Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the theories which will be used in this study. There will be two parts. The first part is theoretical description which will present the main theories in this study. Those are perception, learning process, Play Performance Course, and leadership. Some theories about those four terms are included to be the references of the study. Then, the second part is theoretical framework. It will help the researcher answers the research question in the research problem. The theoretical framework which will be elaborated in this chapter will strengthen the finding stated. Firstly, the researcher will review the nature of learning process because the researcher aims to find out students’ perception on the effect of learning process in Play Performance Course on the development of students’ leadership skill.

A. Theoretical Description

The writer will discuss four important terms to answer the research question which are perception, learning process, Play Performance Course, and leadership. 1. Perception According to Szilagyi Wallace 1980, p. 71 perception is a process “by which individuals attend to incoming appropriate action or behavior”. Szilagyi Wallace 1980 also explain that the process of perception consists of three steps. Those are awareness or attention to the incoming stimulus, translating incoming stimuli into some message, and deciding on the appropriate action or behavior in response to the message. Therefore a perception can be said as response of a particular stimuli. Someone needs to experience the stimuli first before having perception towards it. Then, perception affects three phases which are action, observation, and reflection model. Those phases play a very important role in what anyone will extract from any leadership situation Hughes et al., 2002. There are three factors which influence perception based on Szilagyi Wallace 1980: a. Attributes of the Object Attributes of the object can create barriers which could misrepresent the perception. Those barriers are stereotyping and the halo effect. A stereotype is a belief that causes assesment of individual’s entire group based upon that belief. Therefore, a person will pick out what he believes and considered it as common characteristics about groups. A second common perceptual error is halo effect. In making this error, rater fails to evaluate separate dimensions independently. Altman, Valenzi, Hodgetts 1985 define it as the use of a known a particular trait as the basis for an overall evaluation. b. Attributes of the Situation This attribute is about the time at which a message is transmitted. Time and situation can influence attention and interpretation. c. Attributes of the Person This the probably the most important source of influence on perception. Characteristics of the person including motives, previous learning, and personality will influence his or her perception. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Altman, Valenzi, Hodgetts add 1985 that the way we perceive information depends on several factors including the clarity and familiarity of the stimuli, our physical characteristics, our needs and values, knowledge, feeling, and past experience. In sum, the factors which influnce perception can be described in three points as follow: a. Selection of Stimuli Of all the stimuli in our surrounding, we only pay attention on the small number. This process is known as selection. People will select specific cues and filters or screens. This selection is the reason why people perceive things differently. b. Organization of Stimuli After the selection, the stimuli will be arranged so as to become meaningful. The perceptual organization of information helps us categorize sensory inputs. It reduces all information into simpler categories. c. The situation A situation or one’s past experience will affect perception. The accurateness of perceiveng a situation depends on how well someone adjusts his behavior to the situations. d. Self-Concept Self-concept is the way we feel and perceive ourselves. Self-concept is influential because someone’s personal mental picture defines what he perceives. The way we see ourselves affects our perception of the world around us. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Because of those influences explained, the perception between one student to another about the effect of learning process in Play Performance Course on their development of their leadership skill can be different. Therefore, some samples should be taken to explain directly what their perceptions are. The researcher can find out the perception by asking questions towards the students. Some questions related to students’ feeling and thinking will be provided to complete this research. Some statements in the q uestionnaire also present students’ feeling in a general way. Next, since this study is about students’ perception on the influence of learning process, the researcher will discuss about learning process in the next point. 2. Learning Process Garry 1965 says that most learning theories emphasizes learning as a source of development. More specifically, they propose that development is a result of a series of discrete learning experiences. Hence, the change and development of the students can be categorized as learning. The process of transformation is explained as learning process. In genetic epistemology, Garry 1965 differs learning from development in two ways. First, learning is not spontaneous but must provoked by situations or events in the environment. Second, it is limited to a specific situation or problem. Garry states that learning is not going to occur without learner and task, but it can occur without teacher, but practice, knowledge of results and drill are still needed. Therefore, the learning process discussed in this study is the learning inside the class with the lecturer and outside the class while students are doing training and practice. In the learning process outside the class, there will PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI be practice and drill to achieve the success of performi ng students’ final performance. Learning by direct experience has been the focus of large writings which have been generated from both laboratory and field experiences. Learning by direct experience has dominated the literature related to learning Mercer Snell, 1977. There are some factors of development arranged based on Piaget’s theory. Some of them are Physical Experience and Social Experience. One of the factors that underline development is experience that is a contact with the environment. Then, the other factor of development is social experience which is gained by interaction with people and includes social relationships, education, language, and culture Gallagher, 1981. Those factors match with the activities which are done in Play Performance Course. Since Play Performance Course is conducted in English Language Education Study Program, the language learning becomes the main purpose although there are still many other development gained in the course. There are so many language learning methods and one of them is Natural Method. As Richards and Rodgers 2001 state , “believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taugh t without translation or the use of the learner’s native language if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action” p. 11. This method of directly demonstrating the language is applied in Play Performance Course. Then, the other learning theory related to Play Performance Course is Bloom’s three domains of learning and Ignatian Pedagogy. a. Bloom’s Three Domains of Learning Three domains of learning are the cognitive domain, the affective domain, and the psychomotor domain. Those three domains have different objectives and ways of working. Many kinds of activities done in Play Performance Course can make the students develop those three domains in the same time. The revision of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives presents those domains in a form of these brief explanations: 1 The Cognitive Domain This domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills or knowledge. It includes objectives which deal with recognition of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities. 2 The Affective Domain This domain involves emotional manners such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations and attitudes. It includes objectives which describe changes in those emotional manners and the development of appreciations. 3 The Manipulative or Motor-Skill Area This domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas Anderson et al., 2001. b. Ignatian Pedagogy Play Performance Course also applies Ignatian Pedagogy as the orientation to do the teaching and learning process. This approach asks the students to reflect upon the meaning and significance of what they are studying and motivates them to be active in the learning process Kolvenbach, 2005. Practically, Ignatian Pedagogy Approach can be explained as a system with five main elements which are context, experience, reflection, action, and evaluation. 1 Understanding the context means understanding the course so that the objective and the reason of joining the class should be understood. 2 Direct experience has strength to stimulate cognitive, affective, and psychomotor dimensions. 3 Reflection becomes the important element in Ignatian Pedagogy because it connects the experience and action. 4 Action itself means interpreting the learning result to apply the knowledge in a real life. 5 Evaluation can be explained as a systematic process of collecting, processing, and assessing. Then, competence, conscience, and compassion are three human characters which are expected to be Sanata Dharma University students’ Ignatian Pedagogy- based learning result P3MP-LPM Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2012. Competence embraces a broad variety of abilities including academic proficiency and effective communication skills. Then, with conscience, students are able to discern what is right, good, and true and has the courage to do it and has a passion for social justice. Students with compassion will generously respond to those who are in greatest need, walk with others to empower them, in solidarity and empathy. From the definition, it’s clear that those three human characters are presumed as one unity of learning result which is similar to the unity of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor dimension. The learning process explained here is the learning process in Play PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Performance Course. The next point is the explanation of Play Performance Course of ELESP itself. 3. Play Performance Course Play Performance or Drama is explained as a work which is not only about performing lines of script. According to Goldstone 1968 first responsibility of the work in drama is to visualize it in the context of theatre. Actors are not only articulating lines in varied inflections, accents, and intonations but also moving, gesticulating, and physically reacting. We see costumes, settings, properties, and music. That means that students are not only trained for representing the script drama, but also the whole package of drama visualization. Goldstone 1968 states that a play relates what the script writer saw, felt, imagined-in a past time. It is taking place as we see it. In Thornton Wilder’s words, “A play visibly represents pure existing.” KPE 345 Play Performance course is an obligatory course in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. In Play Performance Course, the students work in team to represent a packaging of qualified play performance. In ELESP, the students will take Drama Course first in the previous semester. Based on Buku Panduan Akademik Academic Guidebook of ELESP 2012, Drama course prepares students for Play Performance Course in the following semester. In Drama Course, students will experience an experiential learning class to understand the elements of drama script, the technique of play directing, and the organization of play production. Therefore, students are supposed to be ready to organize a play performance directly in Play Performance Course. After the preparation which has already been experienced in the previous semester, students will experience several preparations during the project. Lecturers help students to train voice, movement, face expression as the example for students when having rehearsals and physical exercises outside the class. There are also some rehearsals in front of the lecturers to s ee the students’ progress and make sure that the performance is really worth watching. In Play Performance Class, students will be divided into three until four groups. Each group consists of fourteen to nineteen members. In each group, students are divided into two groups which are artistic team and production team. Artistic team leads the preparation of the stage performance while production team will be busier on the preparations on the things like publication, fund raising, and ticketing. Following the explanation about Play Performance Course, the definition of leadership will be explained as the reference of this study. 4. Leadership Szilagy and Wallace 1980 explain leadership as one of the most important elements which influence organizational performance. Play Performance Course that involves many parties who hold a project in organizational group needs leadership as its important element. Leadership is a process, not a position. One is not a leader merely because she or he holds a title or position. Leadership involves something happening as a result of the interaction between a leader and followers Hughes et al., 2002. Then, leadership is a process of influencing people to take an effort to work together for the achievement of a particular goal Altman et al., 2015. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI There are some factors of leadership skill development which are in Play Performance Course. According to Hughes et al. 2002, leadership is a complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers, and the situation. Working in a group like in Play Performance Course lets the students take a role as the leader or the followers. Moreover, the greater the number of people in a group, the better the probability that any individual is likely to emerge as leader Hughes et al., 2002. Lombardo and Eichinger explain that leadership development can be enhanced if the environment is changing, dynamic, uncontrollable, and unpredictable as cited in Hughes et al., 2002. Then, different personality types can create an innovative environment and lead to stress, conflict, and negative feelings. Leaders can learn to work more effectively with different personality Daft, 2015.Those environment could happen inside a group work. Kerr, Murphy, and Stogidill 1974 note that “accumulated evidence suggests that leader effectiveness is not always associated with those who behave in highly considerate and structuring manner ” as cited in Dumi Sinaj, 2013. An effectiveness of leader consideration or behavior are influenced by situational factors such as time urgency, amount of physical danger presence of external stress, degree of autonomy, degree of job, scope, importance, and meaningfulness of work. Play Performance Course provides some of those situational factors like time urgency, presence of external stress, importance and meaningfulness of work. In Salancik and Pfeffer’s Strategic Contingencies Model of Leadership, “the leader is a person who brings scarce resources to assist a group of individuals in overcoming a critical problem that they face. As the problems facing a group change, their leader may also change because of his or her access to critical and scarce resources ” Pierce Newstrom, 2006, p. 189. Then, Hughes, Ginnet, and Curphy had some criteria of leadership skill which is divided into two kinds of leadership skills which are basic leadership skill and advanced leadership skill. a. Basic Leadership Skill In basic leadership skill, one is able to do skills like: 1 Learning from Experience Here, a person is able to create opportunities to get feedback, especially with regard to feedback from those who work with them. Then, it is important to learn from others. Sometimes, in this skill someone keeps journal or write reflections on personal events. Developing a systematic plan also will help leaders prioritize the importance of different goals. 2 Communication Effective communication involves the ability to transmit and receive information with a high probability that the intended message is understood by the receiver. Leaders and followers tend to actively engage in two way communication, but a leader should ensure that others understand the message. Here, a leader knows what a purpose in every communication made. 3 Listening A leader demonstrates nonverbally that she or he is listening. The best listeners are active listeners, not passive listeners. In addition, active listening is a way to visibly demonstrate that one respects others. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 4 Assertiveness A leader who hold assertiveness is able to stand up for their own rights or group’s rights. A leader should know where and when not to behave assertively. Assertiveness involves direct and frank stateme nts of one’s own goals and feelings. 5 Providing Constructive Feedback Giving constructive feedback involves sharing information or perceptions with another about the nature, quality, or impact of that person’s behavior. Leaders need to keep in mind that followers, committee members, or team members will perform at a higher level if they are given accurate and frequent feedback. 6 Effective Stress Management Leaders are able to monitor their own and followers’ stress levels, what the causes are. Too much stress can take a toll on individuals and their organizations. Leaders should understand the nature of stress because leaders’ stress can impair the performance and well-being of followers. 7 Building Technical Competence Technical competence concerns the knowledge and repertoire of behaviors that can be brought to bear to complete a successful task. A leader should be an expert in the job. Opportunities to broaden experiences are necessary to build technical competence. It can be done by appreciating how the work contributes to organizational success. 8 Building Effective Relationships with Superiors Superiors are those individuals who have more power and authority than the other members of the group. The same value and attitudes makes superior and followers experience less conflict. Therefore, a leader should have skill to build an effective relationsh ips by understanding superior’s world and adapting superior’s style. 9 Building Effective Relationships with Peers Investing the time and effort to develop effective relationships with peers not only has immediate dividends but also can have long-term benefits if a peer ends up in a position of power in the future. 10 Setting Goals Goals should be specific observable, attainable, and based on top-to-bottom commitment. Having goals does not guarantee success, unless it is supported by real human commitments. A leader also should design to provide feedback to personal about their progress toward them. 11 Punishment Not every behavior or performance problem is given a punishment. Leaders should have ability to consider several factors before deciding whether or not to administer punishment. 12 Conducting a meeting A meeting is usually conducted by a formal leader to accomplish diverse goals and exchange information between work groups or volunteer organizations. Some considerations are important like determining whether the meeting is necessary, providing materials in advance, encouraging participants, etc. b. Advanced Leadership Skills The skills included in this section are: PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 1 Delegating Delegating is a skill while a leader empowers one of the organization members to take responsibility for completing certain tasks or engaging in certain activities. It is important because the essence of leadership is achieving goals through others, not trying to accomplish them by oneself. 2 Managing Conflict A research study has found that some level of conflict may be helpful in order to strengthen innovation and performance. In this aspect, a leader is supposed to have a skill to resolve conflict and make a solutions of mutual gain. 3 Negotiation Ability to see the win-win outcomes in every negotiation is important as becoming a leader. Leaders should anticipate each side’s key concerns and issues, attitudes, possible negotiating strategies, and goals. 4 Problem Solving In leadership, the step of problem solving is to state the problem, analyze its cause so that the solutions will be preceded. 5 Improving Creativity Here, a leader improving creativity by seeing things in new ways, using power constructively and forming diverse problem-solving groups. 6 Diagnosing Performance Problems in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations Performance Problems often occur because individuals or groups do not understand what they are supposed to do. Then, the other reason is because followers and teams have lack capabilities needed to achieve a goal or perform PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI above expectations. Then, performance can also be limited when followers lack the resources needed to get the job done. Lack motivation can also be the reason of performance problems. An advanced leader should learn the ability to diagnose them Hughes et al., 2002. Richard L. Daft 2015 states that leadership is a relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes. As stated above, Play Performance Course consists of some groups with one similar purpose to hold a successful performance at the end of the semester. That is the outcome which will be obtained by the students from the learning process and the leadership process. An important aspect of leadership is influencing others to come together around a common vision Daft, 2015. In the Play Performance Course, students work together to have the same vision. Beside those definitions of leadership, Daft also defined some leader behaviors. Those are supportive leadership, directive leadership, participative leadership, and achievement-oriented leadership. a. Supportive leadership: Open, friendly, and approachable. The leader creates a team climate and treats subordinates as equals. b. Directive Leadership: Behavior which includes planning, making schedules, setting performance goals, and stressing adherence to rules and regulates. c. Participative Leadership: Behavior which includes asking for opinions and suggestion, encouraging participation in decision making, and meeting with subordinates in their workplaces. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI d. Achievement-Oriented Leadership: Leader behavior stresses high-quality performance and improvement over current performance Daft, 2015. Richard L. Daft also determines four disciplines for d eveloping a leader’s mind. Those are independent thinking, open-mindedness, system thinking, and personal mastery. Taken together, these four disciplines provide a foundation that can help leaders examine their mental models. a. Independent Thinking Independent thinking means questioning assumptions and interpreting data and events according to one’s own beliefs, ideas, and thinking, rather than pre- established rules or categories defined by others. b. Open-Mindedness Effective leaders strive to keep open-minds and cultivate an organizational environment that encourages curiosity and learning. These leaders encourage everyone to openly debate assumptions, confront paradoxes, question perceptions, and express feelings. c. System Thinking System thinking is the ability to see the synergy of the whole rather than just the separate elements of a system and to learn to reinforce or change whole system patterns. d. Personal Mastery Personal mastery means mastering ourselves, it embodies clarity of mind, clarity of objectives, and organizing to achieve objectives Daft, 2015.

B. Theoretical Framework