Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue4.1996:
Customer compatibility management: an alternative
perspective on student-to-student support in higher
education
Jennifer E. Rowley He ad, Sc ho o l o f Manage me nt and So c ial Sc ie nc e s, Edge Hill
Unive rsity Co lle ge , Ormskirk, UK
Emphasizes the controllability
of customer-to-customer
interaction in the higher
education environment.
Argues that students’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with
their experience of a university may be signifi cantly
infl uenced by their experience of other students. Customer compatibility management supplements other
approaches to quality management, such as TQM.
Tutors and managers of the
educational environment have
always recognized that some
features of student-to-student
interaction need to be managed. Borrows some concepts
from the services marketing
literature and proposes a
more focused and comprehensive customer compatibility management programme.
Uses the theatrical metaphor
to illustrate the roles and
functions that need to be
adapted in a compatibility
management programme.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 4 [ 1996] 1 5 –2 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Introduction
As th e stu dy of th e ser vice exper ien ce w ith in
a w ide r a n ge of ser vice en vir on m en ts h a s
developed, th er e h a s been a n in cr ea sin g
r ecogn ition th a t cu stom er s’ sa tisfa ction is
often depen den t u pon th eir dir ect or in dir ect
in ter a ction s a s th ey sh a r e th e ser vice fa cility’s ph ysica l en vir on m en t. Cu stom er -tocu stom er in ter a ction ca n eith er en h a n ce or
im pover ish th e ser vice exper ien ce. For exa m ple, a k in d wor d or a plea sa n t sm ile fr om a
fellow cu stom er m ay m a k e th e ser vice exper ien ce m or e en joya ble, wh er ea s r ow dy a n d
obn oxiou s beh aviou r is lik ely to h ave th e
opposite effect. In deed, in edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts su ch a s cla sses a n d oth er in -ca m pu s loca tion s, stu den ts m ay often view stu den t-to-stu den t con ta ct a s a welcom e secon da r y objective. In a ddition , tu tor s h ave
lon g r ecogn ized th a t stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction ca n be a va lu a ble tool in su ppor tin g
effective lea r n in g.
Sin ce cu stom er -to-cu stom er in ter a ction
m ay sign ifica n tly a ffect cu stom er sa tisfa ction
a n d th er eby th e lik elih ood of a r etu r n visit, it
is im por ta n t for ser vice m a n a ger s to be sen sitive to cu stom er -to-cu stom er r ela tion sh ips,
a n d th e beh aviou r s th a t str en gth en a n d
wea k en th ese r ela tion sh ips. Mor e specifica lly,
tu tor s n eed to a ppr ecia te wh a t ca n be don e to
m a n a ge or positively in fl u en ce th e w ay in
wh ich stu den ts a ffect on e a n oth er a n d th e
m ech a n ism s by wh ich th ey ca n su ppor t on e
a n oth er ’s exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion .
Th is a r ticle r eview s th e con cepts a ssocia ted
w ith cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t.
Specifica lly, it r eview s th e r oles in volved in
cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr oposed by P r a n ter a n d Ma r tin [1] a n d con sider s
th eir a pplica bility to cu stom er com pa tibility
m a n a gem en t in th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce in h igh er edu ca tion .
Th e a r ticle ta k es a br oa d per spective on th e
stu den t exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion , in
k eepin g w ith a tota l ser vice per spective
r a th er th a n focu sin g specifica lly on th e lea r n in g exper ien ce in th e sen se of for m a l lea r n in g
in a specifica lly tu tor -m a n a ged en vir on m en t.
Th is per spective is r e ga r ded a s a ppr opr ia te
sin ce th er e is con sider a ble eviden ce th a t th e
“eth os of th e stu den t en vir on m en t” does h ave
a n im pa ct on stu den t a ch ievem en t (see
e.g. [2]).
Customer-to-customer interaction
in higher education
Stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction s m ay ta k e
pla ce in h igh er edu ca tion in a va r iety of differ en t con texts, for exa m ple:
• cla ssr oom – in clu din g lectu r e, gr ou pwor k ,
etc.;
• stu den t a ssign m en ts – in dividu a l or gr ou p;
• coffee ba r / din in g r oom ;
• libr a r y;
• socia l even ts a n d clu bs;
• h a lls of r esiden ce;
• IT wor k sh op;
• u n iver sity sh ops a n d ba n k s.
Clea r ly, in som e of th ese in sta n ces, th e stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction m ay be positive
beca u se eith er :
• it a ssists th e stu den t to lea r n m or e effectively; or
• th e stu den t en joys th e socia l exch a n ge for
its ow n sa k e.
Poten tia lly positive in ter a ction s in clu de th e
follow in g:
• On e stu den t h elps a n oth er stu den t to u se a
r efer en ce sou r ce in th e libr a r y.
• Two stu den ts wh o a r e n eigh bou r s gr eet
ea ch oth er in th e u n iver sity sh op.
• Two stu den ts wh o a r e com pletin g sepa r a te
a ssign m en ts exch a n ge view s on h ow to
com plete th e a ssign m en t.
• On e stu den t a dvises a n ew stu den t on th e
loca tion of th e coffee ba r.
• On e stu den t welcom es a n oth er stu den t to a
clu b or socia l even t.
• On e stu den t w a tch es a n oth er stu den t u se
th e CD-ROM a n d th er eby lea r n s h ow to
oper a te th is.
• A gr ou p of stu den ts pla n a n ou tin g togeth er.
• A gr ou p of stu den ts en ga ge in a gr ou p
a ssign m en t.
In oth er in sta n ces th e exch a n ge m ay be n e ga tive, su fficien tly so th a t it over r ides oth er
elem en ts of th e exper ien ce th a t m ay be m or e
th a n sa tisfa ctor y.
Poten tia lly n ega tiv e in ter a ction s in clu de
th e follow in g:
[ 15 ]
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
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• A gr ou p of stu den ts discu ss th eir n ext
a ssign m en t n oisily in th e libr a r y.
• On e stu den t h a s a lr ea dy bor r owed th e book
r equ ir ed by a n oth er stu den t.
• Th er e is a qu eu e for a ccess to com pu ter s in
th e IT wor k sh op.
• In a gr ou p a ssign m en t, on e stu den t does n ot
m a k e a n a dequ a te con tr ibu tion .
• A stu den t is offen sively dir ty a n d sm elly.
• Stu den ts a r e u n tidy in th e coffee ba r a n d
leave litter.
• Som e stu den ts a r e n oisy a n d disr u ptive
du r in g a lectu r e.
• On e stu den t plays lou d m u sic in h is r oom
u n til 3.00 a .m .
It is im por ta n t to n ote th a t su ch exper ien ces
ca n on ly be cla ssified a s poten tia lly n e ga tive
or poten tia lly positive, sin ce th e a ctu a l
n a tu r e of th e exper ien ce is in flu en ced by th e
per ception of th e stu den t.
Th e in stin ctive r ea ction of ser vice
pr ovider s is to a ssu m e th a t cu stom er -tocu stom er in ter a ction s a r e beyon d th eir con tr ol a n d in deed, in en vir on m en ts su ch a s
r eta ilin g a n d ba n k in g wh er e th e tim e per iod
du r in g wh ich two people m igh t be in th e
ser vice en vir on m en t is r ela tively sh or t, th e
ser vice pr ovider n eeds to focu s on th e stu den t/ ser vice a gen t in ter a ction . However, in
m a n y leisu r e a n d edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts
wh er e th e cu stom er spen ds a lon ger per iod of
tim e in th e en vir on m en t a n d per iods of 30
m in u tes a n d u p to a few h ou r s a r e typica l, th e
sign ifica n ce of stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction
is gr ea ter a n d m ay be m or e sign ifica n t th a n
th e cu stom er -to-ser vice a gen t in ter a ction .
N ote, a lso, th a t th er e w ill be occa sion s on
wh ich , in a n exper ien ce wh ich in volves stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction , som e pa r ties m ay
per ceive th e in ter a ction to be positive wh ile
oth er s m ay per ceive it to be n e ga tive. To ta k e
a sim ple exa m ple, a s on e stu den t a ssists
a n oth er stu den t w ith ch a n ge for th e ph otocopier, th ese two m igh t view th e exper ien ce
a s su ppor tive a n d positive. Oth er s w a itin g in
th e qu eu e for th e ph otocopier m ay view th e
delay ca u sed by th is tr a n sa ction a s
u n w a r r a n ted, a n d yet oth er cu stom er s m ay
fin d th e exch a n ge distr a ctin g.
The broader perspective:
customer compatibility and quality
Th e objective of effective cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t is a n en h a n cem en t of th e
“ser vice exper ien ce”. In oth er wor ds, a ppr opr ia te m a n a gem en t of stu den t-to-stu den t
in ter a ction con tr ibu tes to th e qu a lity of th e
stu den t’s exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion , a n d
ca n be viewed a s a com pon en t in a tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t (TQM) pr ocess. A u sefu l
[ 16 ]
defin ition of “qu a lity of edu ca tion ” is offer ed
by Gor don a n d P a r tin gton [3]:
Th e su ccess w ith wh ich a n in stitu tion pr ovides edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts wh ich
en a ble stu den ts effectively to a ch ieve wor k a ble lea r n in g goa ls, in clu din g a ppr opr ia te
a ca dem ic sta n da r ds.
Th is defin ition in cor por a tes th e ter m “edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t”; su ch a n en vir on m en t
m u st in clu de th e oth er pa r ticipa n ts.
Most h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s h ave a n
im plicit or explicit m ission , to offer a h igh
qu a lity lea r n in g exper ien ce to a ll of th eir
stu den ts. In seek in g to en h a n ce th e qu a lity of
th e tota l exper ien ce, a n u m ber of in stitu tion s
h ave sta r ted to in vestiga te a ppr oa ch es to
qu a lity system s. For exa m ple, Ha r t a n d
Sh oolbr ed[4] cite Wolver h a m pton Un iver sity
a s seek in g r e gistr a tion u n der BS 5750 a n d a
n u m ber of oth er u n iver sities a s ta k in g th e
TQM pa th , in clu din g Aston , Sou th ba n k ,
Rober t Gor don s a n d Wolver h a m pton . Oth er
con tr ibu tion s wh ich descr ibe con tr ibu tion s
in th is a r ea in clu de Ma r ch ese[5], E well[6] a n d
Cor n esk y[7]. A n u m ber of oth er a u th or s cite
exa m ples of fa cu lty or depa r tm en t-ba sed
im plem en ta tion of TQM. For exa m ple
Bolton [8] descr ibes th e im plem en ta tion of
TQM in th e Ma n a gem en t Sch ool of La n ca ster
Un iver sity.
TQM is defi n ed a s m a n a gin g th e en tir e
or ga n iza tion so th a t it excels in a ll dim en sion s of pr odu cts a n d ser vices wh ich a r e
im por ta n t to th e cu stom er s[9]. E xcellen ce in
a TQM or ga n iza tion is defi n ed by cu stom er
r equ ir em en ts a n d n eeds. Im plem en ta tion of
TQM r equ ir es th e cr ea tion of a n or ga n iza tion -w ide str u ctu r a l system th a t a llow s a ll
m em ber s of th e or ga n iza tion to pa r ticipa te in
pla n n in g a n d im plem en tin g con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t in a ll a spects of its oper a tion s.
TQM is a people-cen tr ed a ppr oa ch to m a n a gem en t[10]:
TQM is a bou t people w ith in th e or ga n iza tion a n d people ou tside. It is a bou t people
w ith in th e or ga n iza tion wor k in g to th eir fu ll
poten tia l, r esu ltin g in in cr ea sed cu stom er
sa tisfa ction ou tside th e or ga n iza tion .
Th e m a in elem en ts of TQM a s su m m a r ized by
Taylor a n d Hill[11,12] a r e:
• th e con ceptu a liza tion of qu a lity a s cu stom er s’ per ception s;
• th e n otion of in ter n a l a s well a s exter n a l
cu stom er s;
• th e con cen tr a tion on pr even tion to elim in a te w a ste, r edu ce costs a n d a ch ieve er r or
fr ee pr ocesses;
• eva lu a tion of in ter n a l pr odu cts eith er by
th e im m edia te cu stom er or pr efer a bly by
th e pr ecedin g pr ocessor ;
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
pe rspe c tive o n stude nt-to stude nt suppo rt in highe r
e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
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In TQM, the c usto me r’ s
re quire me nts drive the
pursuit fo r impro ve d quality.
In c usto me r c apability
manage me nt, the c usto me r
is e nc o urage d to partic ipate
in the c o ntinual
impro ve me nt pro c e ss, no t
o nly by pro viding fe e dbac k
o n the ir re quire me nts, but
also by o ffe ring mutual
suppo rt to o the r c usto me rs.
• th e idea of con tin u ou s self-im pr ovem en t,
cla ssifyin g TQM or ga n iza tion s a s lea r n in g
system s;
• th e n eed for tim ely m ea su r es of, a n d feedba ck on , per for m a n ce th r ou gh su per ior
qu a lity in for m a tion system s a n d m ea su r es
of th e cost of n on -con for m a n ce;
• th e in volvem en t a n d com m itm en t of a ll
em ployees in qu a lity m a tter s a n d con tin u ou s or ga n iza tion a l im pr ovem en t.
Lin [13] iden tifies two distin ct con texts in
wh ich TQM ca n be im plem en ted in h igh er
edu ca tion : a dm in istr a tion , a n d th e cla ssr oom . In th e con text of a dm in istr a tion , TQM
m u st em ph a size th e fa ct th a t im pr ovin g th e
system is pa r t of th e job descr iption of a ll
em ployees a n d a ca dem ic sta ff, a n d n ot ju st
a dm in istr a tion . Th e a dm in istr a tor ’s r ole is to
cr ea te a n en vir on m en t in wh ich sta ff, in dividu a lly or in tea m s, ca n do th eir best. Th ey
n eed to be in volved in TQM a s pa r ticipa n ts,
coa ch es, fa cilita tor s, com m u n ica tor s, dism a n tler s of ba r r ier s a n d im pedim en ts. In th e
con text of TQM in th e cla ssr oom , Lin pr oposes th e u se of th e TQM con cept “qu a lity a t
sou r ce”. E a ch wor k er is r espon sible for pa ssin g good qu a lity dow n th e lin e to su cceedin g
oper a tion s. Tr a n sla ted in to h igh er edu ca tion
ter m s, ea ch m em ber of a ca dem ic sta ff is
r espon sible for en su r in g th a t stu den ts leavin g th eir cou r se “con for m to r equ ir em en ts”.
Th e essen ce of TQM is sh ow in g people th e
vision , pr ovidin g th em w ith th e tools,
r esou r ces a n d feedba ck , a n d th en gettin g ou t
of th eir w ay a n d lettin g th em do th eir jobs.
Wh ile both a r e ver y distin ctly people a n d
in deed cu stom er or ien ted, th e gu lf between
TQM a n d cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t r ests w ith th e r ole of th e cu stom er. In
TQM, th e cu stom er ’s r equ ir em en ts dr ive th e
pu r su it for im pr oved qu a lity. In cu stom er
ca pa bility m a n a gem en t, th e cu stom er is
en cou r a ged to pa r ticipa te in th e con tin u a l
im pr ovem en t pr ocess, n ot on ly by pr ovidin g
feedba ck on th eir r equ ir em en ts, bu t a lso by
offer in g m u tu a l su ppor t to oth er cu stom er s.
Th is is pa r ticu la r ly im por ta n t in a n y ser vice
en vir on m en t wh er e cu stom er s spen d a n
exten ded per iod of tim e in a com m on ser vice
en vir on m en t, a n d m ay th er eby develop th eir
ow n su bcu ltu r e.
J oh n ston [14] str essed th e im por ta n ce of th e
cu stom er ’s r ole in ser vice oper a tion s a n d
su ggested th a t cu stom er m a n a gem en t sh ou ld
be a ppr oa ch ed in a sim ila r w ay to em ployee
m a n a gem en t. He iden tifi ed th e follow in g
cu stom er r oles:
1 pr ovision of explicit ser vices in th e follow in g for m s:
• self ser vices a s in su per m a r k ets;
• ser vices to oth er con su m er s, a s in pa r ticipa tion in a sem in a r or syn dica te gr ou p;
• ser vices pr ovided for th e or ga n iza tion ,
lik e r etu r n in g.
2 Cr ea tion of th e envir on m en t in con texts
wh er e th e a tm osph er e is pa r tly du e to
oth er cu stom er s.
3 Tr a in in g oth er cu stom er s – sin ce
cu stom er s obser ve on e a n oth er ’s con du ct.
4 P r ovision of in for m a tion in specifyin g
th eir r equ ir em en ts a n d pr ovidin g feedba ck a bou t sa tisfa ction .
J oh n ston [14] fu r th er a r gu ed th a t cu stom er
m a n a gem en t m igh t en com pa ss decidin g on
th e type of cu stom er wh o is w a n ted a n d h ow
to go a bou t cu stom er selection . Ser vice or ga n iza tion s a lso n eed to h ave pr ocedu r es for
“dea lin g w ith ” cu stom er s wh o do n ot “fi t”.
Pragmatic considerations
Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] n ote th e in cr ea sin g
isola tion of in dividu a ls a s th e divor ce r a te
in cr ea ses, fa m ily u n it sizes decr ea se, a n d
in dividu a ls spen d a gr ea ter pr opor tion of
th eir tim e a t wor k . If in n a te n eeds for a ffilia tion h ave n ot su bsided, con su m er s m ay be
in cr ea sin gly tu r n in g to m a r k etpla ce, wor k
a n d edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts to su pplem en t
in ter per son a l r ela tion sh ips tr a dition a lly
n u r tu r ed w ith in th e h om e a n d fa m ily. Oth er
tr en ds, su ch a s th e r isin g level of edu ca tion
a n d th e lower ava ila bility of leisu r e tim e m ay
in cr ea se th e selectivity of oth er in dividu a ls
w ith wh om con su m er s w ish to a ssocia te.
In a ddition to th ese socia l tr en ds, in cr ea sed
a tten tion to com pa tibility m a n a gem en t h a s a
n u m ber of poten tia l ben efits for or ga n iza tion s in gen er a l. Th ese a r e:
• As m or e com petition en ter s th e m a r k etpla ce, cu stom er s h ave m or e ch oices a n d
m ay gr avita te tow a r ds th ose ser vice en vir on m en ts w ith wh ich th ey a r e m ost com pa tible.
• Th e r eten tion of existin g cu stom er s is
a ffected by cu stom er sa tisfa ction .
• Ma n y ser vice or ga n iza tion s ben efi t fr om
m a n a gem en t pr a ctices th a t en cou r a ge
cu stom er s to socia lize or a ssim ila te less
exper ien ced cu stom er s in to th e ser vice.
In con sider in g a ll of th e ph ysica l con texts in
wh ich stu den ts in ter a ct in h igh er edu ca tion ,
som e of wh ich a r e listed ea r lier, it is eviden t
th a t m a n y of th ese ch a r a cter istics a pply to
differ in g a spects of stu den ts’ exper ien ce of
h igh er edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. It is th er efor e a ppr opr ia te to n ote th a t in su ch en vir on m en ts:
• Th er e is a w ide r a n ge of differ en t types of
h igh er edu ca tion pr ovision , wh ich a llow s
[ 17 ]
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
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stu den ts to select in stitu tion s on th e ba sis
of in stitu tion a l pr ofi le. On ce in th e in stitu tion th ey a r e lik ely to be h a ppier if th ey m ix
com for ta bly w ith oth er stu den ts w ith com pa tible beliefs, va lu es a n d m otiva tion s. A
h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion offer s pr ovision for m or e th a n on e gr ou p of stu den ts.
For exa m ple, th er e is a clea r distin ction
between fu ll-tim e a n d pa r t-tim e stu den ts.
F u ll-tim e stu den ts a r e often , bu t n ot a lw ays,
you n ger th a n pa r t-tim e stu den ts. Th ey a r e
seek in g a ba sis fr om wh ich to sta r t th eir
ca r eer s, h ave few r espon sibilities a n d a r e
in ten t on socia l in ter ch a n ge w ith sim ila r
in dividu a ls, for th e plea su r e a n d sen se of
iden tity th a t it pr ovides. Pa r t-tim e stu den ts,
on th e oth er h a n d, a r e often seek in g oppor tu n ities to a dva n ce th eir ca r eer s, m ay h ave
sign ifica n t wor k a n d fa m ily r espon sibilities, a n d ben efit fr om th e n etwor k of socia l
con tr a cts pr ovided by th e stu den t gr ou p. In
a ddition , pa r t-tim e stu den ts spen d less tim e
togeth er. Com pa tibility m a n a gem en t both
w ith in a n d between th ese two ca te gor ies
deser ves ca r efu l a tten tion .
• All h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s a r e con cer n ed to m a in ta in low dr op-ou t r a tes. Too
often stu den ts wh o seek to m ove fr om on e
in stitu tion to a n oth er, do so beca u se th ey
h ave n ot in te gr a ted effectively in to th e
stu den t gr ou p. In a ddition , in r ela tion to
stu den ts wh o con tin u e th eir stu dies on a
h igh er level cou r se, r eten tion is im por ta n t.
• Th e u se of, for in sta n ce, secon d-yea r u n der gr a du a te stu den ts in welcom in g fir st yea r
u n der gr a du a te stu den ts ca n h ave a ver y
ben eficia l effect in esta blish in g stu den t-tostu den t in ter a ction a n d in r ecogn izin g th e
con tr ibu tion of socia l in ter a ction to sa tisfa ction in a n edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t.
Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] a lso iden tify th e ch a r a cter istics of ser vice en vir on m en ts wh er e
com pa tibility m a n a gem en t is pa r ticu la r ly
im por ta n t. Su ch en vir on m en ts a r e ch a r a cter ized by a s follow s:
• Cu stom er s a r e in close ph ysica l pr oxim ity
a n d, in pa r ticu la r, cu stom er s in close pr oxim ity m ay h ave a gr ea ter in flu en ce on sa tisfa ction th a n th ose a t a dista n ce.
• Ver ba l in ter a ction a m on g cu stom er s is
lik ely, ow in g to cu stom er s visitin g th ese
en vir on m en ts in gr ou ps.
• Cu stom er s a r e en ga ged in n u m er ou s a n d
va r ied a ctivities.
• Th e ser vice en vir on m en t a ttr a cts a h eter ogen eou s cu stom er m ix a s is pa r ticu la r ly
lik ely to be th e ca se in pu blic ser vices, su ch
a s pu blic libr a r ies, tr a n spor t, leisu r e fa cilities a n d h ea lth cen tr es.
• Th e cor e ser vice is to offer com pa tibility or
socia l exch a n ge.
[ 18 ]
• Cu stom er s m ay h ave to w a it for th e ser vice.
• Cu stom er s a r e expected to sh a r e tim e,
spa ce or ser vice u ten sils w ith on e a n oth er.
In sta n ces of in com pa tibility ca n u su a lly be
tr a ced to som e for m of cu stom er h eter ogen eity. Cu stom er h eter ogen eity ca n a r ise fr om a
n u m ber of differ en t ser vices in clu din g:
• Cu stom er s m ay h ave h eter ogen eou s pr efer en ces, goa ls or sou gh t ben efits.
• Heter ogen eity m ay be fou n d in th e con text
of ster eotypica l or pr eju dicia l beliefs a n d
a ttitu des.
• Differ en ces in pa st exper ien ce often lea d to
in com pa tible fr a m es of r efer en ce.
• Cu stom er h eter ogen eity m ay stem fr om
va r ia bility in cu stom er s’ ph ysica l ch a r a cter istics a n d m edica l con dition s.
Oth er r eleva n t dim en sion s of cu stom er h eter ogen eity r ela te to differ en tia l levels of in telligen ce a n d a ptitu de, va r ied per ception s of
cr ow din g, con flictin g va lu e system s a n d per son a lity-r ela ted differ en ces in tr a its su ch a s
gen er osity, self-con sciou sn ess, self-esteem
a n d pa tien ce. Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] a lso
obser ve th a t cu stom er h eter ogen eity does n ot
a lw ays lea d to in com pa tibility.
Ten roles of customer compatibility
management
P r a n ter a n d Ma r tin [1] in tr odu ce th e
m eta ph or of th ea tr ica l r oles a s a device for
m a n a gin g cu stom er com pa tibility. Her e we
br iefly r eview th ese r oles a n d r eflect on th eir
a pplica bility to stu den t com pa tibility m a n a gem en t in h igh er edu ca tion . Th ese r oles
m ay, a t differ en t tim es a n d in differ en t con texts, n eed to be a dopted by a ll of th e ser vice
per son n el w ith wh om stu den ts in ter a ct.
Clea r ly, tu tor s n eed to con sider th ese r oles
wh en m a n a gin g a lea r n in g en vir on m en t in
wh ich stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction is
im por ta n t. E qu a lly, libr a r y m a n a ger s, esta tes
m a n a ger s, ca ter in g fa cility m a n a ger s a n d
oth er s wh o con tr ibu te to th e ser vice exper ien ce pr ovided by th e u n iver sity to its
cu stom er s, m igh t u sefu lly r eflect on th ese
pr oposed r oles:
1 R ifl em a n . Th e r ole of r iflem a n r epr esen ts
th e n eed to “sh oot a t” specifi c ta r get m a r k ets. Selected ta r get m a r k ets a r e by defi n ition som ewh a t h eter ogen eou s a n d th ese
a r e disposed to cu stom er ca pa bility. Aca dem ic m a n a ger s n eed to iden tify ta r get
gr ou ps a n d to con sider th e im plica tion s of
m a n a gin g th e differ en t gr ou ps.
2 En viron m en ta l en gin eer. Th e ph ysica l
en vir on m en t n eeds to be design ed in su ch
a w ay th a t it is lik ely to pr odu ce com pa tible beh aviou r s in cu stom er s. Th e en vir on -
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
pe rspe c tive o n stude nt-to stude nt suppo rt in highe r
e duc atio n
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3
4
5
6
7
m en ta l en gin eer con str u cts th e “scen er y”
a n d distr ibu tes “pr ops” in su ch a w ay a s to
m a k e cu stom er s a n d em ployees com pa tible a n d th er efor e lik ely to per for m in a n
a ccepta ble w ay. For exa m ple, sea tin g m ay
be position ed in r ow s or gr ou ps, in or der
to fa cilita te eith er in ter gr ou p or in tr a gr ou p com m u n ica tion . Décor a n d scen er y
m ay a lso be u sed to h ide oth er cu stom er s.
In edu ca tion , cla ssr oom a r r a n gem en t is a
m a jor fea tu r e of th e scen er y wh ich n eeds
to be cr itica lly position ed in or der th a t a n
a ppr opr ia te a tm osph er e w ith a m ixtu r e of
seclu sion a n d open n ess ca n be cr ea ted.
L egisla tor . Th e le gisla tor cr ea tes a com pa tible ser vice en vir on m en t th r ou gh th e
en a ctm en t of r u les a n d policies th a t gu ide
th e beh aviou r of pa tr on s. Typica lly th r ee
types of beh aviou r a r e n or m a lly
con tr olled:
• beh aviou r th a t oth er cu stom er s m ay fi n d
offen sive or dista stefu l, su ch a s ta k in g
sh oes off in cla ss;
• beh aviou r th a t in fr in ges on th e r igh ts of
oth er s, su ch a s n ot w a itin g in a qu eu e;
• beh aviou r th a t poten tia lly jeopa r dizes
th e h ea lth a n d sa fety of oth er s, su ch a s
sm ok in g.
M a tch m a k er. Th e m a tch m a k er seek s to
gr ou p cu stom er s togeth er in su ch a w ay a s
to a ch ieve gr ou p h om ogen eity w ith in
gr ou ps. Ma tch m a k in g m ay be design ed to
m in im ize con flicts or ir r ita tion s between
cu stom er s, by br in gin g cu stom er s of lik e
type togeth er.
T ea ch er. Tea ch er s pa ss on in for m a tion th a t
is in ten ded eith er to:
• in stil expecta tion s or n or m s, su ch a s n o
sm ok in g policies or pr a ctices a ssocia ted
w ith , say, h a n din g in a ssign m en ts on tim e; or
• edu ca te th e cu stom er w ith r espect to
h ow to u se th e ser vice, a s in , for exa m ple, a ccess to tu tor s, or libr a r y a ccess for
specific pr ojects.
S a n ta Cla u s. Th e Sa n ta Cla u s r ole is a ssocia ted w ith r ecogn izin g, r ew a r din g a n d
r ein for cin g desir a ble, a n d com pa tible
beh aviou r a m on g cu stom er s. Th is r ole is
often im plem en ted in for m a lly, for in sta n ce, by a tu tor th a n k in g a stu den t for
a ssistin g a n oth er stu den t a n d r ecogn izin g
th e stu den t’s con tr ibu tion to th e gr ou p. On
a m or e for m a l level, Sa n ta Cla u s m ay
r ew a r d cu stom er s by specia l aw a r ds for
“desir a ble beh aviou r ”.
Police officer. Th e n eed for th e police officer
r ole ca n be m in im ized by effective u se of
th e tea ch er a n d Sa n ta Cla u s r oles. Wh en
n ecessa r y, th e police officer en for ces sta n da r ds of beh aviou r. E xa m ples in clu de
a sk in g r ow dy stu den ts to be qu iet or in sist-
in g th a t stu den ts do n ot sm ok e in a n on sm ok in g en vir on m en t. At th e extr em e, th e
r ole in volves a sk in g u n co-oper a tive stu den ts to leave th e pr em ises. Wh ile th e r ole
of th e police officer sh ou ld be m in im ized,
a ll societies n eed r u les, a n d in or der th a t
th ese r u les a r e a ck n ow ledged a n d r espon ded to for th e m a jor ity of th e tim e, it is
im por ta n t to h ave a n a gen t to en for ce
th ese r u les wh en n ecessa r y.
8 Ch eerlea d er. Ch eer lea der s en cou r a ge cu stom er s to pu ll togeth er by con veyin g a
sen se of belon gin g a n d togeth er n ess. At its
sim plest th e ch eer lea der r ole is in eviden ce wh en a tea ch er tr igger s con ta ct
between two stu den ts.
9 Detectiv e. Th e detective n eeds to iden tify
in for m a tion on cu stom er com pa tibility
a n d to a scer ta in wh ich fea tu r es of oth er
cu stom er s ir r ita te fellow cu stom er s. Th e
detective h a s a fa ct-fin din g r ole wh ich
a ssists oth er r oles th u s:
• h elp th e r iflem a n to fin d com pa tible
ta r get m a r k ets;
• h elp th e le gisla tor to dr a ft a ppr opr ia te
codes of con du ct;
• en su r e th a t th e m a tch m a k er u tilizes th e
optim u m ba ses for se gr e ga tion ;
• m on itor th e effectiven ess of th e tea ch er
a n d th e en vir on m en ta l en gin eer ;
• a ler t th e police officer a n d Sa n ta Cla u s
a s to wh ich cu stom er ’s beh aviou r
r equ ir es a tten tion .
10 Director . Th e dir ector h a s r espon sibility
for m a n a gin g th e cu stom er com pa tibility
pr ogr a m m e. Th e r ole in volves polish in g
th e scr ipt, ca stin g th e oth er r oles, coa ch in g th e a ctor s a n d in spir in g th em to per for m well, a n d oth er w ise over seein g cu stom er -to-cu stom er en cou n ter s.
Conclusion
Th is a r ticle em ph a sizes th e n eed to a tten d to
cu stom er -to-cu stom er in ter a ction in th e
h igh er edu ca tion en vir on m en t. It a r gu es th a t
stu den ts’ sa tisfa ction or dissa tisfa ction w ith
th eir exper ien ce of a u n iver sity m ay be sign ifica n tly in flu en ced by th eir exper ien ce of
oth er stu den ts, a lth ou gh th ey m ay be r elu cta n t to com m en t on th e beh aviou r of oth er
stu den ts. Cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t su pplem en ts oth er a ppr oa ch es to qu a lity im pr ovem en t, su ch a s TQM. Tu tor s a n d
m a n a ger s of th e edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t
h ave a lw ays r ecogn ized th a t som e fea tu r es of
stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction n eed to be
m a n a ged. Th is a r ticle bor r ow s som e con cepts
fr om th e ser vices m a r k etin g liter a tu r e a n d
pr oposes a m or e focu sed a n d com pr eh en sive
cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e.
[ 19 ]
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
pe rspe c tive o n stude nt-to stude nt suppo rt in highe r
e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 5 –2 0
Th e th ea tr ica l m eta ph or is u sed to illu str a te th e r oles a n d fu n ction s th a t n eed to be
a da pted in a com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e. Th e im plem en ta tion of a cu stom er
com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e is
lik ely to be m ost su ccessfu l in a n en vir on m en t wh er e th er e is a lr ea dy a com m itm en t to
en h a n cin g qu a lity a n d wh er e pr ocesses for
th e im pr ovem en t of qu a lity a r e pa r t of th e
or ga n iza tion a l cu ltu r e. Th e r oles th a t n eed to
be eviden t in a cu stom er com pa tibility pr ogr a m m e n eed to be a dopted by differ en t m em ber s of sta ff in differ en t con texts. F u r th er
investiga tion con cer n in g th e w ay in wh ich
th ese r oles ca n be em bedded in a h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion , pr oba bly th r ou gh a ser ies
of ca se stu dies cover in g differ en t types of
in stitu tion , wou ld be va lu a ble.
References
1 P r a n ter, C.A. a n d Ma r tin , C.L., “Com pa tibility
m a n a gem en t r oles in ser vice per for m er s”,
J ou r n a l of S er vices M a rk etin g, Vol. 5 N o. 2,
1991, pp. 43-53.
2 Woods, P., “Cr itica l even ts in edu ca tion ”,
B r itish J ou r n a l of S ociolog y of Ed u ca tion ,
Vol. 14 N o. 4, 1993, pp. 355-71.
3 Gor don , G. a n d P a r tin gton , P., Qu a lity in
High er Ed u ca tion : Ov er view a n d Upd a te, USDU
Br iefi n g P a per N o. 3, USDU, Sh effield, 1993.
4 Ha r t, C. a n d Sh oolbr ed, M., “Or ga n iza tion a l
cu ltu r e, r ew a r ds a n d qu a lity in h igh er edu ca tion ”, Qu a lity A ssu ra n ce in Ed u ca tion , Vol. 1
N o. 2, 1993, pp. 22-9.
[ 20 ]
5 Ma r ch ese, T., “TQM r ea ch es th e a ca dem y”,
A HHE B u lletin , N o. 44 Vol. 3, 1991, pp. 3-9.
6 E well, P.T., “Assessm en t a n d TQM: in sea r ch of
con ver gen ce”, N ew Direction s for In stitu tion a l
R esea rch , Vol. 18 N o. 3, 1991, pp. 39-52.
7 Cor n esk y, R., Im plem en tin g T ota l Qu a lity
M a n a gem en t in High er Ed u ca tion , Ma gn a r
P u blica tion s, Ma dison , WI, 1991.
8 Bolton , A., “A r ose by a n y oth er n a m e: TQM in
h igh er edu ca tion ”, Qu a lity A ssu ra n ce in Ed u ca tion , Vol. 3 N o. 2, 1995, pp. 13-8.
9 Ch a se, R.B. a n d Acqu ila n o, N.J ., Prod u ction
a n d Opera tion s M a n a gem en t: A L ife Cycle
A pproa ch , Ir w in , Hom ewood, IL, 1992.
10 PA Con su ltin g Gr ou p, T h e T ota l Qu a lity Ex per ien ce: A Gu id e for th e Con tin u in g J ou r n ey, PA
Con su ltin g Gr ou p, Lon don , 1990.
11 Taylor, A. a n d Hill, F.M., “Im plem en tin g TQM
in h igh er edu ca tion ”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of
Ed u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 6 N o. 4, 1992,
pp. 4-10.
12 Taylor, A. a n d Hill, F., “Qu a lity m a n a gem en t in
edu ca tion ”, Qu a lity A ssu ra n ce in Ed u ca tion ,
Vol. 1 N o. 1, 1993, pp. 21-8.
13 Lin , B., “Applica tion of tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t on th e ca m pu s”, T ra in in g for Qu a lity,
Vol. 1 N o. 3, 1993, pp. 34-8.
14 J oh n ston , R., “Th e cu stom er a s em ployee”,
In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of Prod u ction & Opera tion s M a n a gem en t, Vol. 9 N o. 5, 1989, pp. 15-23.
15 Ma r tin , C.L. a n d P r a n ter, C.A., “Com pa tibility
m a n a gem en t: cu stom er -to-cu stom er r ela tion sh ips in ser vice en vir on m en t”, J ou r n a l of
S er vices M a rk etin g, Vol. 3, 1989, pp. 5-15.
perspective on student-to-student support in higher
education
Jennifer E. Rowley He ad, Sc ho o l o f Manage me nt and So c ial Sc ie nc e s, Edge Hill
Unive rsity Co lle ge , Ormskirk, UK
Emphasizes the controllability
of customer-to-customer
interaction in the higher
education environment.
Argues that students’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with
their experience of a university may be signifi cantly
infl uenced by their experience of other students. Customer compatibility management supplements other
approaches to quality management, such as TQM.
Tutors and managers of the
educational environment have
always recognized that some
features of student-to-student
interaction need to be managed. Borrows some concepts
from the services marketing
literature and proposes a
more focused and comprehensive customer compatibility management programme.
Uses the theatrical metaphor
to illustrate the roles and
functions that need to be
adapted in a compatibility
management programme.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 4 [ 1996] 1 5 –2 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Introduction
As th e stu dy of th e ser vice exper ien ce w ith in
a w ide r a n ge of ser vice en vir on m en ts h a s
developed, th er e h a s been a n in cr ea sin g
r ecogn ition th a t cu stom er s’ sa tisfa ction is
often depen den t u pon th eir dir ect or in dir ect
in ter a ction s a s th ey sh a r e th e ser vice fa cility’s ph ysica l en vir on m en t. Cu stom er -tocu stom er in ter a ction ca n eith er en h a n ce or
im pover ish th e ser vice exper ien ce. For exa m ple, a k in d wor d or a plea sa n t sm ile fr om a
fellow cu stom er m ay m a k e th e ser vice exper ien ce m or e en joya ble, wh er ea s r ow dy a n d
obn oxiou s beh aviou r is lik ely to h ave th e
opposite effect. In deed, in edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts su ch a s cla sses a n d oth er in -ca m pu s loca tion s, stu den ts m ay often view stu den t-to-stu den t con ta ct a s a welcom e secon da r y objective. In a ddition , tu tor s h ave
lon g r ecogn ized th a t stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction ca n be a va lu a ble tool in su ppor tin g
effective lea r n in g.
Sin ce cu stom er -to-cu stom er in ter a ction
m ay sign ifica n tly a ffect cu stom er sa tisfa ction
a n d th er eby th e lik elih ood of a r etu r n visit, it
is im por ta n t for ser vice m a n a ger s to be sen sitive to cu stom er -to-cu stom er r ela tion sh ips,
a n d th e beh aviou r s th a t str en gth en a n d
wea k en th ese r ela tion sh ips. Mor e specifica lly,
tu tor s n eed to a ppr ecia te wh a t ca n be don e to
m a n a ge or positively in fl u en ce th e w ay in
wh ich stu den ts a ffect on e a n oth er a n d th e
m ech a n ism s by wh ich th ey ca n su ppor t on e
a n oth er ’s exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion .
Th is a r ticle r eview s th e con cepts a ssocia ted
w ith cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t.
Specifica lly, it r eview s th e r oles in volved in
cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr oposed by P r a n ter a n d Ma r tin [1] a n d con sider s
th eir a pplica bility to cu stom er com pa tibility
m a n a gem en t in th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce in h igh er edu ca tion .
Th e a r ticle ta k es a br oa d per spective on th e
stu den t exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion , in
k eepin g w ith a tota l ser vice per spective
r a th er th a n focu sin g specifica lly on th e lea r n in g exper ien ce in th e sen se of for m a l lea r n in g
in a specifica lly tu tor -m a n a ged en vir on m en t.
Th is per spective is r e ga r ded a s a ppr opr ia te
sin ce th er e is con sider a ble eviden ce th a t th e
“eth os of th e stu den t en vir on m en t” does h ave
a n im pa ct on stu den t a ch ievem en t (see
e.g. [2]).
Customer-to-customer interaction
in higher education
Stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction s m ay ta k e
pla ce in h igh er edu ca tion in a va r iety of differ en t con texts, for exa m ple:
• cla ssr oom – in clu din g lectu r e, gr ou pwor k ,
etc.;
• stu den t a ssign m en ts – in dividu a l or gr ou p;
• coffee ba r / din in g r oom ;
• libr a r y;
• socia l even ts a n d clu bs;
• h a lls of r esiden ce;
• IT wor k sh op;
• u n iver sity sh ops a n d ba n k s.
Clea r ly, in som e of th ese in sta n ces, th e stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction m ay be positive
beca u se eith er :
• it a ssists th e stu den t to lea r n m or e effectively; or
• th e stu den t en joys th e socia l exch a n ge for
its ow n sa k e.
Poten tia lly positive in ter a ction s in clu de th e
follow in g:
• On e stu den t h elps a n oth er stu den t to u se a
r efer en ce sou r ce in th e libr a r y.
• Two stu den ts wh o a r e n eigh bou r s gr eet
ea ch oth er in th e u n iver sity sh op.
• Two stu den ts wh o a r e com pletin g sepa r a te
a ssign m en ts exch a n ge view s on h ow to
com plete th e a ssign m en t.
• On e stu den t a dvises a n ew stu den t on th e
loca tion of th e coffee ba r.
• On e stu den t welcom es a n oth er stu den t to a
clu b or socia l even t.
• On e stu den t w a tch es a n oth er stu den t u se
th e CD-ROM a n d th er eby lea r n s h ow to
oper a te th is.
• A gr ou p of stu den ts pla n a n ou tin g togeth er.
• A gr ou p of stu den ts en ga ge in a gr ou p
a ssign m en t.
In oth er in sta n ces th e exch a n ge m ay be n e ga tive, su fficien tly so th a t it over r ides oth er
elem en ts of th e exper ien ce th a t m ay be m or e
th a n sa tisfa ctor y.
Poten tia lly n ega tiv e in ter a ction s in clu de
th e follow in g:
[ 15 ]
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
pe rspe c tive o n stude nt-to stude nt suppo rt in highe r
e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
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• A gr ou p of stu den ts discu ss th eir n ext
a ssign m en t n oisily in th e libr a r y.
• On e stu den t h a s a lr ea dy bor r owed th e book
r equ ir ed by a n oth er stu den t.
• Th er e is a qu eu e for a ccess to com pu ter s in
th e IT wor k sh op.
• In a gr ou p a ssign m en t, on e stu den t does n ot
m a k e a n a dequ a te con tr ibu tion .
• A stu den t is offen sively dir ty a n d sm elly.
• Stu den ts a r e u n tidy in th e coffee ba r a n d
leave litter.
• Som e stu den ts a r e n oisy a n d disr u ptive
du r in g a lectu r e.
• On e stu den t plays lou d m u sic in h is r oom
u n til 3.00 a .m .
It is im por ta n t to n ote th a t su ch exper ien ces
ca n on ly be cla ssified a s poten tia lly n e ga tive
or poten tia lly positive, sin ce th e a ctu a l
n a tu r e of th e exper ien ce is in flu en ced by th e
per ception of th e stu den t.
Th e in stin ctive r ea ction of ser vice
pr ovider s is to a ssu m e th a t cu stom er -tocu stom er in ter a ction s a r e beyon d th eir con tr ol a n d in deed, in en vir on m en ts su ch a s
r eta ilin g a n d ba n k in g wh er e th e tim e per iod
du r in g wh ich two people m igh t be in th e
ser vice en vir on m en t is r ela tively sh or t, th e
ser vice pr ovider n eeds to focu s on th e stu den t/ ser vice a gen t in ter a ction . However, in
m a n y leisu r e a n d edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts
wh er e th e cu stom er spen ds a lon ger per iod of
tim e in th e en vir on m en t a n d per iods of 30
m in u tes a n d u p to a few h ou r s a r e typica l, th e
sign ifica n ce of stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction
is gr ea ter a n d m ay be m or e sign ifica n t th a n
th e cu stom er -to-ser vice a gen t in ter a ction .
N ote, a lso, th a t th er e w ill be occa sion s on
wh ich , in a n exper ien ce wh ich in volves stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction , som e pa r ties m ay
per ceive th e in ter a ction to be positive wh ile
oth er s m ay per ceive it to be n e ga tive. To ta k e
a sim ple exa m ple, a s on e stu den t a ssists
a n oth er stu den t w ith ch a n ge for th e ph otocopier, th ese two m igh t view th e exper ien ce
a s su ppor tive a n d positive. Oth er s w a itin g in
th e qu eu e for th e ph otocopier m ay view th e
delay ca u sed by th is tr a n sa ction a s
u n w a r r a n ted, a n d yet oth er cu stom er s m ay
fin d th e exch a n ge distr a ctin g.
The broader perspective:
customer compatibility and quality
Th e objective of effective cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t is a n en h a n cem en t of th e
“ser vice exper ien ce”. In oth er wor ds, a ppr opr ia te m a n a gem en t of stu den t-to-stu den t
in ter a ction con tr ibu tes to th e qu a lity of th e
stu den t’s exper ien ce of h igh er edu ca tion , a n d
ca n be viewed a s a com pon en t in a tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t (TQM) pr ocess. A u sefu l
[ 16 ]
defin ition of “qu a lity of edu ca tion ” is offer ed
by Gor don a n d P a r tin gton [3]:
Th e su ccess w ith wh ich a n in stitu tion pr ovides edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts wh ich
en a ble stu den ts effectively to a ch ieve wor k a ble lea r n in g goa ls, in clu din g a ppr opr ia te
a ca dem ic sta n da r ds.
Th is defin ition in cor por a tes th e ter m “edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t”; su ch a n en vir on m en t
m u st in clu de th e oth er pa r ticipa n ts.
Most h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s h ave a n
im plicit or explicit m ission , to offer a h igh
qu a lity lea r n in g exper ien ce to a ll of th eir
stu den ts. In seek in g to en h a n ce th e qu a lity of
th e tota l exper ien ce, a n u m ber of in stitu tion s
h ave sta r ted to in vestiga te a ppr oa ch es to
qu a lity system s. For exa m ple, Ha r t a n d
Sh oolbr ed[4] cite Wolver h a m pton Un iver sity
a s seek in g r e gistr a tion u n der BS 5750 a n d a
n u m ber of oth er u n iver sities a s ta k in g th e
TQM pa th , in clu din g Aston , Sou th ba n k ,
Rober t Gor don s a n d Wolver h a m pton . Oth er
con tr ibu tion s wh ich descr ibe con tr ibu tion s
in th is a r ea in clu de Ma r ch ese[5], E well[6] a n d
Cor n esk y[7]. A n u m ber of oth er a u th or s cite
exa m ples of fa cu lty or depa r tm en t-ba sed
im plem en ta tion of TQM. For exa m ple
Bolton [8] descr ibes th e im plem en ta tion of
TQM in th e Ma n a gem en t Sch ool of La n ca ster
Un iver sity.
TQM is defi n ed a s m a n a gin g th e en tir e
or ga n iza tion so th a t it excels in a ll dim en sion s of pr odu cts a n d ser vices wh ich a r e
im por ta n t to th e cu stom er s[9]. E xcellen ce in
a TQM or ga n iza tion is defi n ed by cu stom er
r equ ir em en ts a n d n eeds. Im plem en ta tion of
TQM r equ ir es th e cr ea tion of a n or ga n iza tion -w ide str u ctu r a l system th a t a llow s a ll
m em ber s of th e or ga n iza tion to pa r ticipa te in
pla n n in g a n d im plem en tin g con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t in a ll a spects of its oper a tion s.
TQM is a people-cen tr ed a ppr oa ch to m a n a gem en t[10]:
TQM is a bou t people w ith in th e or ga n iza tion a n d people ou tside. It is a bou t people
w ith in th e or ga n iza tion wor k in g to th eir fu ll
poten tia l, r esu ltin g in in cr ea sed cu stom er
sa tisfa ction ou tside th e or ga n iza tion .
Th e m a in elem en ts of TQM a s su m m a r ized by
Taylor a n d Hill[11,12] a r e:
• th e con ceptu a liza tion of qu a lity a s cu stom er s’ per ception s;
• th e n otion of in ter n a l a s well a s exter n a l
cu stom er s;
• th e con cen tr a tion on pr even tion to elim in a te w a ste, r edu ce costs a n d a ch ieve er r or
fr ee pr ocesses;
• eva lu a tion of in ter n a l pr odu cts eith er by
th e im m edia te cu stom er or pr efer a bly by
th e pr ecedin g pr ocessor ;
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In TQM, the c usto me r’ s
re quire me nts drive the
pursuit fo r impro ve d quality.
In c usto me r c apability
manage me nt, the c usto me r
is e nc o urage d to partic ipate
in the c o ntinual
impro ve me nt pro c e ss, no t
o nly by pro viding fe e dbac k
o n the ir re quire me nts, but
also by o ffe ring mutual
suppo rt to o the r c usto me rs.
• th e idea of con tin u ou s self-im pr ovem en t,
cla ssifyin g TQM or ga n iza tion s a s lea r n in g
system s;
• th e n eed for tim ely m ea su r es of, a n d feedba ck on , per for m a n ce th r ou gh su per ior
qu a lity in for m a tion system s a n d m ea su r es
of th e cost of n on -con for m a n ce;
• th e in volvem en t a n d com m itm en t of a ll
em ployees in qu a lity m a tter s a n d con tin u ou s or ga n iza tion a l im pr ovem en t.
Lin [13] iden tifies two distin ct con texts in
wh ich TQM ca n be im plem en ted in h igh er
edu ca tion : a dm in istr a tion , a n d th e cla ssr oom . In th e con text of a dm in istr a tion , TQM
m u st em ph a size th e fa ct th a t im pr ovin g th e
system is pa r t of th e job descr iption of a ll
em ployees a n d a ca dem ic sta ff, a n d n ot ju st
a dm in istr a tion . Th e a dm in istr a tor ’s r ole is to
cr ea te a n en vir on m en t in wh ich sta ff, in dividu a lly or in tea m s, ca n do th eir best. Th ey
n eed to be in volved in TQM a s pa r ticipa n ts,
coa ch es, fa cilita tor s, com m u n ica tor s, dism a n tler s of ba r r ier s a n d im pedim en ts. In th e
con text of TQM in th e cla ssr oom , Lin pr oposes th e u se of th e TQM con cept “qu a lity a t
sou r ce”. E a ch wor k er is r espon sible for pa ssin g good qu a lity dow n th e lin e to su cceedin g
oper a tion s. Tr a n sla ted in to h igh er edu ca tion
ter m s, ea ch m em ber of a ca dem ic sta ff is
r espon sible for en su r in g th a t stu den ts leavin g th eir cou r se “con for m to r equ ir em en ts”.
Th e essen ce of TQM is sh ow in g people th e
vision , pr ovidin g th em w ith th e tools,
r esou r ces a n d feedba ck , a n d th en gettin g ou t
of th eir w ay a n d lettin g th em do th eir jobs.
Wh ile both a r e ver y distin ctly people a n d
in deed cu stom er or ien ted, th e gu lf between
TQM a n d cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t r ests w ith th e r ole of th e cu stom er. In
TQM, th e cu stom er ’s r equ ir em en ts dr ive th e
pu r su it for im pr oved qu a lity. In cu stom er
ca pa bility m a n a gem en t, th e cu stom er is
en cou r a ged to pa r ticipa te in th e con tin u a l
im pr ovem en t pr ocess, n ot on ly by pr ovidin g
feedba ck on th eir r equ ir em en ts, bu t a lso by
offer in g m u tu a l su ppor t to oth er cu stom er s.
Th is is pa r ticu la r ly im por ta n t in a n y ser vice
en vir on m en t wh er e cu stom er s spen d a n
exten ded per iod of tim e in a com m on ser vice
en vir on m en t, a n d m ay th er eby develop th eir
ow n su bcu ltu r e.
J oh n ston [14] str essed th e im por ta n ce of th e
cu stom er ’s r ole in ser vice oper a tion s a n d
su ggested th a t cu stom er m a n a gem en t sh ou ld
be a ppr oa ch ed in a sim ila r w ay to em ployee
m a n a gem en t. He iden tifi ed th e follow in g
cu stom er r oles:
1 pr ovision of explicit ser vices in th e follow in g for m s:
• self ser vices a s in su per m a r k ets;
• ser vices to oth er con su m er s, a s in pa r ticipa tion in a sem in a r or syn dica te gr ou p;
• ser vices pr ovided for th e or ga n iza tion ,
lik e r etu r n in g.
2 Cr ea tion of th e envir on m en t in con texts
wh er e th e a tm osph er e is pa r tly du e to
oth er cu stom er s.
3 Tr a in in g oth er cu stom er s – sin ce
cu stom er s obser ve on e a n oth er ’s con du ct.
4 P r ovision of in for m a tion in specifyin g
th eir r equ ir em en ts a n d pr ovidin g feedba ck a bou t sa tisfa ction .
J oh n ston [14] fu r th er a r gu ed th a t cu stom er
m a n a gem en t m igh t en com pa ss decidin g on
th e type of cu stom er wh o is w a n ted a n d h ow
to go a bou t cu stom er selection . Ser vice or ga n iza tion s a lso n eed to h ave pr ocedu r es for
“dea lin g w ith ” cu stom er s wh o do n ot “fi t”.
Pragmatic considerations
Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] n ote th e in cr ea sin g
isola tion of in dividu a ls a s th e divor ce r a te
in cr ea ses, fa m ily u n it sizes decr ea se, a n d
in dividu a ls spen d a gr ea ter pr opor tion of
th eir tim e a t wor k . If in n a te n eeds for a ffilia tion h ave n ot su bsided, con su m er s m ay be
in cr ea sin gly tu r n in g to m a r k etpla ce, wor k
a n d edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts to su pplem en t
in ter per son a l r ela tion sh ips tr a dition a lly
n u r tu r ed w ith in th e h om e a n d fa m ily. Oth er
tr en ds, su ch a s th e r isin g level of edu ca tion
a n d th e lower ava ila bility of leisu r e tim e m ay
in cr ea se th e selectivity of oth er in dividu a ls
w ith wh om con su m er s w ish to a ssocia te.
In a ddition to th ese socia l tr en ds, in cr ea sed
a tten tion to com pa tibility m a n a gem en t h a s a
n u m ber of poten tia l ben efits for or ga n iza tion s in gen er a l. Th ese a r e:
• As m or e com petition en ter s th e m a r k etpla ce, cu stom er s h ave m or e ch oices a n d
m ay gr avita te tow a r ds th ose ser vice en vir on m en ts w ith wh ich th ey a r e m ost com pa tible.
• Th e r eten tion of existin g cu stom er s is
a ffected by cu stom er sa tisfa ction .
• Ma n y ser vice or ga n iza tion s ben efi t fr om
m a n a gem en t pr a ctices th a t en cou r a ge
cu stom er s to socia lize or a ssim ila te less
exper ien ced cu stom er s in to th e ser vice.
In con sider in g a ll of th e ph ysica l con texts in
wh ich stu den ts in ter a ct in h igh er edu ca tion ,
som e of wh ich a r e listed ea r lier, it is eviden t
th a t m a n y of th ese ch a r a cter istics a pply to
differ in g a spects of stu den ts’ exper ien ce of
h igh er edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. It is th er efor e a ppr opr ia te to n ote th a t in su ch en vir on m en ts:
• Th er e is a w ide r a n ge of differ en t types of
h igh er edu ca tion pr ovision , wh ich a llow s
[ 17 ]
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stu den ts to select in stitu tion s on th e ba sis
of in stitu tion a l pr ofi le. On ce in th e in stitu tion th ey a r e lik ely to be h a ppier if th ey m ix
com for ta bly w ith oth er stu den ts w ith com pa tible beliefs, va lu es a n d m otiva tion s. A
h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion offer s pr ovision for m or e th a n on e gr ou p of stu den ts.
For exa m ple, th er e is a clea r distin ction
between fu ll-tim e a n d pa r t-tim e stu den ts.
F u ll-tim e stu den ts a r e often , bu t n ot a lw ays,
you n ger th a n pa r t-tim e stu den ts. Th ey a r e
seek in g a ba sis fr om wh ich to sta r t th eir
ca r eer s, h ave few r espon sibilities a n d a r e
in ten t on socia l in ter ch a n ge w ith sim ila r
in dividu a ls, for th e plea su r e a n d sen se of
iden tity th a t it pr ovides. Pa r t-tim e stu den ts,
on th e oth er h a n d, a r e often seek in g oppor tu n ities to a dva n ce th eir ca r eer s, m ay h ave
sign ifica n t wor k a n d fa m ily r espon sibilities, a n d ben efit fr om th e n etwor k of socia l
con tr a cts pr ovided by th e stu den t gr ou p. In
a ddition , pa r t-tim e stu den ts spen d less tim e
togeth er. Com pa tibility m a n a gem en t both
w ith in a n d between th ese two ca te gor ies
deser ves ca r efu l a tten tion .
• All h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s a r e con cer n ed to m a in ta in low dr op-ou t r a tes. Too
often stu den ts wh o seek to m ove fr om on e
in stitu tion to a n oth er, do so beca u se th ey
h ave n ot in te gr a ted effectively in to th e
stu den t gr ou p. In a ddition , in r ela tion to
stu den ts wh o con tin u e th eir stu dies on a
h igh er level cou r se, r eten tion is im por ta n t.
• Th e u se of, for in sta n ce, secon d-yea r u n der gr a du a te stu den ts in welcom in g fir st yea r
u n der gr a du a te stu den ts ca n h ave a ver y
ben eficia l effect in esta blish in g stu den t-tostu den t in ter a ction a n d in r ecogn izin g th e
con tr ibu tion of socia l in ter a ction to sa tisfa ction in a n edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t.
Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] a lso iden tify th e ch a r a cter istics of ser vice en vir on m en ts wh er e
com pa tibility m a n a gem en t is pa r ticu la r ly
im por ta n t. Su ch en vir on m en ts a r e ch a r a cter ized by a s follow s:
• Cu stom er s a r e in close ph ysica l pr oxim ity
a n d, in pa r ticu la r, cu stom er s in close pr oxim ity m ay h ave a gr ea ter in flu en ce on sa tisfa ction th a n th ose a t a dista n ce.
• Ver ba l in ter a ction a m on g cu stom er s is
lik ely, ow in g to cu stom er s visitin g th ese
en vir on m en ts in gr ou ps.
• Cu stom er s a r e en ga ged in n u m er ou s a n d
va r ied a ctivities.
• Th e ser vice en vir on m en t a ttr a cts a h eter ogen eou s cu stom er m ix a s is pa r ticu la r ly
lik ely to be th e ca se in pu blic ser vices, su ch
a s pu blic libr a r ies, tr a n spor t, leisu r e fa cilities a n d h ea lth cen tr es.
• Th e cor e ser vice is to offer com pa tibility or
socia l exch a n ge.
[ 18 ]
• Cu stom er s m ay h ave to w a it for th e ser vice.
• Cu stom er s a r e expected to sh a r e tim e,
spa ce or ser vice u ten sils w ith on e a n oth er.
In sta n ces of in com pa tibility ca n u su a lly be
tr a ced to som e for m of cu stom er h eter ogen eity. Cu stom er h eter ogen eity ca n a r ise fr om a
n u m ber of differ en t ser vices in clu din g:
• Cu stom er s m ay h ave h eter ogen eou s pr efer en ces, goa ls or sou gh t ben efits.
• Heter ogen eity m ay be fou n d in th e con text
of ster eotypica l or pr eju dicia l beliefs a n d
a ttitu des.
• Differ en ces in pa st exper ien ce often lea d to
in com pa tible fr a m es of r efer en ce.
• Cu stom er h eter ogen eity m ay stem fr om
va r ia bility in cu stom er s’ ph ysica l ch a r a cter istics a n d m edica l con dition s.
Oth er r eleva n t dim en sion s of cu stom er h eter ogen eity r ela te to differ en tia l levels of in telligen ce a n d a ptitu de, va r ied per ception s of
cr ow din g, con flictin g va lu e system s a n d per son a lity-r ela ted differ en ces in tr a its su ch a s
gen er osity, self-con sciou sn ess, self-esteem
a n d pa tien ce. Ma r tin a n d P r a n ter [15] a lso
obser ve th a t cu stom er h eter ogen eity does n ot
a lw ays lea d to in com pa tibility.
Ten roles of customer compatibility
management
P r a n ter a n d Ma r tin [1] in tr odu ce th e
m eta ph or of th ea tr ica l r oles a s a device for
m a n a gin g cu stom er com pa tibility. Her e we
br iefly r eview th ese r oles a n d r eflect on th eir
a pplica bility to stu den t com pa tibility m a n a gem en t in h igh er edu ca tion . Th ese r oles
m ay, a t differ en t tim es a n d in differ en t con texts, n eed to be a dopted by a ll of th e ser vice
per son n el w ith wh om stu den ts in ter a ct.
Clea r ly, tu tor s n eed to con sider th ese r oles
wh en m a n a gin g a lea r n in g en vir on m en t in
wh ich stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction is
im por ta n t. E qu a lly, libr a r y m a n a ger s, esta tes
m a n a ger s, ca ter in g fa cility m a n a ger s a n d
oth er s wh o con tr ibu te to th e ser vice exper ien ce pr ovided by th e u n iver sity to its
cu stom er s, m igh t u sefu lly r eflect on th ese
pr oposed r oles:
1 R ifl em a n . Th e r ole of r iflem a n r epr esen ts
th e n eed to “sh oot a t” specifi c ta r get m a r k ets. Selected ta r get m a r k ets a r e by defi n ition som ewh a t h eter ogen eou s a n d th ese
a r e disposed to cu stom er ca pa bility. Aca dem ic m a n a ger s n eed to iden tify ta r get
gr ou ps a n d to con sider th e im plica tion s of
m a n a gin g th e differ en t gr ou ps.
2 En viron m en ta l en gin eer. Th e ph ysica l
en vir on m en t n eeds to be design ed in su ch
a w ay th a t it is lik ely to pr odu ce com pa tible beh aviou r s in cu stom er s. Th e en vir on -
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4
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m en ta l en gin eer con str u cts th e “scen er y”
a n d distr ibu tes “pr ops” in su ch a w ay a s to
m a k e cu stom er s a n d em ployees com pa tible a n d th er efor e lik ely to per for m in a n
a ccepta ble w ay. For exa m ple, sea tin g m ay
be position ed in r ow s or gr ou ps, in or der
to fa cilita te eith er in ter gr ou p or in tr a gr ou p com m u n ica tion . Décor a n d scen er y
m ay a lso be u sed to h ide oth er cu stom er s.
In edu ca tion , cla ssr oom a r r a n gem en t is a
m a jor fea tu r e of th e scen er y wh ich n eeds
to be cr itica lly position ed in or der th a t a n
a ppr opr ia te a tm osph er e w ith a m ixtu r e of
seclu sion a n d open n ess ca n be cr ea ted.
L egisla tor . Th e le gisla tor cr ea tes a com pa tible ser vice en vir on m en t th r ou gh th e
en a ctm en t of r u les a n d policies th a t gu ide
th e beh aviou r of pa tr on s. Typica lly th r ee
types of beh aviou r a r e n or m a lly
con tr olled:
• beh aviou r th a t oth er cu stom er s m ay fi n d
offen sive or dista stefu l, su ch a s ta k in g
sh oes off in cla ss;
• beh aviou r th a t in fr in ges on th e r igh ts of
oth er s, su ch a s n ot w a itin g in a qu eu e;
• beh aviou r th a t poten tia lly jeopa r dizes
th e h ea lth a n d sa fety of oth er s, su ch a s
sm ok in g.
M a tch m a k er. Th e m a tch m a k er seek s to
gr ou p cu stom er s togeth er in su ch a w ay a s
to a ch ieve gr ou p h om ogen eity w ith in
gr ou ps. Ma tch m a k in g m ay be design ed to
m in im ize con flicts or ir r ita tion s between
cu stom er s, by br in gin g cu stom er s of lik e
type togeth er.
T ea ch er. Tea ch er s pa ss on in for m a tion th a t
is in ten ded eith er to:
• in stil expecta tion s or n or m s, su ch a s n o
sm ok in g policies or pr a ctices a ssocia ted
w ith , say, h a n din g in a ssign m en ts on tim e; or
• edu ca te th e cu stom er w ith r espect to
h ow to u se th e ser vice, a s in , for exa m ple, a ccess to tu tor s, or libr a r y a ccess for
specific pr ojects.
S a n ta Cla u s. Th e Sa n ta Cla u s r ole is a ssocia ted w ith r ecogn izin g, r ew a r din g a n d
r ein for cin g desir a ble, a n d com pa tible
beh aviou r a m on g cu stom er s. Th is r ole is
often im plem en ted in for m a lly, for in sta n ce, by a tu tor th a n k in g a stu den t for
a ssistin g a n oth er stu den t a n d r ecogn izin g
th e stu den t’s con tr ibu tion to th e gr ou p. On
a m or e for m a l level, Sa n ta Cla u s m ay
r ew a r d cu stom er s by specia l aw a r ds for
“desir a ble beh aviou r ”.
Police officer. Th e n eed for th e police officer
r ole ca n be m in im ized by effective u se of
th e tea ch er a n d Sa n ta Cla u s r oles. Wh en
n ecessa r y, th e police officer en for ces sta n da r ds of beh aviou r. E xa m ples in clu de
a sk in g r ow dy stu den ts to be qu iet or in sist-
in g th a t stu den ts do n ot sm ok e in a n on sm ok in g en vir on m en t. At th e extr em e, th e
r ole in volves a sk in g u n co-oper a tive stu den ts to leave th e pr em ises. Wh ile th e r ole
of th e police officer sh ou ld be m in im ized,
a ll societies n eed r u les, a n d in or der th a t
th ese r u les a r e a ck n ow ledged a n d r espon ded to for th e m a jor ity of th e tim e, it is
im por ta n t to h ave a n a gen t to en for ce
th ese r u les wh en n ecessa r y.
8 Ch eerlea d er. Ch eer lea der s en cou r a ge cu stom er s to pu ll togeth er by con veyin g a
sen se of belon gin g a n d togeth er n ess. At its
sim plest th e ch eer lea der r ole is in eviden ce wh en a tea ch er tr igger s con ta ct
between two stu den ts.
9 Detectiv e. Th e detective n eeds to iden tify
in for m a tion on cu stom er com pa tibility
a n d to a scer ta in wh ich fea tu r es of oth er
cu stom er s ir r ita te fellow cu stom er s. Th e
detective h a s a fa ct-fin din g r ole wh ich
a ssists oth er r oles th u s:
• h elp th e r iflem a n to fin d com pa tible
ta r get m a r k ets;
• h elp th e le gisla tor to dr a ft a ppr opr ia te
codes of con du ct;
• en su r e th a t th e m a tch m a k er u tilizes th e
optim u m ba ses for se gr e ga tion ;
• m on itor th e effectiven ess of th e tea ch er
a n d th e en vir on m en ta l en gin eer ;
• a ler t th e police officer a n d Sa n ta Cla u s
a s to wh ich cu stom er ’s beh aviou r
r equ ir es a tten tion .
10 Director . Th e dir ector h a s r espon sibility
for m a n a gin g th e cu stom er com pa tibility
pr ogr a m m e. Th e r ole in volves polish in g
th e scr ipt, ca stin g th e oth er r oles, coa ch in g th e a ctor s a n d in spir in g th em to per for m well, a n d oth er w ise over seein g cu stom er -to-cu stom er en cou n ter s.
Conclusion
Th is a r ticle em ph a sizes th e n eed to a tten d to
cu stom er -to-cu stom er in ter a ction in th e
h igh er edu ca tion en vir on m en t. It a r gu es th a t
stu den ts’ sa tisfa ction or dissa tisfa ction w ith
th eir exper ien ce of a u n iver sity m ay be sign ifica n tly in flu en ced by th eir exper ien ce of
oth er stu den ts, a lth ou gh th ey m ay be r elu cta n t to com m en t on th e beh aviou r of oth er
stu den ts. Cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t su pplem en ts oth er a ppr oa ch es to qu a lity im pr ovem en t, su ch a s TQM. Tu tor s a n d
m a n a ger s of th e edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t
h ave a lw ays r ecogn ized th a t som e fea tu r es of
stu den t-to-stu den t in ter a ction n eed to be
m a n a ged. Th is a r ticle bor r ow s som e con cepts
fr om th e ser vices m a r k etin g liter a tu r e a n d
pr oposes a m or e focu sed a n d com pr eh en sive
cu stom er com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e.
[ 19 ]
Je nnife r E. Ro wle y
Custo me r c o mpatibility manage me nt: an alte rnative
pe rspe c tive o n stude nt-to stude nt suppo rt in highe r
e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 5 –2 0
Th e th ea tr ica l m eta ph or is u sed to illu str a te th e r oles a n d fu n ction s th a t n eed to be
a da pted in a com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e. Th e im plem en ta tion of a cu stom er
com pa tibility m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e is
lik ely to be m ost su ccessfu l in a n en vir on m en t wh er e th er e is a lr ea dy a com m itm en t to
en h a n cin g qu a lity a n d wh er e pr ocesses for
th e im pr ovem en t of qu a lity a r e pa r t of th e
or ga n iza tion a l cu ltu r e. Th e r oles th a t n eed to
be eviden t in a cu stom er com pa tibility pr ogr a m m e n eed to be a dopted by differ en t m em ber s of sta ff in differ en t con texts. F u r th er
investiga tion con cer n in g th e w ay in wh ich
th ese r oles ca n be em bedded in a h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion , pr oba bly th r ou gh a ser ies
of ca se stu dies cover in g differ en t types of
in stitu tion , wou ld be va lu a ble.
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[ 20 ]
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