Previous linguistic research Previous research on language vitality

1.3.2 Deukhuri

Southern Dang district is viewed as one of the original homelands of Deukhuri speakers. They are also located in districts to the west. Deukhuri is listed in the Ethnologue with the same ISO code as Dangaura [thl]. While allowing intermarriage between their groups, Dangaura and Deukhuri speakers identify themselves as separate. Because Deukhuri communities are so close to India, Deukhuri has been influenced by Hindi. The Curriculum Development Centre CDC of the Ministry of Education of the Government of Nepal has done some development work in this variety.

1.3.3 Malhoriya

Malhoriya is located in eastern Kailali district around Tikapur, as well as in western Bardiya in the original location of the Dangaura westward migration. Malhoriya shares the same ISO code in the Ethnologue as Dangaura [thl].

1.3.4 Desauriya

Desauriya, sometimes spelled Deshauriya, is not included in the Ethnologue. “The Desauriya Tharu are a related group [to Dangaura Tharu] also inhabiting Banke and Bardiya districts” van Driem 2001:1167. The origin of Desauriya speakers is unknown, but it is generally believed that that they did not originate in the DangDeukhuri area. “In Bardiya and Banke districts, the Dangaura Tharus distinguish themselves from the Deshaurya Tharus. But Deshauriya culture is so close to that of Dangaura that I presume they could be an offshoot of an earlier wave of migrants from Dang…” Krauskopff 1995:187–188. Additional information about the location of Desauriya speakers is in section 7.2.

1.3.5 Kathariya

Kathariya Tharu is listed in the Ethnologue under ISO [tkt]. An alternate name is Khatima Tharu. Often, it is spelled Kathoriya. However, a leader of their community in Pabera, Kailali indicated to us that the correct spelling is Kathariya. It is classified as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, unclassified. “Kathoriya Tharu are concentrated most heavily in Kailali district of Nepal but can also be found in Kheri, Bahraich, Gonda, and Gorakpur districts in India and in other areas where Dangaura Tharu are found” Boehm 1997:19. Hugoniot’s research claimed that all Kathariya villages have Dangaura speakers living in them. In addition, he reported that only Tharus living near Kathariya villages have ever heard of Kathariya Tharu 1996:3, 13. The interviews and observations of this survey verify Hugoniot’s claims that most Tharu specifically Dangaura, Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya have neither heard of nor interact with Kathariya. The origin of the Kathariya is unknown, but it is generally believed that, unlike other varieties included in this survey, they did not originate in the DangDeukhuri area. Additional information about the location of Kathariya speakers is in section 7.1.

1.4 Previous research

There has been a considerable amount of research on the economics, religion and customs of the Tharu community, but relatively little linguistic research has been published.

1.4.1 Previous linguistic research

“The only significant studies on the language of the Tharus include the work by Frierson 1903 and Hodgson 1857, the atlas of Bhojpuri by Tivari 1960, an inventory of phonemes in Citvan Tharu by D. Leal 1972 and Citvan Tharu sentences by William Leal 1973” van Driem 2001: 1166. Previous research by Boehm 1997, Hugonoit 1996 and Webster 1993 has provided some information about Kathariya and Dangaura, although their research primarily focused on other Tharu varieties. Little or no research is found regarding the language varieties of this survey. The most detailed published research on the groups of this survey are the theses: “A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Tharu and Language Use” Boehm 1998 and “Language Maintenance Among the Tharu of the Indo-Nepal Tarai” Boehm 1997.

1.4.2 Previous research on language vitality

Tharu speakers’ degree of exposure to and contact with other languages specifically Nepali and Hindi, makes language vitality necessary to investigate. Kelly Boehm’s thesis 1997 addressed this question. Several factors surfaced as pointing towards healthy language maintenance: • Government attitudes toward minority languages and cultures—Given the current political stance toward preserving minority languages and cultures, many groups including Tharu have received encouragement from the government for language and culture preservation. • Attitudes toward and practices of exogamy—Through questionnaires, Boehm found that 70 of Tharus did not approve of marrying a non-Tharu. Tharu groups differ greatly, which means that many will not marry outside of their specific group. • Positive language attitudes—Boehm’s questionnaire revealed that 91 of Tharu speakers believed their language to be better than the language of wider communication Nepali or Hindi, 96 thought that mothers should speak Tharu to their children and 98 anticipated that Tharu would continue to be spoken in the future. • Education—At the time of Boehm’s study, education was not accessible enough for the Tharu to affect the vitality of the language. She recommended that this issue be re-evaluated when it becomes a possible factor in language maintenance. 2 Research questions The purpose of this survey is to see how many Tharu varieties can use materials that are being developed in Dangaura Tharu and to investigate how to best serve the speakers of Deukhuri, Malhoriya, Desauriya and Kathariya. The five goals of this survey are: 1. Lexical Similarity: Investigate lexical similarity between all Tharu varieties of this survey. 2. Dialect Attitude Assessment: Assess the attitudes of the language varieties of this survey toward one another to better understand their willingness to share written materials. 3. Language Vitality: Evaluate the vitality of Deukhuri, Desauriya, Malhoriya and Kathariya varieties. 4. Kathariya and Desauriya Locations: Identify the major population centers of Kathariya and Desauriya speakers. 5. Desires for Development: Discover each community’s desires for their own language-based development. 3 Methodology

3.1 Site selection