanese students of English Language Education Study Program

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I know that conducting this research was not easy and simple. Therefore, in this page, I am keen to express gratitude and appreciation for all individuals or groups who had sincerely helped and supported me.

First of all, I would express my gratitude to God Almighty for His great love, gift, and blessing to me. I do believe I can conduct, and finish this thesis because of His great gift for me: breath of life.

Secondly, my gratitude is addressed to The English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for the chance to study there: I achieve lots of great knowledge and experience by studying in such study program of such university.

Thirdly, my thankful expression would be given to my thesis advisor FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., Ed.D. I sincerely appreciate his patience and willingness in giving me some advice in completing and perfecting my thesis.

Fouthly, I would also thank my academic advisor Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. for her advice and guidance in studying in ELESP Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta. I can go through college life from the beginning up to the end by her patience and wise suggestions.

Fifthly, I would thank my father Florentinus Panca Susila Margana and my mother Elizabeth Erna Djohan. I thank my father for his guidance and life support especially in my college period in Yogyakarta. For my mother, I would tell her that I have finished my university study. Wherever she is now, I hope she would be glad to see her first son achieving sarjana title.

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Sixthly, I express my deep gratitude to the head and member of Yayasan Yoseph Yeemye, Sr. Yasinta Rampengan, JMJ and Sr. Agustina Rante Allo, JMJ. In addition, I also express my thankfulness to Sr. Clare Hand, FCJ. I appreciate their support in assisting my college fee. Without their help, I believe that I might not have finished my study.

Seventhly, I thank all my thesis proofreaders; Fidelis Chosa Kastuhandani S.Pd., M.Hum., Krisna Septa Bernanda, S.Pd., Agatha Lisa, S.Pd., and Istu Septania for their help in perfecting and completing my thesis. I recognize that this thesis will not have been well-completed without your spent energy and time, willingness, thoroughness, accuracy, and supersonic eyes and awareness in proofreading my thesis.

Eighthly, I would like to express my gratitude to my college friends: Aries Adven Kurniawan, S.Pd., Yulius Dony Prasetyadi, S.Pd., and Frederikus Boli Lolan for their support in social life during my studying process in English Language Education study program. Besides, I thank also friends of Unit Kegiatan Pers Mahasiswa

natas

for allowing me to socialize and make friends among them. The next special gratitude from me is addressed to my girlfriend Josephine Fanny Damayanti, S.Pd. for her care and love which support me to do the best either in studying, finishing this thesis, and working.

Finally, I would thank all other supportive individuals and groups. Such priceless support and reinforcement in my study and process of conducting this thesis now have led me into the final gate of college study. Hopefully all kindness and sincere will be blessed by the Owner of the Universe.

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Thesis Author Rafael Marion Galley Margana

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xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK‟S ORIGINALITY ... v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ABSTRAK ... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xii

LIST OF TABLES ... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ... 1

B. Research Problems ... 3

C. Problem Limitation ... 4

D. Research Objectives ... 4

E. Research Benefits ... 5

F. Definition of Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ... 8

1. Language Change ... 8

2. English Sound Changes ... 11

3. English Sound Pronunciation ... 17

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xiii

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Methodology ... 33

B. Research Setting ... 34

C. Research Participants ... 34

D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ... 34

E. Data Analysis Technique ... 35

F. Research Procedure ... 38

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Types of Sound Changes which Occurred in English Language Education Study Program 2015 Students‟ Pronunciation Process ... 40

1. Lenition and Fortition ... 41

2. Sound Addition ... 47

3. Fusion ... 48

4. Unpacking ... 49

5. Vowel Breaking ... 50

6. Assimilation ... 51

7. Abnormal Sound Changes ... 53

B. The Distribution of Sound Change Features among Javanese English Learners ... 56

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions ... 59

B. Recommendations ... 60

REFERENCES ... 62

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xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Page

2.1 English Consonant Articulation by Indriani (2005) ... 18

2.2 English Vowel Sounds by Campbell (2004) ... 25

3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of Each Participant‟s Pronunciation ... 35

3.2 The Phonetic Transcriptions‟ Comparison ... 36

3.3 The Types of English Sound Changes by Crowley (1992) ... 37

3.4 The Distributions of Sound Changes ... 38

4.1.1 The Sound Changes Classified as Lenition ... 41

4.1.2 The Sound Changes Classified as Fortition ... 46

4.2 The Sound Changes Classified as Sound Addition ... 47

4.3 The Sound Changes Classified as Fusion ... 48

4.4 The Sound Changes Classified as Unpacking ... 49

4.5 The Sound Changes Classified as Vowel Breaking ... 50

4.6 The Sound Changes Classified as Assimilation ... 52

4.7 The Sound Changes Classified as Abnormal Sound Changes ... 54

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Page APPENDIX A THE PASSAGE ...64 APPENDIX B THE PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS OF THE

PARTICIPANTS‟ PRONUNCIATION ...66 APPENDIX C THE COMPARISON OF PHONETIC

TRANSCRIPTIONS ...127 APPENDIX D THE RESULTS OF RESEARCH ANALYSIS ...130

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The first chapter has six sub-chapters as the initial steps to give brief description of what will be discussed in this thesis. They are the research background, the problem limitation, the research problem, the research objectives, the research benefit, and the definition of terms.

A. Research Background

People talk to one another by using language. Dardjowidjojo (2009) states humans interact to others by using a language. Language helps speakers to convey the expressed ideas. The uttered idea can be formed either into words or speech. In speaking, people produce sounds. In the same book, Dardjowidjojo explains that in actual speech, the way sounds are arranged and realized is discussed in the field of phonology.

In every language, there is a variety (Kreidler, 2004: p. 1). For language speech, especially English speech in a different region or country, there are some variations, which can be observed. In the speech itself, Jones (1956: p. 4) divided spoken language into two types of speech: „bad‟ and „good‟ speech. The „bad‟ one refers to the way of speaking which is hard to understand by most people. Meanwhile, the „good‟ one refers to the way of speaking which is easy to be understood by most people. Collins and Mees (2003) state all languages typically

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exist in a number of different forms. One of them is the sound change of English word pronunciation.

According to Saussure (1992), sound change is the alteration of the speech sound. It refers to pronunciation variation. It is identical to the theory of O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba cited in their book titled Contemporary Linguistics: an Introduction (1996) that states sound changes begin as subtle alterations in the sound pattern of a language in a particular phonetics environment. The sound change might occur because of the interference of accent. Collins and Mees (2003) define accent as “a pronunciation variety characteristic of the speech of a group of people.” Thus, the variation of the characteristics of each group of people might change the sound of English pronunciation.

Referring to the previous description, the researcher infers that English pronunciation varies in every occasion. Since the researcher lives in the English Language Education study program society where English language is frequently used, the researcher investigates how the English pronunciation also varies in such society; examining what sound changes occur in the ways Javanese students of English Language Education study program speak English. From the phenomena, the researcher is keen to conduct a research of English sound change. Minimally, English Language Education study program students of Sanata Dharma University use English language at least in classroom activities. This condition will socially increase the probability of sound changes occurrence in English word pronunciation. Besides, it will support the researcher to find out enough samples of sound change of English words‟ pronunciation.

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Meanwhile, considering the benefits of such research, English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University plays a role to prepare the students to master English language and educational practices. This condition requires students as teacher candidates to recognize English pronunciation of Javanese-accented students. As teachers in the future, English Language Education study program students should be able to recognize the typical sound changes occurring in English words pronunciations among Javanese-accented English speakers. The information of English sound variations in Javanese-accented speakers‟ pronunciation should be acknowledged by English teachers to be able to understand what information or idea does their students express in the future.

B. Research Problems

This research specifically aims to discuss mainly the appearance of sound change in English pronunciation. Therefore, the researcher prepared two main questions as a guide of the discussion such as:

1. What are the types of the English sound changes occurring among Javanese learners of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University?

2. What are the distributions of the occurring sound changes among Javanese English learners of English Language Education study program?

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C. Problem Limitation

This research focuses on students of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University. Since the research discusses the sound change of English pronunciation, the researcher chose some specific students whose first language is Javanese. The researcher assumed Javanese students of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University might reflect the sound change phenomena in English words‟ pronunciation.

In this research, the researcher compared pronounced sounds of the English words by the participants to Standard American English pronunciation. Such English language was chosen considering its data availability in the form of encoded phonetic transcriptions in many dictionaries. Since such English words and phonetic transcriptions are legally encoded and published in the form of dictionary, Standard American English is considered a reliable source to be compared to participants‟ pronunciation result.

D. Research Objectives

The researcher established two main objectives of this research. First, this research is conducted to find out the types of sound change that may occur in English pronunciation of Javanese English learners of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University. Here, the researcher compares two kinds of English pronunciations; standardized English pronunciation and sound-changed English pronunciation. The second aim of this research is to find out the sound changes of English pronunciation among

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Javanese English learners. Next, the researcher distributes the sound changes phenomena among Javanese English learners of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.

E. Research Benefits

This research is beneficial for students of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University as the teacher candidates. This research allows the teacher candidates to know the way of Javanese people pronouncing English words. Since the students of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University are prepared to be English teachers, they need to be aware of the variations of English pronunciation occurring in the society. In teaching, they should be able to be aware of the mispronunciation of English words that occur on a daily basis. This research aims to recognize what mispronounced words are meant by their students with Javanese accent in the future.

This research is also advantageous for native English teachers who teach Javanese students who learn English. By recognizing the classified words, which are commonly mispronounced, they might be more aware of the sound changes occurring among Javanese learners of English language by referring to this study.

The last, this research is also beneficial for English Language Education Study Program students to explore their knowledge of English pronunciation variation. This research facilitates them to know that English pronunciation varies

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in daily communication. Thus, this research can also become their basis to develop their understanding of language.

F. Definition of Terms

Here is the brief explanation of related terms the researcher used in this research.

1. Sound Change

Sound change is the change of the sound system of a certain language (Crystal, 1991: p. 321). The change might occur in the environment, stress, and sound pattern. Furthermore, Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 285) define sound change as a change of pronunciation done by certain speakers.

2. Pronunciation

Pronunciation refers to the production of sounds that we use to make meaning (Yates, 2002: p. 1). It includes attention to the particular sounds of a language (segments), aspects of speech beyond the level of the individual sound, such as intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, rhythm (suprasegmental aspects), how the voice is projected (voice quality) and, in its broadest definition, attention to gestures and expressions that are closely related to the way we speak a language.

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3. Javanese Students of the English Language Education Study Program Javanese learners in this research are the fresh students of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University (mentioned as ELESP 2015 students for the next discussion) who start studying in English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University in year 2015 and whose first language is Javanese language. In other words their mother tongue is the Javanese language.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses about the related theories from the citations, books, or any references, which are relevant to the discussed topic. This chapter also contains the theoretical description and the theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

In this sub-chapter, the researcher describes the concepts of the discussion. Since the discussion is related to the sound changes in English pronunciation, the description is about the language change, sound change of English language and English pronunciation.

1. Language Change

Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 276) state that English in the past was different from English that is used recently. It can be seen in the examples in their book where they explained the words used in the late 14th century from Chaucer‟s Canterbury Tales. In the same book, some words like see, tooth, make, and open were pronounced as [se:], [to:θ], [ma:kᴈn], and [ᴐ:p n]. From that statement, it can be inferred that English has altered time by time. The alteration itself includes four changes: morphological, syntactic, semantic, and phonological change.

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a. Morphological Change

According to Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 283), morphological change is the change of the morphophonemic system of a language. The change occurs in the structure of the morpheme or lexical item of a word. The change includes the modification of the structure of the word, either by adding some element or making an internal change (O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, & Katamba, 1997: p. 138). For example, the recent English word pretty is originated form Old English praetig.

b. Syntactic Change

Murray (1996: p. 337) states that syntactic changes involve modifications to phrase structure rules or transformations. On the other hand, Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 284) define syntactic changes as the change in the grammatical systems of a language. Referring to both statements, syntactic change includes change of the grammatical and structural environment of the sentences. For example, the syntactic rule of Old English was changed into subject-verb-object pattern rather than verb-subject-object.

c. Semantic Change

Murray (1996: p. 344) defines semantic change as the changes in word meaning and explains that it does take place in all languages. Campbell (2004: p. 252) states that semantic change is the change in meaning and vocabulary. Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 284) state that semantic changes involve the changes of the

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meaning of the words. Therefore, when the meaning itself changes, it is probable for a word to have some meaning variations. Schendl (2001: p. 29) states that semantic changes trigger the variety of language meaning. Therefore, a number of meanings might be found in certain words. For example is the Indonesian word bajingan which was originated from a meaning of cart driver expands into such a swearing words indicating a person which has low morality.

d. Phonological Change

Murray (1996) in the book titled Historical Linguistics: The Study of Language Change states that most sound changes begin as subtle alterations in the sound pattern of a language in particular phonetic environments (p. 318). It means the changes of sound of a certain language including English occur slightly. Based on Chaucer‟s poem titled The Romance of the Rose published in 1370, Murray also states that English in the 14th century is totally different from modern English. Since the English sound has changed over a long period of time, the slight change accumulates into significant change. Murray classifies three major periods of English changes. They are Old English which existed from 450-1100, then Middle English which existed from 1100-1500, and Modern English which exists since 1500 up to recent time (O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, & Katamba, 1996: p. 313). The examples could be seen in the next discussion.

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2. English Sound Changes

Sound changes belong to phonological changes. The change involves the original English phonemes to be substituted by new different phonemes caused by the influence of source language sound system. In this part, the researcher explains causes and types of sound changes.

a. The Causes of English Sound Change

Fasold and Linton have similar ideas of the causes of language changes in the classification of Murray, as cited in O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky and Katamba‟s book. If both statements are summarized, some causes of sound changes can be classified as follows:

1) Articulatory Simplification

Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 277) express that many changes in articulating language sounds are motivated by the ease of expression. It can be inferred that some people “simplify” the mechanism of sound production. Ur (1999: p. 52) states that a particular sound may not exist in the mother tongue. Therefore, some non-native English speaker may substitute the nearest equivalence that the speaker knows. For example is the reduction of last consonant in a cluster in word cent [sent] into [sen] spoken by Indonesian people.

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2) Spelling Pronunciation

Murray, in O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba‟s book (1997) states that since the written form of a word can differ significantly from the way it is pronounced, a new pronunciation can arise which seems to reflect more closely the spelling of the word (p. 247). One example, as cited from that book, in the word often, since the letter [t] was retained in the spelling, [t] has been reintroduced into foreign speakers' pronunciation and they pronounce it as [ɒftn].

3) Analogy and Reanalysis

According to O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba (1997), analogy reflects the preference of speaker for regular patterns over irregular ones. Meanwhile, the term of reanalysis refers to particular commonalities in morphological change. Morphological analysis refers more to the attribute (p. 248). For example, on the basis of its phonological similarity of a verb such as sting/stung, swing/swung, in some dialects bring has developed a form to be brung.

4) Language Contact

One of the main reasons for language change is that they come into contact with other languages (Schendl, 2003: p. 55). It means the contact of two speakers may lead to the language change. According to Fasold and Linton (2006: p. 278), language contact is one of the factors of language change as a result of contacts between speakers of different languages.

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b. Types of Sound Changes

Sound changes might occur among speakers of second language and be formed into many types. In general, according to Crowley (1992), there are nine types of sound change that are classified (pp. 39-59). This part explains those nine types of sound changes according to Crowley (1992).

1) Lenition and Fortition

Lenition means sound weakening, while fortition refers to the opposite: strengthening (Crowley, 1992: p. 39). In Crowley‟s book, the explanation of lenition and fortition refers to the change of the sound from a „stronger‟ sound to „weaker‟ sound (lenition) and vice versa (fortition). Crowley explains that voiced sounds are considered as strong and voiceless sounds are considered as weak. The appearance of schwa is also another example of lenition. Lenition, in Crowley‟s opinion, is a more common phenomenon of sound change rather than fortition (p. 41). In certain periods, the weakening might develop into the loss of sounds. The loss of sounds –or commonly called deletion–, according to Crowley (1992), can be classified into five forms: Aphaeresis which refers to the deletion of consonantal sound in the beginning of the word, Apocope which refers to the loss of vowel sound in the end of the word, Syncope which refers to the dropped vowel sound in the middle of the word, Cluster Reduction which refers to the omission of consonantal sound in such a cluster, and Haplology which refers to the loss of an entire syllable in a word (pp. 39-43).

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2) Sound Addition

Another phenomenon of sound change might occur in some form of sound addition (Crowley, 1992: p. 43). Crowley (1992), however, states that the phenomenon of sound addition is actually rarely found. The addition of the sounds can also be classified into three forms. They are Excrescence or the addition of extra consonantal sound between two other consonants in the word, Epenthesis and or the insertion of a vowel to break up the cluster in the middle of the word, and Prothesis, which is similar to epenthesis but occurring in the beginning of the word (Crowley, 1992: pp. 43-45). For example is the addition of schwa in [sm] cluster as seen in word smile.

3) Metathesis

Metathesis has taken place in the English history of an English word, and the changed form has been accepted as the standard (Crowley, 1992: p. 46). Metathesis is considered as another type of sound change, but rarely occurs in the development of language. It refers to a change in the order of the sounds

(Crowley, 1992: p. 45). It can also be defined as a transposition of the sounds: where a certain sound exchanges position with another sound of a word (Campbell, 2004: p. 39). Metathesis phenomenon can be seen in tongue twisters, where speakers might transpose such syllable from former position into new position, as seen in word desk into deks.

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4) Fusion

Fusion refers to the process of blending of two separated sounds becoming one single sound (Crowley, 1992: p. 46). Fusion is included as common occurrence in the phenomenon of sound change. The fusion occurs when there is an addition of phonetic feature to a single sound from following another sound. The example is the process of prefix me- addition in Indonesian word kira, where the central mid sound /ə/ in prefix me- blends with voiceless velar stop /k/ sound in kira word resulting the appearance of velar nasal /ŋ/ in word mengira.

5) Unpacking

Unpacking is the phonetic process that is just the opposite of phonetic fusion (Crowley, 1992: p. 48). If fusion is the combination or blending of two separated sounds becoming one single sound, unpacking is the process of separating one single sound into two saeparated sound. Certain phonetic features in a single sound then are divided as seen in word word. [w :d] where it is common for Indonesian people to separate the central mid vowel / :/ into mid back /ᴐ:/ and post-alveolar roll /r/.

6) Vowel breaking

Vowel breaking refers to the change of a single vowel to become a diphthong (Crowley, 1992: p. 49). The change includes an addition of a certain glide following or preceding the original sound of a vowel. For example, some

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Americans pronounce bad [bæd] into [bæəd] by adding neutral schwa sound /ə/ after the low front vowel /æ/.

7) Assimilation

Assimilation refers to sound change due to the influence of one sound upon the other that results in the two sounds becoming similar (Crowley, 1992: p. 49). Certain sounds, which become more similar to another sounds (Campbell, 2004: p. 28) effect to the increase of the efficiency of articulation through a simplification of the articulation (O‟Grady, 1996: p. 319). This instance is found when a vowel is nasalized due to the existence of adjacent nasal consonant such as the example word, band (Yulia & Ena, 2004).

8) Dissimilation

Dissimilation refers to the opposite change of the assimilation where the result is that two sounds end up becoming less similar (Crowley, 1992: p. 56). It can be defined also as a sound change in which sounds become less similar to one another (Campbell, 2004: p. 30). Dissimilation reduces the number of shared phonetics features between two sounds (Crowley, 1992: p. 56). This type of change typically occurs when it will be difficult to articulate or perceive two similar sounds in close proximity. (O‟Grady, 1996: p. 321) This phenomenon is apparent in the pronunciation of the sequence of two fricative /f ϴ/ in „diphthong‟ with /pϴ/ by many English speakers (Yulia & Ena, 2004).

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9) Abnormal Sound Changes

Abnormal sound changes are the sound changes that would appear, at first glance, to be abnormal, in the sense that they do not obviously fit into any of the categories that have mentioned above (Crowley, 1992: p. 57). For example there is the tendency of Indonesian speakers to pronounce the word push [pʊʃ] into [pʊs]. The change from [ʃ] to [s] is not included in the previous eight types. Therefore, the unidentified type of such sound change phenomenon belongs to abnormal sound changes.

3. English Sound Pronunciation

Since the research discusses about the sound change in non-native English speakers‟ pronunciation, the researcher also reviews the English sound production. The sound production covers three kinds of sounds: consonant, vowel, and diphthong.

a. Consonant Sounds

Consonant is a speech sound which typically occurs at the margins of the syllable (Collins & Mees, 2003: p. 72). It exists before or after a vowel or diphthong to form a syllable. Indriani (2005) expands English consonants into twenty-four namely, [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [ ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ], [ө], [ð], [m], [n], [ŋ], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j] (p. 8). Table 2.1 shows the articulation of the English consonant sounds.

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Table 2.1 English Consonant Articulation (Indriani, 2005, p. 11)

From those mentioned consonants, Indriani classifies them into sixteen types based in the place and manner of articulation. For further and deeper information of such consonants, the researcher provided explanation of following

Place of articulation

B ILA B IAL L A B IO -DENTAL DENTAL A L V E O L A R POST A L V E O L A R PA L A T O - A L V E O L A R PA L A T A L

VELAR _GL

O T A L Manner of a rt icul at ion COMPLETE ORAL CLOSURE Plosive

p b t d k g

Affricate tʃ dʒ

Nasal m n

ᵑ

INTERMITTENT CLOSURE Roll R PARTIAL CLOSURE Lateral l NARROWING Fricative

f v ϴ

ð s z ʃ ʒ h

GLIDE

Semi Vowel

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types in this section. The explanation of consonant sounds was taken from Indriani (2005) herself and added to with content from Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000).

1) Bilabial Plosives [p,b]

Based on the manner of the articulation, the sound [p] and [b] are called plosives or oral stops because when there is an explosion of airstream when the closure on the lips are opened (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 247). Bilabial plosives, according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000), based on the place of the articulation, [p] and [b] sounds are articulated by bringing both lips together which is called bilabials (p. 242).

2) Alveolar Plosives [t,d]

Based on the place of the articulation, [t] and [d] sounds are called alveolar in which these sounds are produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (p. 242). Alveolar plosives are still considered as the oral stops. Based on the manner of articulation alveolar plosives involve the airstream to be obstructed in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000).

3) Velar Plosives [k,g]

Based on the place of the articulation, [k] and [g] sounds are called velar stops where these sounds are produced by raising the back part of the tongue to the velum inside the mouth (p. 243). Based on the manner of the articulation [k]

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and [g] sounds are called plosives because these sounds are produced because of the explosion of the airstream which is released from the obstruction in the velum (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 247).

4) Palato-alveolar Affricates [tʃ,dʒ]

According to Indriani (2005), based on the place of the articulation [tʃ] and [dʒ] sounds are called palato-alveolar because to produce these sounds, the blade, or the tip and blade, of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate (p. 9). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000), based on the manner of the articulation, [tʃ] and [dʒ] are included as affricate sounds bacause these sounds are produced by a closure or obstruction followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces a sound effect which is almost similar as fricative sounds (p. 248). There is a characteristic friction sound when the obstruction is gradually released.

5) Labio-dental Fricatives [f,v]

Labio refers to lips and dental refers to teeth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 242). It means the sounds are produced when the lip meets with the teeth. Labiodental fricatives, According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000), [f] and [v] sounds are produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. Based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are also called

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fricatives because there is a partial obstruction between the lip and teeth, which produces friction of the airstream (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 248).

6) Dental Fricatives [ө,ð]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000) state that [ө] and [ð] sounds are considered as interdental sound. These sounds are produced by putting the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth. This condition creates a partial obstruction of the airstream and causes the airstream to come out through the narrow opening, which produces friction (p. 242). Based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are included as fricatives sounds as well as labio-dental fricatives.

7) Alveolar Fricatives [s,z]

Alveolar fricatives, based on the place of the articulation, are produced by raising the tongue tip to the alveolar ridge (p. 242). Based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are considered as fricatives sounds because these sounds cause friction when produced (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 248).

8) Palato – alveolar Fricative [ʃ,ʒ]

Indriani (2005) explains that based on the place of the articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ] sounds are called palato-alveolar because to produce these sounds, the blade, or the tip and blade, of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate (p. 9). Although these sounds are considered palate alveolar, the produced sounds are

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different from [tʃ] and [dʒ] based on the manner of articulation. If [tʃ] and [dʒ] are considered as affricates, [ʃ] and [ʒ] these sounds are considered as fricatives sounds because these sounds cause friction when produced (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 248).

9) Glottal Fricatives [h]

Glottal, according to Indriani (2005) is an obstruction, or narrowing causing friction but not vibration, between vocal cords (p. 9). Based on the place of the articulation, the [h] sound is included as glottal sound because there is a partial obstruction on the vocal cords which causes friction of the contact between airstream and the vocal cords. Based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are considered as fricatives sounds because these sounds cause friction when produced (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 248).

10) Bilabial Nasal [m]

Bilabial nasal, according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000), based on the place of the articulation, [p] and [b] sounds are articulated by bringing both lips together which is called bilabials (p. 242). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation [m] sound includes as a nasal sound. This sound is produced when the airstream escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 246).

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11) Alveolar Nasal [n]

Alveolar nasal [n], based on the place of the articulation, are produced by raising the tongue tip to the alveolar ridge according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000: p. 242). Based on the manner of the articulation, this sound includes as a nasal sound because this sound is produced when the airstream escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2000: p. 246).

12) Velar Nasal [ŋ]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000) state that based on the place of the articulation, velar nasal [ŋ] is called velar where these sounds are produced by raising the back part of the tongue to the velum inside the mouth (p. 243). Based on the manner of the articulation, this sound includes as a nasal sound because this sound is produced when the airstream escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 246).

13) Alveolar Lateral [l]

Based on the place of articulation, basically, alveolar lateral sound [l] is almost similar to alveolar sound, where the tongue tip is raised to the tip of alveolar ridge. Indriani (2005) states that based on the manner of the articulation, [l] sound is included as lateral sound. In producing this sound, a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth and the airstream being allowed to escape on one or both sides of the contact (p. 10).

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14) Post- alveolar Roll [r]

Based on the place of the articulation, Indriani (2005) defines the [r] sound as a post-alveolar sound. This sound is produced by raising the tip (and rims) of the tongue to the rear part of the alveolar ridge (p. 9). Based on the manner of the articulation, the [r] sound includes as a roll sound. To produce this sound, there is a series of rapid intermittent closures or taps made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface, or the tongue tip taps against the alveolar ridge (Indriani, 2005: p. 10).

15) Palatal Semi-vowel [j]

Based on the place of the articulation, Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000) state the [j] sound is a palatal sound in which it is produced by raising the blade of the tongue toward the hard palatal just behind the alveolar ridge (p. 243). Based on the manner of the articulation, the [j] sound is considered as a semi-vowel or glide sound. When this sound is produced, there is a little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 250).

16) Bilabial Semi-vowel [w]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2000), based on the place of the articulation, [w] sound is produced by bringing both lips together or bilabial (p. 242). Based on the manner of the articulation, the [w] sound is considered as a semi-vowel or glide sound. When this sound is produced, there is a little or no

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obstruction of the airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 250).

b. Vowel

Jones (1987) states that an English vowel in normal speech is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would cause audible friction. The researcher also provides Table 2.2 to show the English vowel sounds‟ distribution.

Table 2.2 English vowel sounds (Campbell, 2004: xxi) Unrounded Rounded Front Central Back

High [i:] = peat [ɪ] = pit

[u:] = boot [ʊ] = put

Mid [e] = pet _{[ :] = pert} [ə] = ago

[ᴐ:] = port

Low [æ] = pat [ʌ] = cup [ ] = pot

[ :] = part

The term front, central, and back refer to parts of the tongue raised (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2000: pp. 227-229). Then, the term high, mid and

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low refer to the difference in the tongue height (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams 2000: p. 228). Besides, there are also two kinds of vowel based on the mouth shape. They are rounded and spread or unrounded vowels.

1) Tense High Front Unrounded Vowel [i:]

This sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the close front position; the lips are spread; the tongue is tense, with the side rims making a firm contact with the upper molars. It does not normally occur in a syllable closed by [ŋ] (Indriani, 2005: p. 57).

2) Lax High Front Unrounded Vowel [ɪ]

This sound is produced with a part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front raised just above the half-close position; the lips are loosely spread; the tongue is lax with the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars. It may occur in all position in the word (Indriani, 2005: p. 59).

3) Mid Front Unrounded Vowel [e]

This sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions; the lips are loosely spread and are slightly wider apart than for [ɪ], the tongue may have more tension than in the case of [ɪ], the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars. It does not occur in final, open syllables (Indriani, 2005: p. 60).

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4) Low Front Unrounded Vowel [æ]

This sound is articulated when the mouth is slightly more open than for [e]; the front of the tongue is raised just below the half-open position, with the side rims making a very slight contact with the back upper molars; the lips are neutrally open (Indriani, 2005: p. 62).

5) Low Central Unrounded Vowel [ʌ]

This sound is articulated with a considerable separation of the jaws and with the lips neutrally open; the centre of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars. It does not occur in final, open syllables (Indriani, 2005: p. 63).

6) Low Back Rounded Vowel [a:]

This sound is articulated with a considerable separation of the jaws and the lips neutrally open; a part of the tongue between the centre and the back is in the fully open position; no contact being made between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars. This sound does not normally occur before [ŋ] (Indriani, 2005: p. 65).

7) Low Back Rounded Vowel [ɒ]

This sound is produced with wide open jaws and slight, open lip-rounding; the back of the tongue is in the fully open position, no contact being made

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between the tongue and the upper molars. It does not occur in final, open syllable (Indriani, 2005: p. 67).

8) Mid Back Rounded Vowel [ᴐ:]

This sound is articulated with medium lip-rounding; the back of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars. This sound does not normally occur before [ŋ] (Indriani, 2005: p. 68).

9) Lax High Back Rounded Vowel [ʊ]

This sound is produced with a part of the tongue nearer to centre than to back raised just above the half-close position; the tongue is laxly held, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars. This sound does not normally occur before [ŋ] or in initial position (Indriani, 2005: p. 69).

10) Tense High Back Rounded Vowel [u:]

This sound is pronounced when the tongue raising is relaxed from the closest position and is somewhat advanced from true back; the articulation of [u:] being tense though no firm contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips tend to be closely rounded. This sound does not normally occur before [ŋ] (Indriani, 2005: p. 71).

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11) Tense Mid Central Unrounded Vowel [ :]

This sound is articulated with the centre of the tongue raised between half-close and half-open, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips are neutrally spread. It does not normally occur before [ŋ] (Indriani, 2005: p. 73).

12) Lax Mid Central Unrounded Vowel [ə]

This sound has a very high frequency of occurrence in unaccented syllables. Its quality is that of a central vowel with neutral lip position, having in non-final positions a tongue-raising between half-open and half-close (Indriani, 2005: p. 74). This sound is also known as schwa.

c. Diphthong

Diphthong is a sequence of two sounds, vowel and glide (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2000: p. 255). Diphthong is represented phonetically by sequences of two letters, the first showing the starting point and the second indicating the direction of which the glide is made (Indriani, 2005: p. 76)

1) Closing Fronting Diphthong [eɪ][aɪ][ᴐɪ]

According to Indriani (2005), when [eɪ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins from slightly below the half-close front position and moves in the direction of [ɪ], there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw, the lips are spread (p. 77). Some words containing this diphthong are say [seɪ], pray [preɪ],

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and grey [greɪ]. Next, when [aɪ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point slightly behind the front open position, and moves in the direction of the position associated with [ɪ]; the lips change from a neutral to a loosely spread position (p. 78). Some relevant words containing this sound are pie [paɪ] and my [maɪ]. Meanwhile, when [ᴐɪ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back half-open positions and moves in the direction of [ɪ]; the lips are open rounded for the first element, changing to the neutral for the second element (p. 80). The words boy [bᴐɪ] and coy [kᴐɪ] are the representation of such sound appearrance.

2) Closing Backing Diphthongs [əʊ][aʊ]

According to Indriani (2005), when [əʊ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a central position, between half-close and half-open, and moves in the direction of [ʊ], there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw; the lips are neutral for the first element, but have a tendency to round on the second element (p. 81). Some words containing such sound are go [gəʊ] and so [səʊ]. On the other hand, when [aʊ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back and front open positions, slightly more fronted than the position for [a:], and moves in the direction of [ʊ], though the tongue may not be raised higher than the half-close level. The lips change from a neutrally open to a weakly rounded position (p. 82).

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3) Centering Diphthongs [ɪə][ ə][ʊə]

According to Indriani (2005), when [ɪə] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins with a tongue position approximately that used for [ɪ], i.e. centralized front half-close, and moves in the direction of the more open variety of [ə] when [ɪə] is final in the word; in non-final positions. The lips are neutral throughout, with a slight movement from spread to open (p. 84). Some words associated with this sound are hear and here [hɪə] which are allophonic. Furthermore, Indriani (2005) states that when [ ə] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins in the half-open front position, i.e. approximately [ ], and moves in the direction of the more open variety of [ə]. Where [ ə] occurs in a syllable closed by a consonant the [ə] element tends to be a mind [ə] type. The lips are neutrally open through-out (p. 86). Some words containing this sound are hair [h ə] and bear [b ə]. Meanwhile, when [ʊə] sound is produced, the tongue glides from a tongue position similar to that used for [ʊ] towards the more open type of [ə] which forms the end-point of all three centring diphthongs with, again, a somewhat closer variety of [ə] when the diphthong occurs in a closed syllable. The lips are weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide, becoming neutrally spread as the glide progresses (p. 87). Such sounds appear in words poor [pʊə] and cure [kjʊə]

B. Theoretical Framework

In this research, the ELESP 2015 Javanese students of Sanata Dharma University played a role as the English beginner learners. In learning English pronunciation, as second language learners, they experienced the process of sound

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change. Therefore, this research discussed about the process of occurred sound change in the participants‟ pronunciation (i.e. the pronunciation of ELESP 2015 Javanese students of Sanata Dharma University). The theories used were limited only in the process of the sound changes occurring in participants‟ pronunciation. The researcher focused on finding out the types of English sound changes of the participants‟ pronunciation. To answer the first research problem, the researcher used nine types of sound change from the theory by Crowley (1992). Next, the researcher continued to find out the results of the sound changes spoken by participants. The results were classified based on the theory of Crowley (1992). Then, the researcher classified the sound change distributions that occurred in the participants‟ pronunciation.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter explains to the readers about the methodology that the researcher uses in conducting the research. There are six sub-chapters, which are discussed in this chapter. They are the research methodology, research subject, research setting, data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.

A. Research Methodology

According to Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010: p. 22), a qualitative research focuses on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of the human participants in a natural setting. Since this research analysed the social phenomenon of sound changes in non-native English speaker‟s pronunciation, this research was considered as qualitative research. Moreover, in the same book, Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh (2010) state that qualitative research aims to understand a phenomenon by focusing on the total picture rather than breaking it down into variables. Referring to the statement, this research required observations, interviews, and document reviews because the focus in this research was about the explanation of phonological change occurrence. So, the researcher attempted to observe certain phenomenon related to the phonological change appeared in Javanese English learners of ELESP 2015 students of Sanata

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Dharma University, Yogyakarta and analysed it into an explanation based on the reviewed theories and literary sources.

B. Research Setting

The location of generating the research was in Sanata Dharma University, Mrican, Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta, specifically in English Language Education study program of Faculty of Education and Teacher‟s Training. The researcher conducted the research in April 2016.

C. Research Participants

In generating the research, the researcher chose the students of ELESP batch 2015 of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta whose first language is Javanese as the participants. The researcher took samples of 30 students. The reasons of choosing the participants were:

1. English Language Education study program students frequently use English language in classroom. They are already familiar with English language use. 2. The researcher found some variations of English sounds among ELESP 2015

Javanese students‟ pronunciation.

3. The researcher could find Javanese students of ELESP 2015 very easily.

D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique

In conducting the research, the researcher played a role as the instrument of the research. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) state the primary

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instrument used for data collection in qualitative research is the researcher himself, often collecting data through direct observation or interview (p. 421). The researcher chose 30 students of ELESP 2015 whose first language is Javanese. Those participants consisted of 15 male students and 15 female students. The researcher then asked each participant to read a passage (included in the appendix) and recorded their voice. This recording technique was repeated until all the participants‟ voices were recorded.

E. Data Analysis Technique

The researcher started the analysis by transcribing the audio data into written forms. The written forms of data were typed into phonetic transcription containing the representative participants‟ pronunciation of observed words. The transcribing process from audio recording into written phonetic transcriptions aimed to validate the actual data gathered in observation. To gather all the phonetic transcriptions from each participant, the researcher provided a table to simplify the following data analysis. The table could be observed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of Each Participant’s Pronunciation Words Participant’s Pronunciations

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After the data from the recording was collected, the researcher compared the phonetic transcriptions of participants‟ pronunciation with the correct phonetic transcriptions based on Longman‟s Pronunciation Dictionary (2008). The researcher used the table as seen in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Phonetic Transcription’s Comparison

Words

Phonetic transcription Longman Dictionary

(2008) Participants’ Pronunciation

Next, to answer the first research problem, the researcher analysed the occurred English sound change phenomena by using the theory of English sound changes, which is proposed by Crowley (1992). To assist the analysis, the researcher used Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3 Types of English Sound Changes by Crowley (1992)

Types Words Longman Dictionary

Participants’

Pronunciation Changes Lenition and Fortition

Sound Addition Metathesis Fusion Unpacking Vowel Breaking Assimilation Dissimilation

Abnormal Sound Changes

Afterwards, to answer the second research problems, the researcher made a list of the distributions of sound change that occurred in the students‟ pronunciation by using Table 3.4.

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Table 3.4 Distributions of the Occurring Sound Change in the Participants’ Pronunciation

The Type of Sound Change Number of Cases

Percentage

Lenition and fortition Sound addition Metathesis Fusion Unpacking Vowel breaking Assimilation Dissimilation

Abnormal sound changes

F. Research Procedure

The research procedure in this research was divided into two steps. First of all was data collection. Here, the researcher decided on the choice of the research participants. The researcher chose English Language Education study program students 2015 whose first language is Javanese. Then, the researcher chose 30 samples as the representation of English Language Education study program 2015 population. After choosing the participants, the researcher provided them some sheets with some English words formed into sentences. Next, the researcher asked the participants to read the text and recorded their pronunciation. After collecting

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their pronunciation recordings then the researcher transcribed all recording into phonetic transcriptions.

The second step was analysing the data. After all the recordings were already transcribed, the researcher referred to the transcriptions to the standardized English dictionary. The required dictionary was Longman‟s Pronunciation Dictionary (2008). The use of the dictionary aimed to compare the participants‟ transcribed pronunciation to the standardized English pronunciation transcriptions. Next, the researcher analysed the data based on the theory that the researcher used as well as reviewed on Chapter II.

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CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of the discussion and analysis of the data gathered by the researcher after observation. There are two sub-chapters in this part. They are the types of sound changes that occurred in English Language Education Study Program 2015 students‟ pronunciation process and the distribution of occurred sound change among English Language Education Study Program 2015 Students of Sanata Dharma University of Yogyakarta. The names each respondent here have been formed into alias/pseudonames.

A. Types of Sound Changes which Occurred in Pronunciation of ELESP 2015 Students.

This sub-chapter conveys the findings of this research. The researcher found seven types of sound changes occurred in pronunciation of English Language Education Study Program 2015 students of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta whose first language is Javanese. The classification of sound changes refers to Crowley‟s (1992) theory of sound changes types. They are Lenition and Fortition, Sound Addition, Fusion. Unpacking, Vowel Breaking, Assimilation, and Abnormal Sound Changes.

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List of Lenition Occurrence

Types Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Weakening Sound

Appears /əˈpɪərz/ /əˈpɪərs/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Because /bɪˈkɑːz/ /bɪˈkos/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Believe /bɪˈliːv/ /bəˈliːf/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Cases /keɪs. ɪz/ /kes. ɪs/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Desire /dɪˈzaɪər/ /dɪˈsaɪər/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Does /dʌz/ /dʌs/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/

Example /ɪgˈzæm.pl / /ɪkˈsem.pəl /

Voiced /g/ and /z/  voiceless /k/

and /s/ Exposure /ɪkˈspoʊ.ʒər/ /ekˈspo.sɪər / Voiced /ʒ/

voiceless /s/ Give /gɪv/ /gɪf/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Have /hæv/ /hef/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Individuals /ˌɪn.dɪˈvɪd.ju.əlz/ /ˌɪn.dɪˈfɪd.u.əls/

Voiced /v/ and /z/ voiceless /f/

and /s/ Influences /ˈɪn.flu.əns.ɪz/ /ˈɪn.flu.

e

ns.ɪs/ Voiced /z/ 

voiceless /s/ Native /ˈneɪ.tɪv/ /ˈne.tɪf/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Of /ɑːv/ /of/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Over /ˈoʊ. vər/ /ˈo.fər/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Recognize /ˈrek.əg.naɪz/ /ˈrɪk.og.naɪs/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Several /ˈsev. ər. əl/ /ˈsef.ə.rəl/ Voiced /v/  voiceless /f/ Theories /ˈθɪə.ri:z/ /ˈteo.ri:s/ Voiced /z/  voiceless /s/ Usually /ˈjuː.ʒu.ə.li/ /ˈjuː.su.ə.li/ Voiced /ʒ/ voiceless /s/ Without /wɪˈðaʊt/ /wɪˈtot/ Voiced /ð/  voiceless /t/

(2)

Types Words Longman Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Aphaersis - - - -

Apocope - - - -

Syncope

Also /ˈɑːl.soʊ/ /ol.so/ Loss of /ʊ/ sound Cases /keɪs. ɪz/ /kes. ɪs/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Change /tʃeɪndʒ/ /tʃens/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Changed /tʃeɪndʒd/ /tʃens/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Combination /ˌkɑːm.bɪˈneɪ.ʃn/ /ˌkom.bɪˈne.sɪən/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Exposure /ɪkˈspoʊ.ʒər/ /ekˈspo.sɪər / Loss of /ʊ/

sound Identify /aɪˈden.tɪ.faɪ/ /ɪˈden.tɪ.faɪ/ Loss of /a/

sound Information /ˌɪn.fərˈmeɪ.ʃn/ /ˌɪn.forˈme.sɪən/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Make /meɪk/ /mek/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Most /moʊst/ /mos/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Native /ˈneɪ.tɪv/ /ˈne.tɪf/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Noticed /ˈnoʊ.tɪsd/ /ˈno.tɪs/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Old /oʊld/ /old/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Older /oʊld.ər/ /old.ər/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Only /ˈoʊn.li/ /on.li/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Over /ˈoʊ. vər/ /ˈo.fər/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Progress /ˈproʊ.gres/ /ˈpro.gres/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Pronunciation /prəˌnʌn.siˈeɪ.ʃn/ /proˌnʌn.siˈe.sɪən/ Loss of /ɪ/

sound Spoken /ˈspoʊ.kən/ /ˈspo.kən/ Loss of /ʊ/

sound Telephone /ˈtel.ə.foʊn/ /ˈtel.e.fon/ Loss of /ʊ/

(3)

Types Words Longman Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Cluster Reduction

Accent /ˈæk.sənt/ /ek.sən/ Loss of /t/ sound And /ænd/

/en/

Loss of /d/

sound

Can‟t /kænt/

/ken/

Loss of /t/

sound Changed /tʃeɪndʒd/ /tʃens/ Loss of /d/

sound

Don‟t /doʊnt/ /don/ Loss of /t/

sound End /end/ /en/ Loss of /d/

sound English /ˈɪŋglɪʃ/ /ˈɪŋ.lɪs/ Loss of /g/

sound First /ˈf ːst/ /ˈf ːs/ Loss of /t/

sound Individuals /ˌɪn.dɪˈvɪd.ju.əlz/ /ˌɪn.dɪˈfɪd.u.əls/ Loss of /j/

sound Just /dʒʌst/ /dʒʌs/ Loss of /t/

sound Language /ˈlæŋgwɪdʒ/ /ˈleŋ.wɪdʒ/ Loss of /g/

sound Linguists /ˈlɪŋ.gwɪsts/ /ˈlɪŋ.wɪs/ Loss of /t/

and /s/ sound Most /moʊst/ /mos/ Loss of /t/

sound Noticed /ˈnoʊ.tɪst/ /ˈno.tɪs/ Loss of /t/

sound Second /ˈsek. ənd/ /ˈsek. ən/ Loss of /d/

sound Sound /saʊnd/ /saʊn/ Loss of /d/

sound

Won‟t /woʊnt/ /won/ Loss of /t/

sound

(4)

List of Fortition Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Accurate /ˈæk.jʊ.rət/ /ek.ʊ.ret/ Central mid /ə/  Front mid /e/

Arabic /ˈær.ə.bɪk/ /ˈer.e.bɪk/ Central mid /ə/  Front mid /e/

Pronunciation /prəˌnʌn.siˈeɪ.ʃən/ /proˌnʌn.siˈe.sɪən /

Central mid unrounded /ə/  Low back rounded /o/ Recognize /ˈrek.əg.naɪz/ /ˈrɪk.og.naɪs/ Central mid unrounded /ə/ 

Low back rounded /o/

List of Sound Addition Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Able /ˈeɪ.bl / /ˈe.bəl / Addition /ə/ sound in /bl/ cluster

Example /ɪgˈzæm.pl / /ɪkˈsem.pəl / Addition /ə/ sound in /pl/ cluster

List of Fusion Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

About /əˈbaʊt/ /əˈbot/ /aʊ/ diphthong  /o/ vowel Without /wɪˈðaʊt/ /wɪˈtot/ /aʊ/ diphthong  /o/ vowel

List of Unpacking Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Combination /ˌkɑːm.bɪˈneɪ.ʃn/ /ˌkom.bɪˈne.sɪən/ Unpacking of _/ə/ /ʃ/  /s/, /ɪ/, and sounds

Exposure /ɪkˈspoʊ.ʒər/ /ekˈspo.sɪər / Unpacking of _/ə//ʒ/ /s/, /ɪ/, and sounds

Information /ˌɪn.fərˈmeɪ.ʃn/ /ˌɪn.forˈme.sɪən/ Unpacking of _/ə/ /ʃ/ /s/, /ɪ/, and sounds

Pronunciation /prəˌnʌn.siˈeɪ.ʃn/ /proˌnʌn.siˈe.sɪən/ Unpacking of _/ə/ /ʃ/  /s/, /ɪ/, and sounds

(5)

List of Vowel Breaking Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Country /ˈkʌn.tri/ /ˈkaʊn.tri/ Breaking of /ʌ/  /aʊ/ sounds Foreign /ˈfɔːr.ən/ /ˈfor.eɪn/ Breaking of /ə/  /eɪ/ sounds

List of Assimilation Occurrence

Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’

pronunciation Changes

Appears /əˈpɪərz/ /əˈpɪərs/ /z/  /s/ Because /bɪˈkɑːz/ /bɪˈkos/ /z/  /s/ Believe /bɪˈliːv/ /bəˈliːf/ /v/  /f/ Cases /keɪs. ɪz/ /kes. ɪs/ /z/  /s/ Change /tʃeɪndʒ/ /tʃens/ /dʒ/  /s/

Does /dʌz/ /dʌs/ /z/  /s/ Give /gɪv/ /gɪf/ /v/  /f/ Good /gʊd/ /gʊt/ /d/  /t/ Have /hæv/ /hef/ /v/  /f/ Individuals /ˌɪn.dɪˈvɪd.ju.əlz/ /ˌɪn.dɪˈfɪd.u.əls/ /z/  /s/ Influences /ˈɪn.flu.əns.ɪz/ /ˈɪn.flu.

e

ns.ɪs/ /z/  /s/ Native /ˈneɪ.tɪv/ /ˈne.tɪf/ /v/  /f/ Of /ɑːv/ /of/ /v/  /f/ Recognize /ˈrek.əg.naɪz/ /ˈrɪk.og.naɪs/ /z/  /s/ Theories /ˈθɪə.ri:z/ /ˈteo.ri:s/ /z/  /s/

List of Abnormal Sound Changes Occurrence

Types Words Longman

Dictionary

Participants’ pronunciation

Front low /æ/ to Front mid /e/

Accent /ˈæk.sənt/ /ek.sən/ Accurate /ˈæk.jʊ.rət/ /ek.ʊ.ret/

And /ænd/

/en/

Arabic /ˈær.ə.bɪk/

/ˈ

e

r.e.bɪk/

Can /kæn/

/ken/

Can‟t /kænt/

/ken/

Example /ɪgˈzæm.pl / /ɪkˈsem.pəl / France /fræns/ /frens/ Habits /ˈhæb.ɪts/ /ˈheb.ɪts/

Have /hæv/ /hef/ Language /ˈlæŋ.gwɪdʒ/ /ˈleŋ.wɪdʒ/

Manage /ˈmæn.ɪdʒ/ /ˈmen.edʒ / Path /pæθ/ /pet/ Spanish /ˈspæn.ɪʃ/ /ˈspen.ɪs/

(6)

Types Words Longman Dictionary

Participants’ pronunciation

Interdental to alveolar

/ð/ to /d/

Another /əˈnʌð.ər/ /əˈnʌd.ər/ That /ðæt/ /det/

The /ðiː/ or /ðə/ /də/

Their /ðeər/ /deɪr/ They /ðeɪ/ /deɪ/

This /ðɪs/ /dɪs/ /θ/ to /t/ Theories _Path /ˈθ_/pæɪə.ri:z/ _θ_/ /ˈteo.ri:s/ _/pet/

The Distribution of Sound Change Types

Types of Sound Change Number of Cases Percentage

Lenition

- Weakening Sound - Syncope

- Cluster Reduction Fortition

16 Cases

5 Cases 3 Cases 6 Cases 2 Cases

55.17%

17.24% 10.34% 20.69% 6.90% Sound Addition 1 Cases 3.45%

Fusion 1 Cases 3.45%

Unpacking 2 Cases 6.90%

Vowel Breaking 2 Cases 6.90% Assimilation 4 Cases 13.79% Abnormal Sound Change 3 Cases 10.34%

The English sound changes among Javanese students of the English language education study program of Sanata Dharma University.

THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG JAVANESE

STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG JAVANESE

STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

TIIE ENGLISH

CIIANGES AMONG JAVANESE

OT'TIIE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION

PROGRAM OF'SANATA

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THE ENGLISH

AMONG

JAVANESE

OF'THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION

STUI}Y PROGRAM OF'SANATA

DHARMA UI{IVEBSITY

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Secretary

Me,mhr

Member

Member

“As long as there are games to play, it is not over.”

-Sir Alex Ferguson-

Former Manchester United Coach

CATHERINE ARQUETA GLENDA MARGANA

&

BORROMEUS BRAVE GRADY MARGANA

Ihestly

E ptrts of

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Nama

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.IIIE

ijin

natas

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

ᵑ

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULT AND DISCUSSION

e

/en/

/ken/

e

/en/

/ˈ

e

r.e.bɪk/

/ken/

/ken/

Parts

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_OT'TIIE

_{ENGLISH LANGUAGE}

_EDUCATION

_{PROGRAM OF'SANATA}

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