Privacy Calculus Theory Introduction

TELKOMNIKA ISSN: 1693-6930  Privacy and Personal Data Protection in Electronic Voting… Muharman Lubis 513 even though at some aspects there is major or minor differences of implementation such as the hierarchal power, responsibility limitation, aspiration channel, rights of leader, legal interpretation and so on. In computing devices and virtual worlds, individuals are challenged to understand and identify a new set of boundaries in order to negotiate privacy in these spaces. The interactional perspective has proven particularly effective as a starting point for theoretical and empirical studies of privacy in relation to everyday use of information technology, not least in relation to social media and new issues associated with fast-changing technologies. While this perspective has proved evocative, there remain important to have open questions regarding how to translate results from this perspective into design practice. Practical solution involves by designing the guiding to avoid privacy invasion privacy aware design, privacy management mechanism privacy enhancing technology and disclosure control, privacy implication and evaluation towards information system privacy impact assessment and interpersonal privacy practice assistance. In electronic voting context, many researches focus on the practical solution to deliver the suitable and fit mechanism to enhance the privacy protection with specific circumstances but lack of managerial aspect wherein the majority of electoral fraud can occurred from outside coverage of technical issues. Indeed, the theory cannot necessary to be remained same in different circumstances or actor, there is a high possibility to go to wrong direction considers the diverse relationship and interaction that might be dependent each other and complementary like thread tied together. Thus, this study explores the privacy framework to support personal data protection in electronic voting in terms of managerial, technical and enforcement. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Hyperpersonal Framework of CMC Over decades, many academicians have been investigated social psychology aspect of computer-mediated communication CMC since the Internet takes place in the daily life for various purposes. One concern assumed that CMC as an inadequate way for people to share emotional content, let alone develop meaningful and long-lasting relationships affect of social norm toward decision making due the lack of nonverbal cues, immature etiquette and depersonalization process [6]. Meanwhile, others described CMC as an approach as the cues filtered out theory, also called reduced cues which posits that the computer has a low social presence because it filters out important aspects of communication that participants in face-to- face communication are privy to paralanguage-pitch, intensity, stress, tempo, volume, leaving a conversation in a social vacuum [7]. They identified an assumption that substituting CMC for face-to-face communication will result in predictable changes in intrapersonal and interpersonal variables. In the end, the present research is concerned with advancing a particular model used in CMC since 1996, which is the hyperpersonal model [8] that the model follows four components of the communication process to address how CMC may affect cognitive and communication process relating to message construction and reception: 1 effects due to receiver process, 2 effects among message senders, 3 attributes of the channel, and 4 feedback effects. In addition there are many attempts to challenge, support and added the model claims with fifth component extensions to be applied in new social and dynamic condition innovatively. Schumaker [9] describe the hyperpersonal model addresses how individuals communicate interpersonally online and added that: The theory presents predictions as to how individuals present themselves in an environment rich with unique ways to present the self to others, how other individuals both inside and outside of their network evaluate that individual, as well as how these interactions may create an inflated reciprocal spiral of exchanges resulting in subsequently inflated or exaggerated relationships.

2.2. Privacy Calculus Theory

Over the last half of the past century, social scientists spent a considerable amount of effort in trying to understand the predictors of individuals‟ behaviour. This theory describes a particular method of reasoning and calculation system that users weigh up between the benefits and the cost of revealing personal information before self disclosure and during the decision process in the run-up to the revelation of personal information, users often underestimate possible risks owing to a “it won‟t happen to me” mentality [10]. This observation was supported  ISSN: 1693-6930 TELKOMNIKA Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2017 : 512 – 521 514 by their findings with the objective to investigate users‟ privacy perceptions by integrating privacy values, beliefs, and attitudes into a theoretical framework. Moreover, the result stated that a higher level of perceived Internet privacy risk is related to a lower level of willingness to provide personal information to transact on the Internet. Previous empirical research in e- commerce has revealed a positive relationship between risk perception and privacy concerns while they considered personal interest to be an intrinsic motivation based on a belief that engaging in an activity provides self-fulfilling satisfaction, which is captured by the degree of cognitive attraction in computer interactions. After all, the current theory of calculus can be view as extension theory from Culnan and Armstrong [11] that argued, in the more specific context of purchasing products and services, individual decision processes prior to the disclosure of personal information necessary to complete a transaction involve a privacy calculus. They explain in specific situation, when consumers are informed about the vendor‟s information practices and perceive the business as fair to them, they are more willing to consent to personal information disclosure. In terms of the privacy calculus the benefits associated with self- disclosing personal information must be contrasted with the cost of privacy. Privacy costs can be expressed in terms of privacy concerns, i.e. an individual assessment of what happens to the information once disclosed, while trust one of the concept that influence self disclosure [12].

2.3. Privacy Trade-off Relationship