Connectives between sentences Connectives within sentences

Table 9. Subordinating connectivesconjunctions Connective Gloss Occurrence Origin ajiri ya because Found only once in S4; used as an intrasentential connective. Swahili iri kusudi so that Based on the one use of this connective, it correlates to ili in Swahili. Swahili kwa kutyo thusly Occurs only once and within speech; kutyo is Kwaya for hivyo in Swahili Swahili raabhe if Found only once outside of a speech clause in S4. Kwaya From the texts we can see that the majority of connectives used in Kwaya are borrowed from Swahili or are derived from Swahili connectives. It can also be seen that many of the Swahili-borrowed connectives occur only within speech clauses.

3.1.1 Connectives between sentences

Juxtaposition is the default manner of coordination between sentences. If a connective is used, the most common connectives used between sentences are baasi ‘so’ or woori ‘now’. Two other connectives in the texts that are used in the same way as baasi and are glossed the same way are mmbe and kimwi. Only about a sixth of the sentences use an intersentential connective. An example is shown in clause 29a below. 23 H3.28–H3.29 Pre-NO Pre-NI S V OC Post-NI Post-NO 28a --- K-a-aik-a ati [28b–28c] PRES -3 S -say- FV that 28b [--- Nu-u-fug-e bhwangu IMP -2 S -row- FV fast 28c omuyaga gw-a-j-a] 3.wind NC 3- P 1-come- FV 29a Baasi Wang’wena woone n-aa-fug-a so crocodile 1.all NARR -3 S -row- FV 29b --- n-aa-fug-a NARR -3 S -row- FV He said, “Row quickly, the wind is coming.” So, the crocodile rowed and rowed. These connectives are very versatile and can occur in many different environments within the text. Baasi can be found in the middle of an episode, middle of a paragraph, directly following speech, within speech and even in the middle of a sentence. Woori occurs more frequently at the beginning of an episode. However, in H3, H4, S3 and S4 woori does occur in the middle of an episode.

3.1.2 Connectives within sentences

There is minimal attestation of connectives within sentences in the data: na ‘and’ occurs a few times in the texts and will be discussed more in section 3.3; baasi occurs only once within a sentence, and it is in reported speech as can be seen in example 24. 24 H6.8 Pre-NO Pre-NI S V OC Post-NI Post-NO 8a [Raabhe --- na-a-mar-a if 1 S - P 1-finish- FV 8b [8a] --- bha-ka-ku-sibh-a na omutwe 3 P - COND -2 S -bury- FV CONJ 3.head 8c baasi --- e-ni-bh-a ki then PRES -1 S -be- FV what 8d --- e-ni-ku-fundukur-a] PRES -1 S -2 S -uncover- FV “If I have finished, if they bury you with the head, then what am I, I will uncover you.” Raabhe ‘if’ is a Kwaya connective that is used almost exclusively within speech clauses, as can be seen in the previous example. However, there is one example of raabhe being used outside of speech in S4.29a. 25 S4.29 Pre-NO Pre-NI S V OC Post-NI Post-NO 29a Raabhe --- na-a-futat-a if 1 S - P 1-pass- FV 29b [29a] --- n-aa-n-san-a baasi NARR -3 S -1 S -cut- FV so If I am passing and then he cuts me, so be it. 3.2 Additives Additives indicate that there is an association between the two conjoined elements. As previously stated, in the Kwaya corpus the additives na ‘and’ and ama ‘or’ are used, but only sparingly. Two instances appear in example 26. 26 H2.27 Pre-NO Pre-NI S V OC Post-NI Post-NO 27a Na --- n-taku-ga-tur-a CONJ 1 S - NEG -6-able- FV 27b --- n-taku-ga-nyw-a 1 S - NEG -6-drink- FV 27c --- n-taku-ga-tur-a 1 S - NEG -6-able- FV 27d na kugeetira --- bha-takw-end-a ] CONJ INF -6-pour out 3 P - NEG -want- FV And I can’t do it, I can’t drink it, I can’t do it, and they don’t want it poured out. Another additive that is used in several of the texts is -oone ‘and __’ or ‘also’. This connective agrees with the class of the noun that it modifies. Six out of the ten texts include this connective at least once. This connective is always an additive, and most often is an intersentential connective but can also occur as an intrasentential connective as illustrated in example 27. 27 H6.14 Pre-NO Pre-NI S V OC Post-NI Post-NO 14a Abhaanu bha-ri-ga bha-ta-ri-wo 2.person 3 P - COP - HAB 3 P - NEG - COP - LOC 14b na esemwene a-ta-ri-wo CONJ father. POSS .3 S 1 S - NEG - COP - LOC 14c waamuwaabho woone a-ta-ri-wo relative. POSS .3 S 3 S .also 1 S - NEG - COP - LOC People weren’t there, and his father wasn’t there, his relative also wasn’t there. This connective may increase the intensity of a particular passage. Out of the nine occurrences, three of them are in a peak episode, and two more are in the pre-peak episode. This connective emphasizes that one participant is doing or undergoing a similar action as another participant. The occurrences of -oone in H7.5b and S3.22a are not located near the peak. They seem to be acting simply as an additive in these two cases.

3.3 Concessives