Metaphors in English and Indonesian football news as found in The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2010 - USD Repository
METAPHORS IN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN
FOOTBALL NEWS AS FOUND IN THE JAKARTA POST AND
HARIAN KOMPAS FROM 15 TO 31 MARCH 2010
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
HARYO DIMASTO KRISTIYANTO
Student Number : 064214015
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATADHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
Bar skripsi, tesis! Bar tesis, disertasi!
For My Beloved Parents
In the Hope of a Better Future
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my Best Friend, ever, for His love, guidance, and strength He has poured into me. I believe that this thesis would never have come to its completion without His marvelous help.
My deepest gratitude goes to the dean of Faculty of Letters of Sanata Dharma University, Prof. Dr. Praptomo Baryadi Isodorus, my major sponsor, Dra.
B. Ria Lestari, M.S., and my co-sponsor, for their guidance, suggestions, and criticism. They have gone through an energy consuming journey in reading and correcting this thesis. To all my lecturers, my thanks go to them for their patience and dedication. They have brought my knowledge to a level needed to write this thesis.
I owe a special debt to my best friends, Hanz Sinelir, Yonathan Aditya Irawan, Aditya Kurniawan, Metodius Helfi Tristeawan, and Satrio Nugroho for being my language informants. They have shared their opinions with me. Their insight also helped me to interpret the metaphors.
My gratitude also goes to the inner circle of my life. To my parents, Bapak-Ibuk Sudaryanto, who always remind me of my duty, I especially dedicate this thesis. I thank my beloved motivator and inspiration, Tian Nugraheni, whose support from the distance always consoles me. Thanks to my sisters and brothers, Mbak Mumun, Mas Totok, Mbak Ai’, Mas Ari, Mas Yuko, Mbak Anna, De’ Adioz, my niece, Au’k, Taramoy, and Dancow who always support and love me.
Thanks to Zsick, Aceofspades, Lydia Ivony, Shanti, Rindy, Tessa, my friends for years, from whom I learned that a torture could turn into laughter. To those who help and support me in the hectic time, all my friends in A class 2006 all my friends in MEDICO-2009, and all my friends in Legend of Light, my special thanks go to them for their companionship and deep care.
Haryo Dimasto Kristiyanto
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLEi
APPROVAL
ii
ACCEPTANCE
iii
MOTTO
iv
DEDICATION
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ix
LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF DIAGRAM xii LIST OF SYMBOL xiii ABSTRACT
xiv
ABSTRAK
xv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A.
1 Background of the Study B.
6 Problem Formulation C.
7 Objectives of the Study D.
7 Definition of Terms
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW A.
8 Review of Related Studies B.
11 Review of Related Theories 1.
11 Metaphor 2.
14 Types of Metaphor 3.
18 Context and Meaning C.
21 Theoretical Framework
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY A.
22 Object of the Study B.
23 Method of the Study C.
24 Research Procedure 1.
24 Data Collecting 2.
24 Data Analysis
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS A.
27 Type of Lexical Metaphor 1.
28 English Metaphor a.
28 Synaesthetic Metaphor b.
37 Anthropomorphic Metaphor c.
45 Animal Metaphor d.
47 Metaphor from Concrete to Abstract e.
48 Mixed Metaphor
2.
51 Indonesian Metaphor a.
51 Synaesthetic Metaphor b.
60 Anthropomorphic Metaphor c.
69 Animal Metaphor d.
72 Metaphor from Concrete to Abstract e.
77 Mixed metaphor f.
81 Recapitulation B. The Characteristic of metaphor in English language and in Indonesian language
83 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION A.
92 Conclusion of the analysis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
99 APPENDICES
Appendices I. List of metaphor that most frequently used 101 Appendices II. Metaphor expression in English and Indonesian 103 Appendices III. Questionnaire 114
LIST OF TABLES
52 Table 12 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian language to show the process of the game
76 Table 21 Mixed metaphor in Indonesian language
73 Table 20 Referent changing of metaphor from concrete to abstract in Indonesian language to show the process of the game
71 Table 19 Metaphor from concrete to abstract in Indonesian language
70 Table 18 Referent changing of Animal metaphor in Indonesian language to show the process of the game
68 Table 17 Animal metaphor in Indonesian language
67 Table 16 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian language to show the process of the game
62 Table 15 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian language to show the process of the game
59 Table 14 Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian language
58 Table 13 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian language to show the result of the game
49 Table 11 Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian language
TABLES Table 1 Example
48 Table 10 Mixed metaphor in English language
46 Table 9 Metaphor from concrete to abstract in English language
45 Table 8 Animal metaphor in English language
44 Table 7 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in English language to show the process of the game
39 Table 6 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in English language to show the process of the game
37 Table 5 Anthropomorphic metaphor in English language
36 Table 4 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in English language to show the result of the game
30 Table 3 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in English language to show the process of the game
26 Table 2 Synaesthetic metaphor in English language
79
LIST OF DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM Diagram 1 The type of metaphor
17
LIST OF SYMBOL
SYMBOL : is regarded as
: means
ABSTRACT
Haryo Dimasto Kristiyanto. Metaphor in English and in Indonesian as Found in
The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2010. Yogyakarta:
Sanata Dharma University, 2012 This thesis talks about one aspect of semantics. The focus of its description is metaphorical expression used to express process and result of football game in football news articles, English and Indonesian printed newspaper. The interest of choosing metaphor as the focus of this research enhances after realizing that metaphor is a fundamental part of human conceptual system. Assuming that football is a part of people around the world including English and Indonesian people, and expression about some phenomena on football game could be found in two languages, the writer is interested in studying two languages.
Based on some theories about metaphor, the writer tries to search for kinds of lexical metaphorical expression then finds the characteristic between English and Indonesian metaphor. The data source from Indonesian printed media published in Indonesia, Harian KOMPAS and English printed media published in Indonesia, Jakarta Post, from 15-31 March 2010. The data are analyzed using interactive model of analysis, which comprises of three activities, i.e. reduction, presentation, and conclusion or verification.
The result shows that both English and Indonesian use lexical metaphors with fives specification, i.e synaesthetic, anthropomorphic, animal, metaphor from concrete to abstract, and mixed metaphor. Both English and Indonesian reveal football as a rough sport that shows in the use of violence terms in its metaphor expression, even though there are some term that are used in metaphor expression i.e. nature, daily activity, and technology. The use of metaphor expression is affected by the cultural background of language user. It is seen in the specific terms related to agricultural-technology for Indonesian terms, and industrial- technology for English terms.
ABSTRAK
Haryo Dimasto Kristiyanto. Metaphor in English and in Indonesian as Found in
The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2010 . Yogyakarta:
Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2012 Skribsi ini membicarakan satu aspek semantik. Fokus deskripsinya adalah ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan untuk mengekspresikan proses dan hasil dari pertandingan sepakbola di artikel berita sepakbola, pada media cetak surat kabar berbahasa Inggris dan Indonesia. Minat untuk mengambil metafor sebagai fokus penelitian ini timbul setelah menyadari akan keberadaan metafor sebagai bagian yang mendasar dari konsep pemikiran manusia. Berdasarkan anggapan bahwa sepak bola sudah menjadi bagian dari masyarakat dunia termasuk masyarakat Inggris dan masyarakat Indonesia, dan ekspresi tentang fenomena dalam pertandingan sepakbola dapat ditemukan dalam dua bahasa, penulis pun tertarik untuk mengkaji kedua bahasa tersebut.
Berdasarkan beberapa teori mengenai metafora, penulis berusaha untuk menelusuri jenis-jenis ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan dan kemudian mencari karakteristik dari masing-masing metaphor dalam bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia. Data diambil dari dari media cetak berbahasa Indonesia yang dipublikasikan di Indonesia, Harian KOMPAS dan media cetak berbahasa Inggris yang dipublikasikan di Indonesia, Jakarta Post, dari tanggal 15-31 Maret 2010. Data dianalisis menggunakan analisis model interaktif yang terdiri atas tiga aktivitas, yaitu reduksi, presentasi, dan kesimpulan atau verifikasi.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa baik bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia menggunakan metafora leksikal dengan lima spesifikasi, yaitu metafora sinestetik, metafora antropomorfis, metafora binatang, metafora perpindahan konsep dari konkret ke abstrak, dan metafora campuran. Baik bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia menampilkan sepakbola sebagai olah raga yang kasar yang terlihat dari penggunaan terminologi kekerasan pada ekspresi metaforisnya, meskipun ada juga beberapa terminologi lain yang digunakan, yaitu yang berkaitan dengan alam, aktivitas sehari-hari, dan teknologi. Penggunaan ekspresi metafor dipengaruhi oleh latar belakang budaya penuturnya. Hal ini terlihat dari terminologi spesifik yang berkaitan dengan teknologi-agrikultural yang ditemukan pada terminologi berbahasa Indonesia, dan teknologi-industri yang ditemukan pada terminologi berbahasa Inggris.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Football, association football, soccer, or whatever it be called, is a beautiful
game, which is loved by millions of people across the globe regardless of religion, caste or gender. Sports play a very important role for mankind and football is the easiest of sports to play because it is the common man‟s game. The first football game is thought to have originated in China around 2BC (community.siutao.com), it has clearly evolved but the basic rules and minimal equipment requirements are what make it so popular.
This game is very popular with the evidence that FIFA, football‟s world governing body, has 208 member countries and the game has fanatical followers in 80 of those countries and is amongst the top three sports in all the other member nations. It is played and followed by three billion people from China to England, Africa to South America, throughout Asia and Europe (www.sportingo.com)
The World Cup, the world football championship, is the largest sporting event in the world, played between 32 countries after qualifying stages involving 200 countries. It is watched by billions on televisions across the world.
The World Cup brings whole nations to a standstill, especially in Europe, South America and Africa. The European Championship, Copa America, Asia Cup and Africa Cup of Nations are just as passionately watched in their parts of the world. In Indonesia, football also becomes favorite sports since football matches can be found in many place even in a school and a small village.
“… Liverpool is going to release its striker, Fernando Torres if there is any club who are willing to buy for £ 70 million or around 980 billion IDR.” That is what is said in a national Indonesia newspaper, Kompas (July, 2010:15). Not only popular because
„football makes you healthy‟, football game is also interesting for business. Many business areas take the benefit of football game, such as, entertainment, service, gods, and even the village-scale gambling up to Las Vegas-gambling get the big profit.
The greatness of the football game can be shown when the information of the match is shared, talked by one to another; the point is that communication is used.
According to Wilson stated in Siti Tarwiyah (Siti Tarwiyah, 2004:1) “communication is one process which is used by an individual to share an information, idea, and stance or attitude
”. The key term for this definition is „to share‟. Sharing information, idea, and attitude or stance needs an instrument called as language, one effective media for interpersonal communication.
Still about how great football game is, all those event of football matches can easily be found in daily news paper, whether the news is about a local, national, or international game matches. In the newspapers which are published in Indonesia, for example, the football news article can be read in local or national Indonesian language newspaper such like Kedaulatan Rakyat, Jawa Pos, Suara Merdeka, and Kompas and in English language newspaper such as The Jakarta Post.
If it is seen deeper, every news paper has its own way to communicate using language in delivering certain message. In their way to deliver information, especially in football news articles, they often use something that is called as a metaphor.
Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable. Originally, the word metaphor comes from Latin word métapherein which means „to transfer‟ (Oxford Tenth Edition on CD ROM, 2001). So, metaphor can also be defined as the substitution of one idea with another used to assist expression or understanding.
Metaphor commonly appears in daily speaking, in spoken form. When someone told an idea using a metaphor, such like , “Time is money, dude, and don‟t waste it!”
Time in this sentence does not mean that time is a medium of exchange, but it shows
that time is as valuable as money. Time is money entails time is very valuable commodity or time is a limited resource. These characteristics, valuable commodity and limited resource, are the same characteristic that the word „money‟ had. So, we can reach the conclusion that time is as valuable as money that we would be better not to waste it.
Metaphor also commonly appears in written form, such like in newspaper. Metaphor is often used to give dramatic effect for the reader whatever it is used for an exaggeration, a euphemism, or an aesthetic one. But there is tendency that where there are phrases that are considered as taboo or rude word, they are written or spoken in the form of metaphor. Here are some examples, how metaphors are used in football news article which are shown in bold letters, taken from Kompas and International Herald Tribune .
(1)
Pemain Serbia bakal bertempur hingga tetes darah terakhir demi mendapatkan
tiket ke Afrika Selatan 2010.(2) Italia menjamu Bulgaria di Turin
(KOMPAS, 9 September 2009; Article: “Serbia Sambut Hari Bersejarah”;
Written by: (AFP/REUTERS/SAM))
(3)
In defense is the tough, dependable Nemanja Vidic, a rock of Manchaster United
International Herald Tribune, September 9, 2009; Article: “Fractious French and their abrasive coach face reckoning
”; Written by: Rob Hughes) Based on those above, that every football news articles will use metaphor in delivering the news, the researcher wants to see metaphor in details especially metaphor that is used in newspaper. By looking in deeply, the researcher hopes to find the requirement how metaphors are used.
According to Saussure (Crystal, 1993:407) the connection between signifier and signified is arbitrary. This arbitrariness depends on how the culture in society as the speaker of the language sees the phenomena around them. Javanese people concern in the level of politeness in the way they are speaking each other. It is seen in the way they are using Javanese language whether they will use krama or ngoko. The tense that is used by English language shows that English people emphasizes the importance of time. And Eskimos have unusually large number of words for snow. All these things happens because of the influenced of people‟s perspective on seeing the reality in their environments.
The arbitrary relation between signifier and signified which are influenced by the culture and social background of each individual or speaker of a language also works in metaphor. To understand the meaning of metaphor, cross cultural communication is completely needed. Cross cultural communication is communication which happens between people from different countries, races, languages, religions, educational levels, social status, or sexes. Cross cultural communication is needed because metaphor, as a product of language which is very influenced by individual background, is hardly understood without knowing the existence of phenomena behind.
The sentence „my car is a lemon‟, for example, cannot be understood in a culture that lacks both car and lemon. To know the meaning of this metaphor, the meaning of car and the meaning of lemon or what is car and what is lemon should be known first.
Then, by knowing the idea of a car and a lemon, the meaning of metaphor, relating „my car‟ as „lemon‟ is revealed.
The influence of individual background in using metaphor in daily speaking probably influences the metaphor in football news articles. Two different languages may have different semantic rule to form metaphors, as what have stated above, that there is close relation between language and cultural background. By realizing this close relation, it can be seen the importance of cultural understanding in the context of communication by taking metaphor as one language phenomenon which can explain about that cultural understanding.
This research is focused in descriptive study about metaphor to express football game in Indonesian and English texts, especially in daily newspaper. In case that football has become a part in daily community life, including Indonesian and English society, language expression in its relation to the football game can be found in these two languages, Indonesia and English language, in their own specification. Daily newspaper is used for this research because the language of daily newspaper is more general, for daily newspaper is easily read by all people, children and adult, men and women, boss and employee, etc. In order to be more focus, the newspapers that will be used in this research are Kompas and The Jakarta Post. Kompas is chosen because
Kompas is the biggest national newspaper in circulation in 2010. Kompas prints more
than 500.000 copies daily and Kompas is the only newspaper in Indonesia that are audited by the Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC) (kompas.com). The Jakarta Post is chosen because The Jakarta Post is the only well-known Indonesian international newspaper and its circulation and sales now reached 50,000 copies (www.epapercatalog.com).
Indonesian and English language is chosen for the reason of practical concern of the need of understanding the cultural aspect in intercultural-communication, especially for Indonesian speakers. For them, the understanding of cultural is completely needed by seeing that Indonesian language is the mother tongue or first language of Indonesian native speakers, and English language is the second language or first foreign language which is taught.
Something which is important to be underlined is that this research is not conducted in order to show the weakness of both cultures or to find which is the best but this research is conducted to help to understand the language behavior between this two languages.
B. Problem Formulation
Related to the explanation above, there are two problems discussed in this study
1. What are lexical metaphors used in English and Indonesian printed media?
2. What are the similarities and differences of the metaphors as found in The Jakarta
Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2012?
C. Objectives of the Study
In accordance to the problems formulated above, the objectives of the study are as follow: to know the form of lexical metaphors in Indonesian text and in English text and to know the similarities and differences of the metaphors as found in The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2012.
D. Definition of terms
There are some terms used in this study. They are metaphor and semantic feature.
1. Metaphor David Crystal in his book entitled The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English and defines metaphor as a figurative expression in which one notion is
Language: Second Edition described in terms usually associated with another (1993: 70).
2. Semantic feature According to Crystal, semantic feature or semantic component is an element of a
word‟s meaning, for example the element of word girl are [+ female], [+ young], and [+
human] (1993: 107).CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW This chapter consists of three parts; they are review of related study, review of
related theory, and theoretical frame work. In this chapter, the review of related study, the researcher is going to show that his research is different from other research, so that this research is not repeating any previous research and hopefully this research is favorable for everyone who reads it.
In the review of related theory and theoretical framework, the researcher wants to explain the theories that are used in this research and how those theories give contributions to solve the problem of this study.
A. Review of Related Study
In order to support the analysis, the researcher uses some related studies which more or less have the same topic or theme. Those related studies, are taken from some undergraduate theses which have almost the same research with the researcher topic, and it will be helpful for additional understanding of the researcher
Helena Heruningsih Driarta Vera (1998) in her th esis ‗The Intepretation of
Metaphor Used in Advertisement’ said that metaphor implied a figurative comparison
between two things. Metaphor also becomes a device frequently used in advertisements. The metaphors employed in an advertisement are used to attract the readers‘ attention. Nevertheless, the most important thing is that those metaphors can be comprehended by the readers, so that they can perceive the product offered. Since metaphors have figurative meaning, a sentence containing a metaphor cannot be comprehended if we read it literally.
Her thesis analyzes whether metaphor used in advertisement can create an independent comprehension and to identify any condition needed to come to that comprehension and to explain whether there are any differences between metaphor used in advertisement and in news magazines and women‘s magazines on the basis of the target audience and to identify the differences.
In her thesis, she found that the metaphor used in advertisements could be understood independently because they are clear enough and/or commonly used. They are three conditions needed to come to an independent comprehension, namely activation of literal sense, awareness of the figurative sense of a metaphor, and activation of the figural sense. In some cases readers need to know the product, its brand, and the picture in an advertisement. These aspects, related to the whole text, will facilitate the interpretation of a metaphor. The metaphors in advertisement in news magazines are different from those in wom en‘s magazines. The advertisements in women‘s magazines contain metaphors that imply ‗femininity‘. Those metaphors imply that women are passive, refined, and delicate. The metaphors used in advertisements in news magazines tend to be ‗masculine‘. The masculinity is related to the stereotype of men, namely active, strong, and coarse.
Siti Tarwiyah.
(2004) in her thesis ‗Metafora Pengungkapan Pertandingan
Sepakbola Pada Piala Dunia 2002 dalam Teks Berbahasa Indonesia dan Berbahasa Inggris ’ talked about one aspect of semantics, and it is focused on its description in metaphorical expression used to express game processes and result during World Cup 2002 in Indonesia and English printed media.
Based on some theories about metaphor and cultures of east and west cluster, she tried to search for kinds of metaphorical expressions, lexical and grammatical, and socio-cultural aspects in the two languages. She used the data taken from Indonesian printed media: Bola, Tempo, Jawa Pos and English printed one: Daily Mail, Times,
Newsweek .
The result of her thesis showed that both Indonesian and English use lexical metaphors with four specifications, i.e. anthropomorphic, animal, synaesthetic, and form concrete to abstract metaphors, and grammatical metaphors with two specifications, i.e. ideational and interpersonal metaphor. The choice of specific lexical metaphorical expression is related to situational and cultural aspects while the choice of grammatical metaphorical expression is only influenced by situational aspect.
Journalists try to prevent readers from boredom by choosing popular words. Meanwhile, cultural effects are seen from more violence words found in Indonesian metaphorical expression and specific terms related to farming for Indonesian terms, and technology for English terms. Ideational-grammatical-metaphorical expressions are signified by more compact grammatical formulations intended to describe certain referents. The use of their presentations is for economical reason in written expression besides for grammatical variation. Interpersonal-grammatical-metaphoric expressions are identified through modalities and adjuncts.
Actually the example of the related studies has some differences from this one because this thesis analyzed the lexical metaphors and its expression and to find the characteristics of metaphor expression which occur in English language and compare to metaphor expression that are used in Indonesian language. Besides, this research will only use the lexical metaphor as the base of the analysis. This thesis may be similar with Siti Tarwiyah‘s thesis but basically this thesis is not repeating hers, because the source data taken are different. Her research only took the data from football match articles in world cup 2002, the greatest event of football game, while this research takes the data from all regular football matches in daily newspaper, which means that the language use in the article will be more general. This research may be useful enough to find out if there is any relation between the metaphors in English language and metaphors in Indonesian language which are represented in football news articles in present.
B. Review of Related Theory 1. Metaphor
The concept of metaphor is based on the paradigm of relativism by Sapir (1921) and Whorf (1956) which conceive that meaning as a mental formation. It happens because human beings can not be separated from their social environment and that social environment affects the way of human being to think and explain the realities of life (Sapir in Sampson, 1980: 82-83).
The discussions about metaphor have been studied by linguists. According to Guinn and Merder (1987:35), metaphor is a figure of speech that implies a comparison.
The definition above, nonetheless, is too vague when we look at the following sentence:
(1) Adam was as happy as Eve. Sentence (1) is one form of comparison between Adam and Eve; that Adam was happy and so was Eve. However, if Adam and Eve are names for human beings, that sentence is not metaphor because they are essentially the same; they are both human beings. Even if Adam is a name for human being and Eve is not a name of human being, the name of animal, for example and vice versa, sentence (1) is not metaphor either. Since not all forms of comparison are metaphor, the definition above cannot be used in this study.
Brooks and Warren (1961:274) in their book explain that the word metaphor derives from Greek word that has a meaning ‗to transfer‘. A metaphorical word transfer a meaning applied literally in one kind object or idea to another by analogy.
According to Storie and Matson (1994:67) metaphor is a figurative comparison in that it compares things that are essentially different but which have some point of similarity. They also say that metaphor is the implied resemblance of things which are ostensibly very different. Metaphor is implied since it does not make use of like and as.
Other linguist, Damon, Espey, and Mulhauser (1966:78) give a support to Storie and Matson‘s opinion. They say that metaphor is a figurative comparison in which the words like and as are dropped out, and the primary and secondary terms are jammed together. Metaphor does not state a comparison, but it suggests a comparison.
Johnson said that metaphor (‗carry beyond‘) is a figure of speech that refers in literal terms to one thing while at the same time suggesting something else (1972:26).
Certainly, the use of this referent depends on its context.
According to Sudaryanto in Linguistik (1983:145), word consists of form and meaning. Form is built by components, phonemes; meaning is also built by some components, semantic properties. Actually the meaning of a word is one; which means that one word only has one meaning. He explained his theory in word ―kancil‖ (2.a.);
kancil means a kind of certain animal which has some meaning components (semantics
property) [+animal] [+four legged] [+tricky]. When one or some of the component is used for other word to show the similar characteristics, then, it is called as metaphor.
(2.a.) Dia memang betul-betul kancil
- – he is really ―kancil‖ (2.b.) Dia memang betul-betul cerdik
- – he is really tricky It is said that the first systematic treatment of metaphor is found in Poetics, where Aristotle assert that metaphor ‗is the application to something of a name belonging to something else, either from genus to species, or from the species to genus, or from a pieces to another species, or according to analogy.‘ (Steinhart and E.F. Kitany. 1994:2453) According to Carlshamre, there are three criteria to recognize metaphor.
Carlshamre said that when metaphorical utterances taken literally, they becomes meaningless, obviously false, or trivial.
Three criteria have been proposed: metaphorical utterances are when taken literally (1) meaningless, (2) obviously false, or (3) trivial. These are, of course, not alternatives, the question rather being whether one can get by with only (1), or will need (2) and (3) as well. (Carlshamre, 1988:8) According to Steinhart (Steinhart and E.F. Kitany. 1994:2455), metaphor interpretation can also follow one of several routes (1) According to the Elliptical
Simile Theory and most, but not all Comparison Theories, ‗S is P‘ metaphorically means S is like P. (Some comparison theories deny the existence of metaphorical meaning as such. Some have argued that such interpretations are ill suited to other grammatical forms of metaphor. (2) According to the Abstraction Theory, metaphorical meaning is obtained by rising metaphorical predicates to a more abstract level at which there is no semantic incongruity. Feature Transfer Theory adopts this strategy. Thus ‗Theaetetus gave birth to an idea‘ metaphorically means Theaetetus produced idea, since ‗produced‘ is an abstract version of ‗gave birth‘ that is not semantically incongruous. (3) According to Analogy Theory, offshoot of an interactionist view of metaphor, ‗S is P‘ metaphorically means S is analogous to P. Interpreting metaphors requires specifying analogous domains and the homeomorphisms between the domains. One advantage of this theory is that it is the best suited to capture the ways in which metaphors are extended, that is, how terms are used from the semantic domain of the vehicle to elaborate aspect of the topic.
So, whatever the metaphor is, there is a basic principle that metaphor is a figure of speech in language which consists of two elements, they are literal term and figurative term. Literal term is the concept actually discussed. Figurative term is the thing to which it is compared. Metaphor is likely to be said as utterance meaning because the use of metaphor can only be seen in the context. Metaphor is used since the codes which is available in language cannot exactly represent all concepts and ideas in human mind as language users.
2. Types of Metaphor
Formation of a metaphor involves two aspects: lexical and grammatical. Each aspect presents a metaphorical expression in different forms. Lexical metaphors are marked with the specific word that refers to reality or to some extent.
A word ‗flooded in’ in sentence ‗Protest flooded in‘ is an example of lexical metaphor. A word ‗flooded in’ which usually refers to water that overflows in large numbers, is used to refer to protest which come in large quantities. Congruent expression for those sentences is ‗Protest
were received in large quantities’ or ‗Even many people protested’. Grammatical
metaphor is conceived as an incongruent realization of a given semantic configuration in the lexicogrammar.
‗Adam was unhappy so Eve left’ is a congruent sentence. This sentence will become incongruent if it is said ‗Adam’s unhappiness led to Eve’s
departure’. This sentence is said as incongruent because the word ‗happy’ which
describes situation and should be expressed by adjective, in that sentence is expressed by noun, similarly the word ‗departure’ which actually describes a process and should be expressed by verb. (Halliday, 1985:320; Martin, 1985:395)
Although each of these forms is marked by different characteristics, actually ones cannot exists alone without the other. One word can be identified as lexical metaphor only if this word occurs in certain context of grammatical metaphor. The presence of grammatical metaphor is also a form of combination of some lexical metaphors.
Mansoer Pateda (1986:114) divided lexical metaphor into three types, they are: (1) anthropomorphic metaphors, (2) animal metaphors, and (3) synaesthetic metaphors.
Another linguist, Edi Subroto (1986:49-51, 2011:131-134) followed Ullman (1972:214- 218) added one type of metaphor which is metaphor from concrete to abstract; and in this research, the researcher added one type of metaphor which is mixed metaphor. The classification of lexical metaphor is based on the type of expression used.
Anthropomorphic metaphors use a part of human body as an expression to reveal phenomena outside of human beings and vice versa, use a part of plant‘s segment or inanimate object to address human body. The English examples are: the
lungs of the world, death ball; and the Indonesian examples are: bola mata, kaki-
tangan.Animal metaphors use the nature of animal or part of animal body as the expression of metaphor. The English examples is: pony tail; the Indonesian examples are: kambing hitam, kutu buku, etc.
Synaesthetic metaphors are created by transferring a respond of human senses from one sense to another. The English examples are: hard music, soft copy; the Indonesian examples are: bicaranya pedas, batinnya perih, etc.
Metaphor which is created by the change of concrete form to abstract can be seen in English phrase: curled effort; and Indonesian phrase: karirnya mencorong,
dibelit cidera, etc.
Mixed metaphor is formed by two component of lexical metaphor. It means the metaphor expressions in one sentence can be included as synaesthetic metaphor, anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, or metaphor from concrete to abstract.
According to its function, grammatical metaphor is distinguished into ideational and interpersonal metaphor. Ideational metaphor represents process, whether it is material, mental, or relational process. A sentence Marry saw something wonderful; nominal (conscious being) + verbal (perception) + nominal (thing or fact) if it is expressed by Marry came upon a wonderful sight has representation changes. Interpersonal metaphor realizes social relationship or participants interaction; social interaction what is happened, whether it is the relation of giving or receiving the information (proposition) or the relation of giving or receiving thing or service. Clause
John, the bell is ringing and I am in the bathroom is an example of incongruent service
request which is realized by using indicative declarative clause. (Halliday, 1985:321) So, in brief, metaphors are distinguished according to their form, meaning or function, and the type of expression. According to its form, metaphor can be distinguished into lexical and grammatical metaphor. Lexical metaphor is distinguished by the type of expression into anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, syanaesthetic metaphor, metaphor form of concrete to abstract, and mixed metaphor. Grammatical metaphor is distinguished according to its meaning into ideational and interpersonal metaphor. The type of metaphor can be described as follows.
Diagram 1. Type of Metaphor
3. Context and Meaning
Language which ‗comes‘ in society is considered as bi-dimensional system. It is said so for the meaning of language is determined by the existence and relationship of its sign, besides of the speaker and the social context and situation (Aminuddin, 1988:36)
Context is one factor which determines the true form of meaning. Linguistic context itself still cannot underline the formulation of meaning in the usage — connotative meaning. Malinowski, in this context, said that to understand certain text, a text cannot be separated from its context of situation and its context of culture. (in Halliday, 1985:7)
According to Halliday, context of situation involves some levels, first (1) field of discourse, something which happens to be used as the background of linguistic form, it may be social context or cultural context comes within; (2) tenor of discourse, refers to the first speaker and partner of speaking, their status and role determines the linguistic forms used; (3) the mode of discourse, it can be associated with the type of utterance or genre
—didactic, expository, persuasive, etc.—and also the conveyor media. (1985:12) Situational meaning and contextual meaning emerge as the result of the relation between context and speech. The three context of situation above, is divided by
Mansoer Pateda (2001:116) into eleven contexts: (1) context of effigy, refers to the speaker and the partner of speaking include their sex, status, age, social-economical background; (2) context of situation, for example: peaceful condition, crowded situation; (3) context of aim; (4) context of formality level; (5) context of mood; (6) context of time; (7) context of place; (8) context of object; (9) context of instrument; (10) context of linguistic; and (11) context of language, refers to the language used.
It cannot be denied that context, especially context of socio-cultural of language user, is the basic factor to understand the meaning of linguistic unit because language is not necessary for the formulation of thought but is part of the thinking process (Bolinger & A. Sears in Aminuddin, 1988:19).
Meanin g is essential in language. Meaning becomes a part of human‘s linguistics knowledge. By knowing the meaning of utterances in a language, the one can use the language. Fromkin (1988:5) said ―…, knowing a language is knowing that
certain sound sequences signify certain concept or meaning
.‖ According to Bloomfield (in Crystal. 1993:101), meaning is something that can be deduced solely from a study of the situation in which speech is used
- – the stimulus (S) that led someone to speak (r), and response (R) that result from this speech (s).
S ---------------------- > r ………….. s ---------------------------> R
In Bloomfield‘s example, Jill is hungry, sees an apple (S) and ask Jack to get it for her (r); this linguistic stimulus (s) leads to jack getting the apple (R). In order to get certain response from the partner of speaking, the speaker should choose the word that can deliver the meaning of their intention, for the meaning is contained in words.
A word could have primary meaning and secondary meaning. Primary meaning is the meaning in mind, if it is uttered without context. Secondary meaning is the meaning of words in context (Larson. 1988:8). Primary meaning is also called as conceptual meaning or denotative meaning or cognitive meaning, whether secondary meaning is also called as connotative meaning or associative meaning (Leech, 1974:10- 15).