Javanese influence on English voiced consonants produced by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
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ABSTRACT
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma
University, 2015.
Speaking English is one of the requirements to be tour guides because
English is globally considered as a lingua-franca. In order to communicate with
international tourists, they are expected to acquire English (L2) acquisition,
especially speaking skill. Speaking skill close relates to the way they pronounce
L2 words correctly. As a result, the purpose of this research is to examine how the
tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta articulate L2 words and the role of Javanese as
their native language (L1) to L2 acquisition. For this aim, the data are English
voiced consonants (EVCs): /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /.
To conduct this thesis, there are three problems formulated including (1)
what voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton
Yogyakarta? (2) How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce
English voiced consonants? (3) What role does language interference play in these
mispronunciations?
The methods used in conducting this research are field and library
researches. They are used to observe the way the tour guides in Keraton
mispronounce the observed EVCs and to relate the data result to the theory of
language interference. The analyses used are phonetic, phonological, contrastive
descriptive, and error analysis.
The result of this research is the tour guides in Keraton mispronounce 5
out of 8 the observed data: /z, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /. They replace the target phonemes
with the non-targeted phones by applying unexpected feature-changing rule. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is caused by Javanese interference. English
phonemes that are absent in Javanese cause the tour guides mispronounce them.
Keyword: mispronunciation, the tour guides, Javanese language, and Javanese
interference.
xi
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ABSTRAK
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakulas Sastra, Universitas Sanata
Dharma, 2015.
Mampu berbahasa Inggris merupakan salah satu persyaratan menjadi
pemandu wisata karena bahasa Inggris telah diakui secara global sebagai bahasa
pemersatu. Dalam berkomunikasi dengan turis internasional, mereka diharapkan
menguasai kemampuan berbahasa Inggris, terutama keterampilan berbicara.
Keterampilan berbicara yang dimaksud berhubungan erat dengan cara melafalkan
bahasa Inggris dengan benar. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah
meneliti pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta dalam mengucapkan kata-kata
bahasa Inggris dan mengetahui peranan bahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu dalam
kemahiran berbahasa Inggris mereka. Untuk tujuan tersebut, data yang dianalisis
adalah kosonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris meliputi: /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /.
Dalam menulis skripsi ini, terdapat tiga rumusan masalah, yaitu: 1) Apa
saja konsonan bersuara dalam Inggris yang disalah ucapkan oleh pemandu wisata
di Keraton Yogyakarta? 2) Bagaimana pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta
mengucapkan konsonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris? 3) Apa peranan interferensi
bahasa pada pengucapan yang salah tersebut?
Metode yang digunakan dalam menjalankan penelitian ini adalah riset
lapangan dan riset pustaka dalam mengamati pemandu wisata di Keraton yang
salah melafalkan data yang diteliti dan menghubungkan hasil tersebut dengan
interferensi bahasa. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis fonetik, analisis
fonologi, analisis deskriptif perbandingan, dan analisis kesalahan.
Hasil penelitian ini adalah pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan 5 dari 8
data yang diteliti, yaitu: /z, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /. Mereka menganti target fonem
dengan fonem yang tidak diduga dengan menerapan kaidah unexpected feautrechanging. Kaidah unexpected feautre-changing disebabkan oleh inteferensi
bahasa Jawa. Fonem dalam bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemui dalam bahasa Jawa
menyebabkan pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi tersebut.
Kata kunci: salah pengucapan, pemandu wisata, bahasa Jawa, dan interferensi
bahasa Jawa.
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JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
Nelif Mike Simatupang
Student Number: 114214096
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
Nelif Mike Simatupang
Student Number: 114214096
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been
previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that,
to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material
previously writtern by any other person except where due reference is made in the
text of the undergraduate thesis.
Yogyakarta, June 25, 2015
Nelif Mike Simatupang
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama
: Nelif Mike Simatupang
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 114214096
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
Berserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya
memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk
menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk
pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di
internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin
kepada saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap
mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta,
Pada tanggal Juni 25, 2015
Yang menyatakan,
Nelif Mike Simatupang
vi
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WORK HARD
PLAY HARD
(Anonymous)
vii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Jesus Christ for all His unconditional loves and blessings in my
entire life.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor, Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S,
for patiently guiding and giving me priceless and valuable wisdoms and
understandings during this undergraduate thesis preparation. I also owe my
appreciation to my co-advisor, Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum, for her helps and
suggestions in improving this thesis. I thank Mr. Erik Christoper and other
English Letters Department’s lecturers who I cannot mention all their names. I
thank Pengangen Tepas Pariwisata Keraton Yogyakata that allow me to do the
field research and all my informants who are tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta
who are so friendly and kind to allocate their times.
My special thank goes to my mom and dad for supporting and reminding
me to finish this thesis. Their affections, hopes, and prays always strengthen me. I
also thank all my sisters and brothers, Uci, Fitri, Yorif, and Victor for their
supports. I am grateful to my best friends in college, Cicik and Nafta, my best
roommates, Asti and Cungkring, and my boyfriend, Yugo. Their supports always
encourage me. For all my friends in Class D batch 2011, time goes by so fast and
I hope our friendship never ends.
Nelif Mike Simatupang
viii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................ ii
APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................... iii
ACCEPTENCE PAGE ........................................................................................ iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN KARYA ILMIAH .....................v
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................... vi
MOTO PAGE ...................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... viii
TABLE OF CONTETS ....................................................................................... ix
ABSTARCT .......................................................................................................... xi
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .........................................................................1
A. Background of the Study ...........................................................................1
B. Problem Formulation .................................................................................3
C. Objectives of the Study ..............................................................................3
D. Definition of Terms....................................................................................3
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .....................................................6
A. Review of Related Studies .........................................................................6
B. Review of Related Theories .......................................................................9
1. English Phonetics ..................................................................................9
2. English Phonology ..............................................................................13
3. Javanese Phonetics ..............................................................................15
4. Javanese Phonology and Phonological Rule .......................................19
5. Language Interference .........................................................................20
C. Theoritical Framework.............................................................................24
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................26
A. Object of the Study ..................................................................................26
B. Approach of the Study .............................................................................26
C. Method of the Study.................................................................................27
1. Data Collection ....................................................................................27
2. Data Analysis ......................................................................................30
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS........................33
A. Mispronounced English Voiced Consonants by the Tour Guides ...........33
1. English Consonant [b] .........................................................................35
2. English Consonant [d] .........................................................................35
3. English Consonant [z] .........................................................................35
4. English Consonant [g] .........................................................................36
5. English Consonant [v] .........................................................................36
6. English Consonant [ð] .........................................................................37
7. English Consonant [ʒ ] ........................................................................37
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8. English Consonant [dʒ ] ......................................................................38
B. Phonological Analysis of EVCs...............................................................40
1. Voiced Alveolar Fricative Consonant /z/ ............................................40
2. Voiced Labiodental Fricative Consonant /v/.......................................42
3. Voiced Interdental Consonant /ð/........................................................43
4. Voiced Palatal Fricative Consonant /ʒ / ..............................................45
5. Voiced Palatal Affricate Consonant /dʒ /............................................47
C. Language Interference .............................................................................49
1. Voiced Alveolar Fricative Consonant /z/ ............................................50
2. Voiced Labiodental Fricative Consonant /v/ .......................................52
3. Voiced Interdental Consonant /ð/........................................................54
4. Voiced Palatal Fricative Consonant /ʒ / ..............................................56
5. Voiced Palatal Affricate Consonant /dʒ /............................................57
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...........................................................................60
BLIBIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................63
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................65
1. Data in Sentences ................................................................................65
2. Data Result ..........................................................................................67
3. The Calculation of Incorect Phones ....................................................73
4. The List of Informants.........................................................................81
5. Letter of Permission to Conduct Field Research .................................82
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ABSTRACT
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma
University, 2015.
Speaking English is one of the requirements to be tour guides because
English is globally considered as a lingua-franca. In order to communicate with
international tourists, they are expected to acquire English (L2) acquisition,
especially speaking skill. Speaking skill close relates to the way they pronounce
L2 words correctly. As a result, the purpose of this research is to examine how the
tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta articulate L2 words and the role of Javanese as
their native language (L1) to L2 acquisition. For this aim, the data are English
voiced consonants (EVCs): /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /.
To conduct this thesis, there are three problems formulated including (1)
what voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton
Yogyakarta? (2) How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce
English voiced consonants? (3) What role does language interference play in these
mispronunciations?
The methods used in conducting this research are field and library
researches. They are used to observe the way the tour guides in Keraton
mispronounce the observed EVCs and to relate the data result to the theory of
language interference. The analyses used are phonetic, phonological, contrastive
descriptive, and error analysis.
The result of this research is the tour guides in Keraton mispronounce 5
out of 8 the observed data: /z, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /. They replace the target phonemes
with the non-targeted phones by applying unexpected feature-changing rule. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is caused by Javanese interference. English
phonemes that are absent in Javanese cause the tour guides mispronounce them.
Keyword: mispronunciation, the tour guides, Javanese language, and Javanese
interference.
xi
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ABSTRAK
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakulas Sastra, Universitas Sanata
Dharma, 2015.
Mampu berbahasa Inggris merupakan salah satu persyaratan menjadi
pemandu wisata karena bahasa Inggris telah diakui secara global sebagai bahasa
pemersatu. Dalam berkomunikasi dengan turis internasional, mereka diharapkan
menguasai kemampuan berbahasa Inggris, terutama keterampilan berbicara.
Keterampilan berbicara yang dimaksud berhubungan erat dengan cara melafalkan
bahasa Inggris dengan benar. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah
meneliti pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta dalam mengucapkan kata-kata
bahasa Inggris dan mengetahui peranan bahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu dalam
kemahiran berbahasa Inggris mereka. Untuk tujuan tersebut, data yang dianalisis
adalah kosonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris meliputi: /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /.
Dalam menulis skripsi ini, terdapat tiga rumusan masalah, yaitu: 1) Apa
saja konsonan bersuara dalam Inggris yang disalah ucapkan oleh pemandu wisata
di Keraton Yogyakarta? 2) Bagaimana pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta
mengucapkan konsonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris? 3) Apa peranan interferensi
bahasa pada pengucapan yang salah tersebut?
Metode yang digunakan dalam menjalankan penelitian ini adalah riset
lapangan dan riset pustaka dalam mengamati pemandu wisata di Keraton yang
salah melafalkan data yang diteliti dan menghubungkan hasil tersebut dengan
interferensi bahasa. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis fonetik, analisis
fonologi, analisis deskriptif perbandingan, dan analisis kesalahan.
Hasil penelitian ini adalah pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan 5 dari 8
data yang diteliti, yaitu: /z, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /. Mereka menganti target fonem
dengan fonem yang tidak diduga dengan menerapan kaidah unexpected feautrechanging. Kaidah unexpected feautre-changing disebabkan oleh inteferensi
bahasa Jawa. Fonem dalam bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemui dalam bahasa Jawa
menyebabkan pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi tersebut.
Kata kunci: salah pengucapan, pemandu wisata, bahasa Jawa, dan interferensi
bahasa Jawa.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background of the Study
Javanese is recognized as a large ethnic group located in three provinces
on the island of Java in Indonesia, Yogyakarta, Central and East Java. The
Javanese people have their own language that is spoken as their mother tongue or
first language. Now, the Javanese language grows rapidly since Javanese native
speakers have gone overseas. Therefore, it is not only spoken in those provinces.
Like other languages, the structure of Javanese language is also influenced by
linguistic aspects (e.g. phonology, morphology, and syntax) and non-linguistic
aspects (social status, economic and educational background, age, and the
participants’ relationship). Non-linguistic aspects found in Javanese language are
more complex than the formal and informal aspects in other languages. Therefore,
those aspects determine speech levels. Javanese speech levels are classified into
Krama, Madya and Ngoko to indicate various degrees of respect and politeness
(Poedjasoedarma, 1979: 8).
Speaking Javanese language as the first language does not isolate Javanese
people from the global language, English. They speak English as a foreign
language in certain places like schools, offices, airports, and tourist attractions.
For example in Yogyakarta, there are several tourist attractions such as the Sultan
Hamengku Buwono Palace or Keraton, and many popular temples, and museums.
As a result, the tour guides speak English to communicate with international
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tourists. For the purpose of communicating, it is important for the tour guides to
speak English correctly which means they can pronounce English words properly
or with tolerable mispronunciations. They, consequently, need to limit or avoid
mispronunciation by at least having a basic understanding of English phonetics
and phonology. If they do not, they will often mispronounce words and represent
different meanings (creating misunderstandings). For example, the tour guides
whose native language in Javanese will often pronounce the word “breath” is not
as /breθ/ but as [bred] or [bret].
Acknowledging this challenging phenomenon, English mispronunciation
produced by the local tour guides is a worthy topic for a research. In this study,
the specific informants are the tour guides whose native language is Javanese and
who work in the Keraton in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The data that will be
specifically observed are English voiced consonants.
There are three reasons to analyze this phenomenon. Firstly, English
mispronunciation is a common problem faced by non-native English speakers,
especially for people who speak English as a foreign language. Because English is
not Indonesian first or second language, they have tendency to encounter this
problem. Secondly, English mispronunciation produced by the informants who
are the tour guides is a problem found in Yogyakarta. English cannot be separated
from tour guides since they meet international tourists every day. If they do not
master English, they may create misunderstandings by mispronouncing English
words.
As a result, the messages might be not delivered accurately to the
addressee. Thirdly, the study of English mispronunciation of voiced consonants
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produced by local, the tour guides, has not been done yet in Sanata Dharma
University as a research project.
B.
Problem Formulation
In designing this research, three research questions are formulated in order
to limit the scope and objectives of this research:
1.
What English voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour
guides in Keraton Yogyakarta?
2.
How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce English voiced
consonants?
3.
What role does language interference play in these mispronunciations?
C.
Objectives of the Study
Based on these problem formulation, there are three objectives. The first
objective is to identify the English voiced consonants which are repetitively
mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta. The second objective is
to analyze how the informants pronounce English consonants. Finally, the study
will explore linguistically the cause and the role of language interference in
phonological errors done by the tour guides.
D.
Definition of Terms
There are some terms regularly found in this research. In order to prevent
misunderstandings, those terms will be explained first. They are Javanese
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language, Keraton Yogyakarta, mispronunciation, the tour guides, and linguistic
interference.
Irene Thompson (2014) says that “Javanese is the spoken language of over
75 million people in central and eastern parts of the island of Java” (Thompson,
2014). It is a regional language in Central Java, East Java and Yogyakarta.
Therefore, there are several kinds of Javanese’s dialect based on the
pronunciation, vocabularies, etc. There are three main speech levels in Javanese
reflecting low, medium, and high respect, respectively: i.e. Ngoko, Madya, and
Krama (Thompson, 2014). Speech levels are used to show respect between the
participants. According to Thompson (2014) ngoko is the lowest level in
Javanese’s speech since it is used in informal conversation (Thompson, 2014).
The participants (the speaker and the interlocutor) are friends or close relatives.
The speakers who have higher social status will use ngoko to address the
interlocutors who have lower status, for example, elder people addressing younger
people, or bosses address to the employee (Thomsom, 2014). Javanese people
speak madya to indicate a polite formal or status neutral language, since the
interlocutors are strangers (Thompson, 2014).
Madya is also known as the
combination of ngoko and krama. It is used since the participants do not know
each other. Krama is a polite formal language used by younger people to address
elder people, employee to address boss and the host to address audiences in
formal occasion (Thomson, 2014). In short, these speech levels reflect different
degree of politeness and respect in formal and informal situations.
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According to Turtle (2011) Keraton Yogyakarta is the Sultan’s palace
that functions as the center of the official, political and the spiritual spheres. It is
the royal residence and also a popular tourist attraction because the Sultan is the
King of Yogyakarta and is also a Governor of the Special Regency Province of
Yogyakarta (Turtle, 2011). Additionally, the palace or Keraton in Yogyakarta has
been decorated with local cultures, especially Javanese culture, along with other
religious influences such as Buddhist, Hinduism, and Islam. Therefore, the
historical values of Keraton Yogyakarta with its rich history of pluralism and
renovations become one of the tourist attractions in Yogyakarta.
The tour guides in and around the Keraton Yogyakarta are selected to lead
the groups of tourists in sightseeing to interesting places in the palace area. Since
they are local citizens, they often share interesting stories about the legendary
aspects of certain popular spots.
Mispronunciation is the error performance in pronunciations caused by
performance factors and competence (Chomsky in Krasen, 1982: 139).
Performance factors are about fatigue and inattention, while competence is about
lack of knowledge. Fatigue and lack of intention influence the ability of a speaker
to produce error in pronunciations. The lack of knowledge is currently considered
as reflections of underlying differences between sounds in native language (L1)
and another language known as target language (L2).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
There are three main parts that will be discussed in this chapter. The purposes of
reviewing the related studies are not only to find similarities in the approach, topic
choice, and research objectives from previous studies, but also to differentiate this
research from previous researches. The review of related theories elaborates the
relevant theories that will be applied in the analysis. The theoretical framework
explains the contribution of related theories to how the theories can be applied to
answer the research questions.
A.
Review of Related Studies
One similar topic found in Samsuri’s study, Javanese Phoneme and Their
Distinctive Feature, discusses English mispronunciation. He argues that Javanese
people naturally mispronounce certain English sounds. It, therefore, can make the
addressee confused. For example, when the addresser asks an English native
speaker “Will you fetch me my robe, please?” and spontaneously the addressee
questions him back “Did you say robe or rope?” (Samsuri, 1961: 316). He
assumes that the addresser mispronounces the word “rope” since he does not
concern about the minimal pairs of closely related sounds or phonemes which are
[b] and [p]. He comes to the conclusion that the addresser must pay attention to
clarify the distinctive features of minimal pairs because it describes the binary
opposition of those phonemes (Samsuri, 1961: 321).
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Though the topic between Samsuri’s and this research is similar, they
focus on different objectives and informants. Samsuri examines all English
sounds which are probably mispronounced by general Javanese people, while the
researcher examines English voiced consonants especially: /b/, /d/, /z/, /g/, /v/, /ð/,
/ʒ/ and /dʒ/ spoken by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
In his research titled The English Consonant Mispronunciations Produced
By Sundanese Native Speakers, Aloysius Prianto Raharjo observes English
consonants which are /f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ spoken by English learners
whose native language is Sundanese. He finds that the informants regularly make
consonants change on /v/, /ð/, /θ/ /ʒ/, and /z/ are less than 50 percent accuracy
(Raharjo, 2009: 74). He assumes that these changing sounds have been caused by
inattention and interference by their mother tongue (Sundanese). Based on the
research results, inattention of the informants causes devoicing rule e.g. /v/ [f].
Devoicing rule reduces voiced consonants into voiceless consonants (Raharjo,
2009: 75). However, he comes to the conclusion that the most likely reason for
mispronunciation is the interference of informants’ mother tongue. In other words,
Sundanese phonetics does not have those phonemes (/f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/,
/dʒ/) and it is therefore likely that these sounds will be mispronounced in English.
He compares English and Sundanese phonetics by applying contrastive analysis.
Raharjo’s research is different from the researcher’s work since the objects
of his research are /f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ while the researcher’s objects
are /b/, /d/, /z/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/. The informants of Raharjo’s research are
different since he examines English voiced consonants spoken by Sundanese
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native speakers, while this research examines English voiced consonants spoken
by Javanese native speakers working as the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
The other study is Kristin Kersten’s Comparative Studies in the
Phonological L2 Acquisition in Bilingual Pre-school. In this study, Kersten
examines two bilingual Pre-school which are a French-German and an EnglishGerman project. She thinks English is getting more important for globalization
since it has generally developed into the world’s vehicular language. It implies
that people have to be familiar with English in order to adapt this new situation.
As a result, teachers have an important role to introduce and educate students or
even children to be able to adapt this situation. Teaching foreign language (L2) is
not that simple since they have to find the effective ways or strategies of teaching
L2. One of the obstacles of teaching L2 is caused by children’s native language.
In her study, she figures out four problems which are the role of foreign accent in
the pronunciation of the L2, other elements beside foreign accent may cause error
in pronunciation, the differences and similarities of L1 and L2, and the role of
learners’ age to be first introduced to L2.
The first difference from Kersten’s study (2002) is that Kersten examines
different informants. She observes mispronunciation produced by children, while
the researcher observes mispronunciation produced by adults, the tour guides in
Keraton. She does not only focus on the role of L1 as the obstruent to acquire L2,
but also to find the role of foreign accent and learners’ age to be first introduced to
L2. Her study also has similarity to the researcher’s work which is both of them
apply contrastive or comparative analysis to come up with errors in pronunciation
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produced by English non-native speakers. She notes all speech sounds found in
English, French, and German, while the researcher notes consonants found either
in Javanese or in English.
B.
Review of Related Theories
1.
English Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds based on the characteristic of
individual sound; how they are produced and how they are characterized
(Fromkin, 2000: 204-205). Since phonetics describes speech sounds, each sound
will differ from all other. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the most
acceptable and commonly used transcription alphabet, utilizes specific symbols
for each distinctive sound of languages and classifies English sounds into two
major natural classes: vowels (/i:/, /I/, /e/, / æ/, /ə/, /ʌ/, /u/, /ʊ/, /o/, /ɔ/, and /ɒ/) and
consonants (/p/, /d/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/, /m/,
/n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /j/, and /w/).
a.
English Consonant
Consonants are defined as a group of sounds which are produced by
stopping and constricting the airflow in the vocal tract. This definition is
explained by Fromkin stating:
Consonants are sounds in which significant construction is made
somewhere in the vocal tract- a narrowing that interferes with the flow of
air out of the mouth- so that there is at least some reduction in the energy
of the sounds while vowels are sounds in which no such construction is
made; the air flows out of the mouth relatively freely and the sounds is
relatively loud and strong (Fromkin, 2000: 478).
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Consequently, consonants are distinct from one another according to their place of
articulation as well as their manner of articulation.
The place of articulation shows in which articulators that the consonants
are produced (Fromkin, 2003: 242). It means the place of articulation refers to the
where and what articulators are involved to produce speech sounds.
i.
Bilabials
Bilabial sounds, /b, p, and m/, are produced by putting upper and lower
lips together (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
ii.
Labiodentals
Labiodental sounds are produced by touching lower lip to upper teeth or in
words fat and vase incisors (Fromkin: 2003, 242). They are /f and v/.
iii.
Interdentals
Inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower teeth will
articulate /θ and ð/ termed interdental sounds (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
iv.
Alveolars
Alveolar sounds, / d, n, s, z, l, and t/ are produced by raising the front part
of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
v.
Palatals
To articulate palatal sounds, the front part of the tongue is raised to a point
on the hard palate which is behind the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 243).
Palatal consonants: /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, and dʒ/.
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Velars
The velar sounds, /k, g, and ŋ/, are produced when the back of the tongue
is raised and touches the soft palate or velum (Fromkin: 2003, 243).
vii.
Uvulars
Fromkin (2003, 243) states that “uvular sounds are produced by raising the
back of the tongue to the uvula”. This speech sound is symbolized as as /r/.
Additionaly, /r/ found in French is different to /r/ in other languages such as
English since it is classified into lateral.
viii.
Glottal
There are two sounds glottal including /h and ?/. The difference are the /h/
are produced when the glottis is open and there is no airstream produced in the
mouth, while /?/ is produced when the air is stopped completely at the glottis by
tightly closed vocal cords (Fromkin: 2003, 243). Therefore, /?/ is known as a
glottal stop.
Manner of articulation involves differentiating consonants “by the way the
air stream is affected as it travels from the lungs up and out of the mouth and
nose” (Fromkin, 2000: 217). They include the following:
i.
Voiced and voiceless sounds
The way to differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds is by
observing the vocal cords. Whenever the voiced consonants are articulated, the air
passes the vocal cord and makes it vibrate. Unlike, voiced consonants, the air are
passing the vocal cord freely (Fromkin, 2003: 244). Manner of articulation will
show the distinctive feature between sounds /p/ and /b/. Both of those sounds are
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bilabial sounds, but what makes them dissimilar is their manner of articulation.
Sound /b/ is classified into voiced consonants while /p/ is classified into voiceless
consonants.
ii.
Nasal and oral sounds
According to Fromkin (2003, 246), nasal sounds are produced when the
velum or soft palate is not raised. The air can pass through either nose or mouth.
However oral sounds are produced whenever the air only comes out through the
nose. It happens because the velum blocks the air passing the nose. It also helps to
distinguish that they have different characteristics. The sound /b/ is classified into
oral sounds while /m/ is considered as nasal sound.
iii.
Stops
Some consonants categorized into stops are /p, b, m, t, n, k, g, and ?/.
“Stops are sounds produced when the airflow is completely obstructed during the
speech.” (Akmajian, 2001: 73)
iv.
Fricatives
When there is a narrow opening in the vocal tract, it causes the airflow to
still pass through it and it produces hissing sounds. It helps to distinguish this by
putting one hand in front of the mouth while producing fricative sounds.
Fricatives consist of /f, v, θ, and ð/ (Akmajian, 2001: 73).
v.
Affricates
Fromkin explains that “some sounds are produced by a stop closure
followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect
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characteristic of a fricative.” (Fromkin, 2003: 248). Affricates are also known as a
sequence of a stop plus a fricative (Fromkin, 2003: 248).
The descriptions of English consonants based on the place and manner of
articulation can be simplied into the following table of English consonants.
Table 2.1 English Consonants
(Source: John Eulenberg)
2.
English Phonology
Phonemes, phones, and allophones are the basic units found in phonetics
and phonology. A phoneme is a smaller underlying representation of a speech
sound (Giegerich, 1992: 31). The researchers consider phonemes as an abstract
mental representation in the speakers’ mind and a smaller phonological unit of
language. The symbol referring to the phoneme enclosed in slanted bracket /..../.
A phoneme is also known as “a contrastive unit in that they distinguish words,
thus representing different meaning” (Giegerich, 1992: 32). According to
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Giegerich, a phone is identified as a concrete realization of certain phoneme
(Giegerich, 1992: 31). It is concrete realization since it can be heard or comes in
the form of utterances. The symbol of phone is enclosed in square brackets [...].
In her book, Fromkin (2000: 254) states that “an allophone is therefore a
predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.” An allophone is the variant of
phonemes’ realization which occurs in certain environments e.g. [p] and [ph] are
allophones of the phoneme /p/. Since allophones are phonetically similar sounds,
they do not contrast with each other and change the meaning of the words. For
example pitch, which phonemically must be represented as /phItʃ/, might be
pronounced as [pItʃ] without changing the meaning.
Besides phonemes, phones, and allophones, phonology uses phonological
features to describe the characteristic of one phoneme. For example, the features
of [b]: [+stop, +voiced, +labial, -alveolar, -nasal] and [d]: [+stop, +voiced, -labial,
+alveolar, -nasal]. These features or properties also show the difference between
/b/ and /p/. They are called distinctive features. Distinctive features (also known
as phonological features) use a plus (+) and a minus (-) feature values to
distinguish the phoneme from others (Fromkin, 2000: 256). Plus (+) signifies the
presence of place and manner of articulation, but minus (-) signifies the absence
of place and manner of articulation. Therefore, for example, the distinctive or
phonemic features of /b/ and /p/ are [±voiced].
a.
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules are methods used to convert phonemic representation
into phonetic representation (Hyman, 1975: 12). Thus, it is a particular process of
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phonology to present sounds from the mental (abstract) level into the concrete
level (utterances) by giving explanation about predictable aspects of speech (the
environment of the phonemes). In order to convert from phonemes to phones,
linguists use a phonological notation. The notation of phonological rule uses some
symbols to make the rule statement more concise. For example as in assimilation
rule, the notation is:
V [+nasal] / ___ [nasal]
To the right of the arrow is the phonetic change that occurs, while to the left of the
arrow is the sounds that is affected. The slash symbolizes the phonological
environment that the phonetic change occurs. The underscore stands for the
relative position of the sound to be changed with in the environment. To relate
Hyman’s statement, the sound on left side of the arrow refers to the phonemic
representation and the sound on the right of the arrow refers to the phonetic
representation. As a result, the notation above means vowel becomes nasalized in
the environment before nasal segments.
Since phonological rules’ purpose is to give the explanation about the
predictable aspects of speech sounds, this research uses term the unexpected
feature-changing rule to describe how the informants produce the data. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is done by adding distinctive features that are
unpredictable from the context and devoicing the data.
3.
Javanese Phonetics
To know how Javanese phonology affects English mispronunciation
spoken by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta, it is necessary to review
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Javanese phonetics. Javanese sounds are classified into three categories which
include
vowels,
consonants
and
semi-vowels
(Wedhawati,
2001:
33).
Summarizing from Wedhawati, Javanese vowels consist of /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /ə/, /o/
and /ɔ/, Javanese consonants consist of /p/, /b/, /m/, /t/, /d/, /s/, /n/, /r/, /ṭ/, /ḍ/, /l/,
/c/, /j/, /n/, /k/, /g/, /ŋ/, /?/, and /h/ and Javanese semi-vowels consist of /w/ and /y/
(Whedawati, 2001: 33-41). Additionally, /ṭ/ is pronounced as /th/, while /ḍ/ is
pronounced as /dh/. These speech sounds are different from aspirated sound /th/ in
English since Javanese sounds are strong and clear than English aspirated sounds.
Besides different sounds’ classification, there are some English sounds are absent
in Javanese phonetics. They are/f/ and /v/. Therefore, they are considered as
foreign sounds.
a.
Javanese Consonants
Javanese consonants are also classified based on place and manner of
articulation and major classes. According to place of articulation, Javanese
consonants are organized into the following:
i.
Bilabials
Actually, the place where Javanese bilabial sound takes place is identical
with English bilabial sounds produced by touching the upper and the lower lips
(Mulyani, 2008, 31). Sounds /b, p, and m/ are placed into bilabial consonants
found in words, balung means bone pronounced as [baluŋ], kekep means hug
pronounced as [kəkəp], and romo means father pronounced as and [rɔmɔ].
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ii.
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Labiodentals
Labiodental sound is produced by locating the lower lips to upper teeth
(Mulyani, 2008, 31-32). The example of labial-dental sound is /w/ in word e.g.
tuwa means old pronounced as [tuwɔ].
iii.
Alveolars
Fromkin states that alveolar sounds are produced by putting the tip of the
tongue to the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 242). However, Javanese has spesific
classifications of alveolar. It is used to emphasize that Javanese alveolar sounds
are not identical to other language, sepecially English. According to Mulyani,
there are four classification i.e.: Pico-dental, pico-alveolar, pico-palatal, and
lamino-alveolar (Mulyani, 2008: 32-33). Pico-dental refers to the sounds which
are produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the behind part of the upper teeth
(Mulyani, 2008, 32). Javanese pico-dental sounds are /t and d/, heard in the words
such as putu means grandchild pronounced as [putu] and dino means day
pronounced as [dinɔ]. Pico-alveolar sounds are articulated when the tip of the
tongue is on the alveolar ridge (Mulyani, 2008:32). Sounds / l, r, and n/ are heard
in words such as: klasa means floor mat pronounced as [klɔsɔ], larang means
expensive pronounced as [laraŋ], and rono means go there pronounced as [rɔnɔ].
Pico-palatal sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the hard
palate (Mulyani, 2008: 33). They are /ṭ and ḍ/ in words thukul means grow
pronounced as [ṭukul] and dhewe means alone pronounced as [ḍewe]. Laminoalveolar sounds are articulated by putting the tip of the tongue to the back part of
the upper teeth.
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Medio-palatal
Medio palatal sounds are articulated when the middle tongue is on the hard
palate (Mulyani, 2008: 34). They are /y, n, j, and c/ in words: koyo means like
pronounced as [kɔyɔ], banyu means water pronounced as [banu], jiwit means
pinching pronounced as [jiwit], and coro means cockroach pronounced as [coro].
v.
Dorso-velar
Sounds /g, ŋ, and k/ are classified into dorso-velar in words: jejeg which
means erect pronounced as [jəjəg], tangi means wake up pronounced as [taŋi],
and soko means from pronounced as [sɔkɔ]. These sounds are produced by
touching the back part of the tongue to the velum (Mulyani, 2008: 35).
vi.
Laringal
Laringal sound is /h/. It is produced on pharynx (Mulyani, 2008: 36). The
glottal sound is /h/ in words: dhahar means eating. It is pronounced as [ḍahar],
vii.
Glottal stop
Glottal sounds are produced on the glottis (Mulyani, 2008: 36). The
example is in word papak means blunt pronounced as [papa?]. In this case, /k/ is
articulated as [?].
According to the manner of articulation, Javanese consonants are
classified into the following: stop consonants, /p, b, d, ḍ, t, ṭ, j, c, g, k, and ?/,
nasal consonants /m, n, n, and ŋ/, lateral consonant /l/, fricative consonant /h/, trill
consonants /r/, and semi-vocal consonants /w and y/ (Whedawati, 2001: 41). It is
simplyfied into the following chart of Javanese consonants:
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Table 2.2 Javanese Consonants
Place of articulation
ṭ
Vd
b
d
ḍ
Nasal
Vd
m
Lateral
Vd
Fricatives
Vs
f*
s
Vd
v*
z*
Trill
Vd
Semi-vowel
Vd
Note
n
c
k
j
g
n
ɳ
Glottal stop
t
Laringal
p
Stop
Dorso-velar
Vs
Manner of articulation
Medio-palatal
Lamino-alveolar
Pico palatal
Pico-alveolar
Bilabial
Pico-dental
Voicing
Labio-dental
Alveolar
?
l
h
r
w
y
: *) found in foreign phonetics
vs= voiceless
vd= voiced
(Source: Whedawati)
4.
Javanese Phonology and Phonological Rule
Javanese phonology also describes the study of the Javanese sound
system. There are specific phonological rules found in Javanese phonology, i.e.
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the aspiration rule which creates the variation of phone and phoneme or
allophone. The aspiration rule includes certain consonants that are produced with
aspiration. Contrasting to English phonology, the English aspirated consonants are
/p, t, and k/ when occurring in the initial position, while in Javanese phonology
the aspirated consonants are /p, t, k, and d/ (Samsuri, 1985: 142). However /p, t, k/
are not aspirated when occurring in the initial position. It is thought to be
aspirated when occurring in the final position e.g. [?uuaph], [kauath], and [gabakh].
Aspirated consonants [th] is different from the /ṭ/ pronounced as [th] and /ḍ/
pronounced as [dh] since those sounds are produced more clearly. Therefore,
those sounds are not considered allophones or variants of /d/. They are classified
into pico-palatals. Javanese sounds such as /b, d, ḍ, j, and g/ are produced with
unclear aspiration such as in [bhabhath], [dhabhakh], [dhhadhhaph], [jhara?], and
[cagha?] (Samsuri, 1985: 142).
Nasalization also occurs in Javanese consonants i.e. /b, d, ḍ j, and g/. In his
book, Samsuri (1985: 142) comes to conclusion that /b, d, ḍ j, and g/ are nasalized
when they follow nasal sounds: /m, n, and ŋ/. For example, [mbalaph], [mandəŋ],
[kandhaŋ], and [njuaph].
5.
Language Interference
Language interference is one of the Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Hypotheses. CA reveals that the role of the first language or the mother tongue
influences more in phonological errors than grammatical errors (Dulay, 1982: 97).
Gramatical errors occur w
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ABSTRACT
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma
University, 2015.
Speaking English is one of the requirements to be tour guides because
English is globally considered as a lingua-franca. In order to communicate with
international tourists, they are expected to acquire English (L2) acquisition,
especially speaking skill. Speaking skill close relates to the way they pronounce
L2 words correctly. As a result, the purpose of this research is to examine how the
tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta articulate L2 words and the role of Javanese as
their native language (L1) to L2 acquisition. For this aim, the data are English
voiced consonants (EVCs): /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /.
To conduct this thesis, there are three problems formulated including (1)
what voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton
Yogyakarta? (2) How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce
English voiced consonants? (3) What role does language interference play in these
mispronunciations?
The methods used in conducting this research are field and library
researches. They are used to observe the way the tour guides in Keraton
mispronounce the observed EVCs and to relate the data result to the theory of
language interference. The analyses used are phonetic, phonological, contrastive
descriptive, and error analysis.
The result of this research is the tour guides in Keraton mispronounce 5
out of 8 the observed data: /z, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /. They replace the target phonemes
with the non-targeted phones by applying unexpected feature-changing rule. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is caused by Javanese interference. English
phonemes that are absent in Javanese cause the tour guides mispronounce them.
Keyword: mispronunciation, the tour guides, Javanese language, and Javanese
interference.
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ABSTRAK
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakulas Sastra, Universitas Sanata
Dharma, 2015.
Mampu berbahasa Inggris merupakan salah satu persyaratan menjadi
pemandu wisata karena bahasa Inggris telah diakui secara global sebagai bahasa
pemersatu. Dalam berkomunikasi dengan turis internasional, mereka diharapkan
menguasai kemampuan berbahasa Inggris, terutama keterampilan berbicara.
Keterampilan berbicara yang dimaksud berhubungan erat dengan cara melafalkan
bahasa Inggris dengan benar. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah
meneliti pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta dalam mengucapkan kata-kata
bahasa Inggris dan mengetahui peranan bahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu dalam
kemahiran berbahasa Inggris mereka. Untuk tujuan tersebut, data yang dianalisis
adalah kosonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris meliputi: /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /.
Dalam menulis skripsi ini, terdapat tiga rumusan masalah, yaitu: 1) Apa
saja konsonan bersuara dalam Inggris yang disalah ucapkan oleh pemandu wisata
di Keraton Yogyakarta? 2) Bagaimana pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta
mengucapkan konsonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris? 3) Apa peranan interferensi
bahasa pada pengucapan yang salah tersebut?
Metode yang digunakan dalam menjalankan penelitian ini adalah riset
lapangan dan riset pustaka dalam mengamati pemandu wisata di Keraton yang
salah melafalkan data yang diteliti dan menghubungkan hasil tersebut dengan
interferensi bahasa. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis fonetik, analisis
fonologi, analisis deskriptif perbandingan, dan analisis kesalahan.
Hasil penelitian ini adalah pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan 5 dari 8
data yang diteliti, yaitu: /z, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /. Mereka menganti target fonem
dengan fonem yang tidak diduga dengan menerapan kaidah unexpected feautrechanging. Kaidah unexpected feautre-changing disebabkan oleh inteferensi
bahasa Jawa. Fonem dalam bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemui dalam bahasa Jawa
menyebabkan pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi tersebut.
Kata kunci: salah pengucapan, pemandu wisata, bahasa Jawa, dan interferensi
bahasa Jawa.
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JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
Nelif Mike Simatupang
Student Number: 114214096
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
Nelif Mike Simatupang
Student Number: 114214096
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been
previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that,
to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material
previously writtern by any other person except where due reference is made in the
text of the undergraduate thesis.
Yogyakarta, June 25, 2015
Nelif Mike Simatupang
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama
: Nelif Mike Simatupang
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 114214096
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
JAVANESE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH VOICED
CONSONANTS PRODUCED BY THE TOUR GUIDES IN
KERATON YOGYAKARTA
Berserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya
memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk
menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk
pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di
internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin
kepada saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap
mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta,
Pada tanggal Juni 25, 2015
Yang menyatakan,
Nelif Mike Simatupang
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WORK HARD
PLAY HARD
(Anonymous)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Jesus Christ for all His unconditional loves and blessings in my
entire life.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor, Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S,
for patiently guiding and giving me priceless and valuable wisdoms and
understandings during this undergraduate thesis preparation. I also owe my
appreciation to my co-advisor, Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum, for her helps and
suggestions in improving this thesis. I thank Mr. Erik Christoper and other
English Letters Department’s lecturers who I cannot mention all their names. I
thank Pengangen Tepas Pariwisata Keraton Yogyakata that allow me to do the
field research and all my informants who are tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta
who are so friendly and kind to allocate their times.
My special thank goes to my mom and dad for supporting and reminding
me to finish this thesis. Their affections, hopes, and prays always strengthen me. I
also thank all my sisters and brothers, Uci, Fitri, Yorif, and Victor for their
supports. I am grateful to my best friends in college, Cicik and Nafta, my best
roommates, Asti and Cungkring, and my boyfriend, Yugo. Their supports always
encourage me. For all my friends in Class D batch 2011, time goes by so fast and
I hope our friendship never ends.
Nelif Mike Simatupang
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................ ii
APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................... iii
ACCEPTENCE PAGE ........................................................................................ iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN KARYA ILMIAH .....................v
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................... vi
MOTO PAGE ...................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... viii
TABLE OF CONTETS ....................................................................................... ix
ABSTARCT .......................................................................................................... xi
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .........................................................................1
A. Background of the Study ...........................................................................1
B. Problem Formulation .................................................................................3
C. Objectives of the Study ..............................................................................3
D. Definition of Terms....................................................................................3
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .....................................................6
A. Review of Related Studies .........................................................................6
B. Review of Related Theories .......................................................................9
1. English Phonetics ..................................................................................9
2. English Phonology ..............................................................................13
3. Javanese Phonetics ..............................................................................15
4. Javanese Phonology and Phonological Rule .......................................19
5. Language Interference .........................................................................20
C. Theoritical Framework.............................................................................24
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................26
A. Object of the Study ..................................................................................26
B. Approach of the Study .............................................................................26
C. Method of the Study.................................................................................27
1. Data Collection ....................................................................................27
2. Data Analysis ......................................................................................30
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS........................33
A. Mispronounced English Voiced Consonants by the Tour Guides ...........33
1. English Consonant [b] .........................................................................35
2. English Consonant [d] .........................................................................35
3. English Consonant [z] .........................................................................35
4. English Consonant [g] .........................................................................36
5. English Consonant [v] .........................................................................36
6. English Consonant [ð] .........................................................................37
7. English Consonant [ʒ ] ........................................................................37
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8. English Consonant [dʒ ] ......................................................................38
B. Phonological Analysis of EVCs...............................................................40
1. Voiced Alveolar Fricative Consonant /z/ ............................................40
2. Voiced Labiodental Fricative Consonant /v/.......................................42
3. Voiced Interdental Consonant /ð/........................................................43
4. Voiced Palatal Fricative Consonant /ʒ / ..............................................45
5. Voiced Palatal Affricate Consonant /dʒ /............................................47
C. Language Interference .............................................................................49
1. Voiced Alveolar Fricative Consonant /z/ ............................................50
2. Voiced Labiodental Fricative Consonant /v/ .......................................52
3. Voiced Interdental Consonant /ð/........................................................54
4. Voiced Palatal Fricative Consonant /ʒ / ..............................................56
5. Voiced Palatal Affricate Consonant /dʒ /............................................57
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...........................................................................60
BLIBIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................63
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................65
1. Data in Sentences ................................................................................65
2. Data Result ..........................................................................................67
3. The Calculation of Incorect Phones ....................................................73
4. The List of Informants.........................................................................81
5. Letter of Permission to Conduct Field Research .................................82
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ABSTRACT
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma
University, 2015.
Speaking English is one of the requirements to be tour guides because
English is globally considered as a lingua-franca. In order to communicate with
international tourists, they are expected to acquire English (L2) acquisition,
especially speaking skill. Speaking skill close relates to the way they pronounce
L2 words correctly. As a result, the purpose of this research is to examine how the
tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta articulate L2 words and the role of Javanese as
their native language (L1) to L2 acquisition. For this aim, the data are English
voiced consonants (EVCs): /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /.
To conduct this thesis, there are three problems formulated including (1)
what voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton
Yogyakarta? (2) How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce
English voiced consonants? (3) What role does language interference play in these
mispronunciations?
The methods used in conducting this research are field and library
researches. They are used to observe the way the tour guides in Keraton
mispronounce the observed EVCs and to relate the data result to the theory of
language interference. The analyses used are phonetic, phonological, contrastive
descriptive, and error analysis.
The result of this research is the tour guides in Keraton mispronounce 5
out of 8 the observed data: /z, v, ð, ʒ and dʒ /. They replace the target phonemes
with the non-targeted phones by applying unexpected feature-changing rule. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is caused by Javanese interference. English
phonemes that are absent in Javanese cause the tour guides mispronounce them.
Keyword: mispronunciation, the tour guides, Javanese language, and Javanese
interference.
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ABSTRAK
SIMATUPANG, NELIF MIKE. Javanese Influence on English Voiced
Consonants Produced by the Tour Guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakulas Sastra, Universitas Sanata
Dharma, 2015.
Mampu berbahasa Inggris merupakan salah satu persyaratan menjadi
pemandu wisata karena bahasa Inggris telah diakui secara global sebagai bahasa
pemersatu. Dalam berkomunikasi dengan turis internasional, mereka diharapkan
menguasai kemampuan berbahasa Inggris, terutama keterampilan berbicara.
Keterampilan berbicara yang dimaksud berhubungan erat dengan cara melafalkan
bahasa Inggris dengan benar. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah
meneliti pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta dalam mengucapkan kata-kata
bahasa Inggris dan mengetahui peranan bahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu dalam
kemahiran berbahasa Inggris mereka. Untuk tujuan tersebut, data yang dianalisis
adalah kosonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris meliputi: /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /.
Dalam menulis skripsi ini, terdapat tiga rumusan masalah, yaitu: 1) Apa
saja konsonan bersuara dalam Inggris yang disalah ucapkan oleh pemandu wisata
di Keraton Yogyakarta? 2) Bagaimana pemandu wisata di Keraton Yogyakarta
mengucapkan konsonan bersuara dibahasa Inggris? 3) Apa peranan interferensi
bahasa pada pengucapan yang salah tersebut?
Metode yang digunakan dalam menjalankan penelitian ini adalah riset
lapangan dan riset pustaka dalam mengamati pemandu wisata di Keraton yang
salah melafalkan data yang diteliti dan menghubungkan hasil tersebut dengan
interferensi bahasa. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis fonetik, analisis
fonologi, analisis deskriptif perbandingan, dan analisis kesalahan.
Hasil penelitian ini adalah pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan 5 dari 8
data yang diteliti, yaitu: /z, v, ð, ʒ dan dʒ /. Mereka menganti target fonem
dengan fonem yang tidak diduga dengan menerapan kaidah unexpected feautrechanging. Kaidah unexpected feautre-changing disebabkan oleh inteferensi
bahasa Jawa. Fonem dalam bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemui dalam bahasa Jawa
menyebabkan pemandu wisata salah mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi tersebut.
Kata kunci: salah pengucapan, pemandu wisata, bahasa Jawa, dan interferensi
bahasa Jawa.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background of the Study
Javanese is recognized as a large ethnic group located in three provinces
on the island of Java in Indonesia, Yogyakarta, Central and East Java. The
Javanese people have their own language that is spoken as their mother tongue or
first language. Now, the Javanese language grows rapidly since Javanese native
speakers have gone overseas. Therefore, it is not only spoken in those provinces.
Like other languages, the structure of Javanese language is also influenced by
linguistic aspects (e.g. phonology, morphology, and syntax) and non-linguistic
aspects (social status, economic and educational background, age, and the
participants’ relationship). Non-linguistic aspects found in Javanese language are
more complex than the formal and informal aspects in other languages. Therefore,
those aspects determine speech levels. Javanese speech levels are classified into
Krama, Madya and Ngoko to indicate various degrees of respect and politeness
(Poedjasoedarma, 1979: 8).
Speaking Javanese language as the first language does not isolate Javanese
people from the global language, English. They speak English as a foreign
language in certain places like schools, offices, airports, and tourist attractions.
For example in Yogyakarta, there are several tourist attractions such as the Sultan
Hamengku Buwono Palace or Keraton, and many popular temples, and museums.
As a result, the tour guides speak English to communicate with international
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tourists. For the purpose of communicating, it is important for the tour guides to
speak English correctly which means they can pronounce English words properly
or with tolerable mispronunciations. They, consequently, need to limit or avoid
mispronunciation by at least having a basic understanding of English phonetics
and phonology. If they do not, they will often mispronounce words and represent
different meanings (creating misunderstandings). For example, the tour guides
whose native language in Javanese will often pronounce the word “breath” is not
as /breθ/ but as [bred] or [bret].
Acknowledging this challenging phenomenon, English mispronunciation
produced by the local tour guides is a worthy topic for a research. In this study,
the specific informants are the tour guides whose native language is Javanese and
who work in the Keraton in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The data that will be
specifically observed are English voiced consonants.
There are three reasons to analyze this phenomenon. Firstly, English
mispronunciation is a common problem faced by non-native English speakers,
especially for people who speak English as a foreign language. Because English is
not Indonesian first or second language, they have tendency to encounter this
problem. Secondly, English mispronunciation produced by the informants who
are the tour guides is a problem found in Yogyakarta. English cannot be separated
from tour guides since they meet international tourists every day. If they do not
master English, they may create misunderstandings by mispronouncing English
words.
As a result, the messages might be not delivered accurately to the
addressee. Thirdly, the study of English mispronunciation of voiced consonants
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produced by local, the tour guides, has not been done yet in Sanata Dharma
University as a research project.
B.
Problem Formulation
In designing this research, three research questions are formulated in order
to limit the scope and objectives of this research:
1.
What English voiced consonants are often mispronounced by the tour
guides in Keraton Yogyakarta?
2.
How do the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta pronounce English voiced
consonants?
3.
What role does language interference play in these mispronunciations?
C.
Objectives of the Study
Based on these problem formulation, there are three objectives. The first
objective is to identify the English voiced consonants which are repetitively
mispronounced by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta. The second objective is
to analyze how the informants pronounce English consonants. Finally, the study
will explore linguistically the cause and the role of language interference in
phonological errors done by the tour guides.
D.
Definition of Terms
There are some terms regularly found in this research. In order to prevent
misunderstandings, those terms will be explained first. They are Javanese
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language, Keraton Yogyakarta, mispronunciation, the tour guides, and linguistic
interference.
Irene Thompson (2014) says that “Javanese is the spoken language of over
75 million people in central and eastern parts of the island of Java” (Thompson,
2014). It is a regional language in Central Java, East Java and Yogyakarta.
Therefore, there are several kinds of Javanese’s dialect based on the
pronunciation, vocabularies, etc. There are three main speech levels in Javanese
reflecting low, medium, and high respect, respectively: i.e. Ngoko, Madya, and
Krama (Thompson, 2014). Speech levels are used to show respect between the
participants. According to Thompson (2014) ngoko is the lowest level in
Javanese’s speech since it is used in informal conversation (Thompson, 2014).
The participants (the speaker and the interlocutor) are friends or close relatives.
The speakers who have higher social status will use ngoko to address the
interlocutors who have lower status, for example, elder people addressing younger
people, or bosses address to the employee (Thomsom, 2014). Javanese people
speak madya to indicate a polite formal or status neutral language, since the
interlocutors are strangers (Thompson, 2014).
Madya is also known as the
combination of ngoko and krama. It is used since the participants do not know
each other. Krama is a polite formal language used by younger people to address
elder people, employee to address boss and the host to address audiences in
formal occasion (Thomson, 2014). In short, these speech levels reflect different
degree of politeness and respect in formal and informal situations.
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According to Turtle (2011) Keraton Yogyakarta is the Sultan’s palace
that functions as the center of the official, political and the spiritual spheres. It is
the royal residence and also a popular tourist attraction because the Sultan is the
King of Yogyakarta and is also a Governor of the Special Regency Province of
Yogyakarta (Turtle, 2011). Additionally, the palace or Keraton in Yogyakarta has
been decorated with local cultures, especially Javanese culture, along with other
religious influences such as Buddhist, Hinduism, and Islam. Therefore, the
historical values of Keraton Yogyakarta with its rich history of pluralism and
renovations become one of the tourist attractions in Yogyakarta.
The tour guides in and around the Keraton Yogyakarta are selected to lead
the groups of tourists in sightseeing to interesting places in the palace area. Since
they are local citizens, they often share interesting stories about the legendary
aspects of certain popular spots.
Mispronunciation is the error performance in pronunciations caused by
performance factors and competence (Chomsky in Krasen, 1982: 139).
Performance factors are about fatigue and inattention, while competence is about
lack of knowledge. Fatigue and lack of intention influence the ability of a speaker
to produce error in pronunciations. The lack of knowledge is currently considered
as reflections of underlying differences between sounds in native language (L1)
and another language known as target language (L2).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
There are three main parts that will be discussed in this chapter. The purposes of
reviewing the related studies are not only to find similarities in the approach, topic
choice, and research objectives from previous studies, but also to differentiate this
research from previous researches. The review of related theories elaborates the
relevant theories that will be applied in the analysis. The theoretical framework
explains the contribution of related theories to how the theories can be applied to
answer the research questions.
A.
Review of Related Studies
One similar topic found in Samsuri’s study, Javanese Phoneme and Their
Distinctive Feature, discusses English mispronunciation. He argues that Javanese
people naturally mispronounce certain English sounds. It, therefore, can make the
addressee confused. For example, when the addresser asks an English native
speaker “Will you fetch me my robe, please?” and spontaneously the addressee
questions him back “Did you say robe or rope?” (Samsuri, 1961: 316). He
assumes that the addresser mispronounces the word “rope” since he does not
concern about the minimal pairs of closely related sounds or phonemes which are
[b] and [p]. He comes to the conclusion that the addresser must pay attention to
clarify the distinctive features of minimal pairs because it describes the binary
opposition of those phonemes (Samsuri, 1961: 321).
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Though the topic between Samsuri’s and this research is similar, they
focus on different objectives and informants. Samsuri examines all English
sounds which are probably mispronounced by general Javanese people, while the
researcher examines English voiced consonants especially: /b/, /d/, /z/, /g/, /v/, /ð/,
/ʒ/ and /dʒ/ spoken by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
In his research titled The English Consonant Mispronunciations Produced
By Sundanese Native Speakers, Aloysius Prianto Raharjo observes English
consonants which are /f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ spoken by English learners
whose native language is Sundanese. He finds that the informants regularly make
consonants change on /v/, /ð/, /θ/ /ʒ/, and /z/ are less than 50 percent accuracy
(Raharjo, 2009: 74). He assumes that these changing sounds have been caused by
inattention and interference by their mother tongue (Sundanese). Based on the
research results, inattention of the informants causes devoicing rule e.g. /v/ [f].
Devoicing rule reduces voiced consonants into voiceless consonants (Raharjo,
2009: 75). However, he comes to the conclusion that the most likely reason for
mispronunciation is the interference of informants’ mother tongue. In other words,
Sundanese phonetics does not have those phonemes (/f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/,
/dʒ/) and it is therefore likely that these sounds will be mispronounced in English.
He compares English and Sundanese phonetics by applying contrastive analysis.
Raharjo’s research is different from the researcher’s work since the objects
of his research are /f/, /v/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ while the researcher’s objects
are /b/, /d/, /z/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/. The informants of Raharjo’s research are
different since he examines English voiced consonants spoken by Sundanese
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native speakers, while this research examines English voiced consonants spoken
by Javanese native speakers working as the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta.
The other study is Kristin Kersten’s Comparative Studies in the
Phonological L2 Acquisition in Bilingual Pre-school. In this study, Kersten
examines two bilingual Pre-school which are a French-German and an EnglishGerman project. She thinks English is getting more important for globalization
since it has generally developed into the world’s vehicular language. It implies
that people have to be familiar with English in order to adapt this new situation.
As a result, teachers have an important role to introduce and educate students or
even children to be able to adapt this situation. Teaching foreign language (L2) is
not that simple since they have to find the effective ways or strategies of teaching
L2. One of the obstacles of teaching L2 is caused by children’s native language.
In her study, she figures out four problems which are the role of foreign accent in
the pronunciation of the L2, other elements beside foreign accent may cause error
in pronunciation, the differences and similarities of L1 and L2, and the role of
learners’ age to be first introduced to L2.
The first difference from Kersten’s study (2002) is that Kersten examines
different informants. She observes mispronunciation produced by children, while
the researcher observes mispronunciation produced by adults, the tour guides in
Keraton. She does not only focus on the role of L1 as the obstruent to acquire L2,
but also to find the role of foreign accent and learners’ age to be first introduced to
L2. Her study also has similarity to the researcher’s work which is both of them
apply contrastive or comparative analysis to come up with errors in pronunciation
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produced by English non-native speakers. She notes all speech sounds found in
English, French, and German, while the researcher notes consonants found either
in Javanese or in English.
B.
Review of Related Theories
1.
English Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds based on the characteristic of
individual sound; how they are produced and how they are characterized
(Fromkin, 2000: 204-205). Since phonetics describes speech sounds, each sound
will differ from all other. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the most
acceptable and commonly used transcription alphabet, utilizes specific symbols
for each distinctive sound of languages and classifies English sounds into two
major natural classes: vowels (/i:/, /I/, /e/, / æ/, /ə/, /ʌ/, /u/, /ʊ/, /o/, /ɔ/, and /ɒ/) and
consonants (/p/, /d/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/, /m/,
/n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /j/, and /w/).
a.
English Consonant
Consonants are defined as a group of sounds which are produced by
stopping and constricting the airflow in the vocal tract. This definition is
explained by Fromkin stating:
Consonants are sounds in which significant construction is made
somewhere in the vocal tract- a narrowing that interferes with the flow of
air out of the mouth- so that there is at least some reduction in the energy
of the sounds while vowels are sounds in which no such construction is
made; the air flows out of the mouth relatively freely and the sounds is
relatively loud and strong (Fromkin, 2000: 478).
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Consequently, consonants are distinct from one another according to their place of
articulation as well as their manner of articulation.
The place of articulation shows in which articulators that the consonants
are produced (Fromkin, 2003: 242). It means the place of articulation refers to the
where and what articulators are involved to produce speech sounds.
i.
Bilabials
Bilabial sounds, /b, p, and m/, are produced by putting upper and lower
lips together (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
ii.
Labiodentals
Labiodental sounds are produced by touching lower lip to upper teeth or in
words fat and vase incisors (Fromkin: 2003, 242). They are /f and v/.
iii.
Interdentals
Inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower teeth will
articulate /θ and ð/ termed interdental sounds (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
iv.
Alveolars
Alveolar sounds, / d, n, s, z, l, and t/ are produced by raising the front part
of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 242).
v.
Palatals
To articulate palatal sounds, the front part of the tongue is raised to a point
on the hard palate which is behind the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 243).
Palatal consonants: /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, and dʒ/.
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Velars
The velar sounds, /k, g, and ŋ/, are produced when the back of the tongue
is raised and touches the soft palate or velum (Fromkin: 2003, 243).
vii.
Uvulars
Fromkin (2003, 243) states that “uvular sounds are produced by raising the
back of the tongue to the uvula”. This speech sound is symbolized as as /r/.
Additionaly, /r/ found in French is different to /r/ in other languages such as
English since it is classified into lateral.
viii.
Glottal
There are two sounds glottal including /h and ?/. The difference are the /h/
are produced when the glottis is open and there is no airstream produced in the
mouth, while /?/ is produced when the air is stopped completely at the glottis by
tightly closed vocal cords (Fromkin: 2003, 243). Therefore, /?/ is known as a
glottal stop.
Manner of articulation involves differentiating consonants “by the way the
air stream is affected as it travels from the lungs up and out of the mouth and
nose” (Fromkin, 2000: 217). They include the following:
i.
Voiced and voiceless sounds
The way to differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds is by
observing the vocal cords. Whenever the voiced consonants are articulated, the air
passes the vocal cord and makes it vibrate. Unlike, voiced consonants, the air are
passing the vocal cord freely (Fromkin, 2003: 244). Manner of articulation will
show the distinctive feature between sounds /p/ and /b/. Both of those sounds are
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bilabial sounds, but what makes them dissimilar is their manner of articulation.
Sound /b/ is classified into voiced consonants while /p/ is classified into voiceless
consonants.
ii.
Nasal and oral sounds
According to Fromkin (2003, 246), nasal sounds are produced when the
velum or soft palate is not raised. The air can pass through either nose or mouth.
However oral sounds are produced whenever the air only comes out through the
nose. It happens because the velum blocks the air passing the nose. It also helps to
distinguish that they have different characteristics. The sound /b/ is classified into
oral sounds while /m/ is considered as nasal sound.
iii.
Stops
Some consonants categorized into stops are /p, b, m, t, n, k, g, and ?/.
“Stops are sounds produced when the airflow is completely obstructed during the
speech.” (Akmajian, 2001: 73)
iv.
Fricatives
When there is a narrow opening in the vocal tract, it causes the airflow to
still pass through it and it produces hissing sounds. It helps to distinguish this by
putting one hand in front of the mouth while producing fricative sounds.
Fricatives consist of /f, v, θ, and ð/ (Akmajian, 2001: 73).
v.
Affricates
Fromkin explains that “some sounds are produced by a stop closure
followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect
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characteristic of a fricative.” (Fromkin, 2003: 248). Affricates are also known as a
sequence of a stop plus a fricative (Fromkin, 2003: 248).
The descriptions of English consonants based on the place and manner of
articulation can be simplied into the following table of English consonants.
Table 2.1 English Consonants
(Source: John Eulenberg)
2.
English Phonology
Phonemes, phones, and allophones are the basic units found in phonetics
and phonology. A phoneme is a smaller underlying representation of a speech
sound (Giegerich, 1992: 31). The researchers consider phonemes as an abstract
mental representation in the speakers’ mind and a smaller phonological unit of
language. The symbol referring to the phoneme enclosed in slanted bracket /..../.
A phoneme is also known as “a contrastive unit in that they distinguish words,
thus representing different meaning” (Giegerich, 1992: 32). According to
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Giegerich, a phone is identified as a concrete realization of certain phoneme
(Giegerich, 1992: 31). It is concrete realization since it can be heard or comes in
the form of utterances. The symbol of phone is enclosed in square brackets [...].
In her book, Fromkin (2000: 254) states that “an allophone is therefore a
predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.” An allophone is the variant of
phonemes’ realization which occurs in certain environments e.g. [p] and [ph] are
allophones of the phoneme /p/. Since allophones are phonetically similar sounds,
they do not contrast with each other and change the meaning of the words. For
example pitch, which phonemically must be represented as /phItʃ/, might be
pronounced as [pItʃ] without changing the meaning.
Besides phonemes, phones, and allophones, phonology uses phonological
features to describe the characteristic of one phoneme. For example, the features
of [b]: [+stop, +voiced, +labial, -alveolar, -nasal] and [d]: [+stop, +voiced, -labial,
+alveolar, -nasal]. These features or properties also show the difference between
/b/ and /p/. They are called distinctive features. Distinctive features (also known
as phonological features) use a plus (+) and a minus (-) feature values to
distinguish the phoneme from others (Fromkin, 2000: 256). Plus (+) signifies the
presence of place and manner of articulation, but minus (-) signifies the absence
of place and manner of articulation. Therefore, for example, the distinctive or
phonemic features of /b/ and /p/ are [±voiced].
a.
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules are methods used to convert phonemic representation
into phonetic representation (Hyman, 1975: 12). Thus, it is a particular process of
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phonology to present sounds from the mental (abstract) level into the concrete
level (utterances) by giving explanation about predictable aspects of speech (the
environment of the phonemes). In order to convert from phonemes to phones,
linguists use a phonological notation. The notation of phonological rule uses some
symbols to make the rule statement more concise. For example as in assimilation
rule, the notation is:
V [+nasal] / ___ [nasal]
To the right of the arrow is the phonetic change that occurs, while to the left of the
arrow is the sounds that is affected. The slash symbolizes the phonological
environment that the phonetic change occurs. The underscore stands for the
relative position of the sound to be changed with in the environment. To relate
Hyman’s statement, the sound on left side of the arrow refers to the phonemic
representation and the sound on the right of the arrow refers to the phonetic
representation. As a result, the notation above means vowel becomes nasalized in
the environment before nasal segments.
Since phonological rules’ purpose is to give the explanation about the
predictable aspects of speech sounds, this research uses term the unexpected
feature-changing rule to describe how the informants produce the data. The
unexpected feature-changing rule is done by adding distinctive features that are
unpredictable from the context and devoicing the data.
3.
Javanese Phonetics
To know how Javanese phonology affects English mispronunciation
spoken by the tour guides in Keraton Yogyakarta, it is necessary to review
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Javanese phonetics. Javanese sounds are classified into three categories which
include
vowels,
consonants
and
semi-vowels
(Wedhawati,
2001:
33).
Summarizing from Wedhawati, Javanese vowels consist of /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /ə/, /o/
and /ɔ/, Javanese consonants consist of /p/, /b/, /m/, /t/, /d/, /s/, /n/, /r/, /ṭ/, /ḍ/, /l/,
/c/, /j/, /n/, /k/, /g/, /ŋ/, /?/, and /h/ and Javanese semi-vowels consist of /w/ and /y/
(Whedawati, 2001: 33-41). Additionally, /ṭ/ is pronounced as /th/, while /ḍ/ is
pronounced as /dh/. These speech sounds are different from aspirated sound /th/ in
English since Javanese sounds are strong and clear than English aspirated sounds.
Besides different sounds’ classification, there are some English sounds are absent
in Javanese phonetics. They are/f/ and /v/. Therefore, they are considered as
foreign sounds.
a.
Javanese Consonants
Javanese consonants are also classified based on place and manner of
articulation and major classes. According to place of articulation, Javanese
consonants are organized into the following:
i.
Bilabials
Actually, the place where Javanese bilabial sound takes place is identical
with English bilabial sounds produced by touching the upper and the lower lips
(Mulyani, 2008, 31). Sounds /b, p, and m/ are placed into bilabial consonants
found in words, balung means bone pronounced as [baluŋ], kekep means hug
pronounced as [kəkəp], and romo means father pronounced as and [rɔmɔ].
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Labiodentals
Labiodental sound is produced by locating the lower lips to upper teeth
(Mulyani, 2008, 31-32). The example of labial-dental sound is /w/ in word e.g.
tuwa means old pronounced as [tuwɔ].
iii.
Alveolars
Fromkin states that alveolar sounds are produced by putting the tip of the
tongue to the alveolar ridge (Fromkin: 2003, 242). However, Javanese has spesific
classifications of alveolar. It is used to emphasize that Javanese alveolar sounds
are not identical to other language, sepecially English. According to Mulyani,
there are four classification i.e.: Pico-dental, pico-alveolar, pico-palatal, and
lamino-alveolar (Mulyani, 2008: 32-33). Pico-dental refers to the sounds which
are produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the behind part of the upper teeth
(Mulyani, 2008, 32). Javanese pico-dental sounds are /t and d/, heard in the words
such as putu means grandchild pronounced as [putu] and dino means day
pronounced as [dinɔ]. Pico-alveolar sounds are articulated when the tip of the
tongue is on the alveolar ridge (Mulyani, 2008:32). Sounds / l, r, and n/ are heard
in words such as: klasa means floor mat pronounced as [klɔsɔ], larang means
expensive pronounced as [laraŋ], and rono means go there pronounced as [rɔnɔ].
Pico-palatal sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the hard
palate (Mulyani, 2008: 33). They are /ṭ and ḍ/ in words thukul means grow
pronounced as [ṭukul] and dhewe means alone pronounced as [ḍewe]. Laminoalveolar sounds are articulated by putting the tip of the tongue to the back part of
the upper teeth.
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Medio-palatal
Medio palatal sounds are articulated when the middle tongue is on the hard
palate (Mulyani, 2008: 34). They are /y, n, j, and c/ in words: koyo means like
pronounced as [kɔyɔ], banyu means water pronounced as [banu], jiwit means
pinching pronounced as [jiwit], and coro means cockroach pronounced as [coro].
v.
Dorso-velar
Sounds /g, ŋ, and k/ are classified into dorso-velar in words: jejeg which
means erect pronounced as [jəjəg], tangi means wake up pronounced as [taŋi],
and soko means from pronounced as [sɔkɔ]. These sounds are produced by
touching the back part of the tongue to the velum (Mulyani, 2008: 35).
vi.
Laringal
Laringal sound is /h/. It is produced on pharynx (Mulyani, 2008: 36). The
glottal sound is /h/ in words: dhahar means eating. It is pronounced as [ḍahar],
vii.
Glottal stop
Glottal sounds are produced on the glottis (Mulyani, 2008: 36). The
example is in word papak means blunt pronounced as [papa?]. In this case, /k/ is
articulated as [?].
According to the manner of articulation, Javanese consonants are
classified into the following: stop consonants, /p, b, d, ḍ, t, ṭ, j, c, g, k, and ?/,
nasal consonants /m, n, n, and ŋ/, lateral consonant /l/, fricative consonant /h/, trill
consonants /r/, and semi-vocal consonants /w and y/ (Whedawati, 2001: 41). It is
simplyfied into the following chart of Javanese consonants:
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Table 2.2 Javanese Consonants
Place of articulation
ṭ
Vd
b
d
ḍ
Nasal
Vd
m
Lateral
Vd
Fricatives
Vs
f*
s
Vd
v*
z*
Trill
Vd
Semi-vowel
Vd
Note
n
c
k
j
g
n
ɳ
Glottal stop
t
Laringal
p
Stop
Dorso-velar
Vs
Manner of articulation
Medio-palatal
Lamino-alveolar
Pico palatal
Pico-alveolar
Bilabial
Pico-dental
Voicing
Labio-dental
Alveolar
?
l
h
r
w
y
: *) found in foreign phonetics
vs= voiceless
vd= voiced
(Source: Whedawati)
4.
Javanese Phonology and Phonological Rule
Javanese phonology also describes the study of the Javanese sound
system. There are specific phonological rules found in Javanese phonology, i.e.
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the aspiration rule which creates the variation of phone and phoneme or
allophone. The aspiration rule includes certain consonants that are produced with
aspiration. Contrasting to English phonology, the English aspirated consonants are
/p, t, and k/ when occurring in the initial position, while in Javanese phonology
the aspirated consonants are /p, t, k, and d/ (Samsuri, 1985: 142). However /p, t, k/
are not aspirated when occurring in the initial position. It is thought to be
aspirated when occurring in the final position e.g. [?uuaph], [kauath], and [gabakh].
Aspirated consonants [th] is different from the /ṭ/ pronounced as [th] and /ḍ/
pronounced as [dh] since those sounds are produced more clearly. Therefore,
those sounds are not considered allophones or variants of /d/. They are classified
into pico-palatals. Javanese sounds such as /b, d, ḍ, j, and g/ are produced with
unclear aspiration such as in [bhabhath], [dhabhakh], [dhhadhhaph], [jhara?], and
[cagha?] (Samsuri, 1985: 142).
Nasalization also occurs in Javanese consonants i.e. /b, d, ḍ j, and g/. In his
book, Samsuri (1985: 142) comes to conclusion that /b, d, ḍ j, and g/ are nasalized
when they follow nasal sounds: /m, n, and ŋ/. For example, [mbalaph], [mandəŋ],
[kandhaŋ], and [njuaph].
5.
Language Interference
Language interference is one of the Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Hypotheses. CA reveals that the role of the first language or the mother tongue
influences more in phonological errors than grammatical errors (Dulay, 1982: 97).
Gramatical errors occur w