Mispronunciation of some English consonants by Javanese students in English literature of Sanata Dharma University.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRACT
LUVIYA, SUSI. Mispronunciation of Some English Consonants by Javanese
Students in English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta:
Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2016.
This undergraduate thesis discusses mispronunciation of English consonants
by students in English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. The subject are
Javanese students. They actively speak Javanese. The respondents read the words on
the list. The words contain some English consonants which are absent in Javanese
feature inventories. The consideration is, in general, Javanese students find difficulty
in pronouncing those consonants. Then, they usually change those English
consonants with Javanese consonants which sound similar.
There are two problems to be discussed in this undergraduate thesis. The first
is comparing consonants in two different languages, Javanese and English. The aim is
to know English consonants which are predicted to be mispronounced. The second
problem is dedicated to observe consonant features change through the differences.
There are two steps applied in this research. The first step is comparison step
that is comparing English and Javanese consonants. The aim is to describe
similarities and differences between both languages. The second step is used to
answer second problem formulation which is analyzing consonant features change

through the differences.
This research has found seven (7) consonants which are predicted to be
mispronounced by the respondents. The consonants are [v, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]. Besides,
there are seventeen (17) similar consonants from both. They are [b, d, ɡ, m, n, ŋ, z, w,
l, r, p, t, k, ʡ, f, s, h]. Nevertheless, the fact in the field shows that mispronunciation
often happened to labiodental voiced fricative [v] changes into labiodental voiceless
fricative [f], interdental voiced fricative [ð] into palatal voiced stop [ɖ], palatal voiced
fricative [ʒ] pronounce as spelling pronunciation, and palatal voiced affricate [ʤ]
into mediopalatal voiced stop [j] which has indicated by the accuracy score under
60%. Mispronunciation happened because of the absent of English in Javanese
inventories. Then, the other consonants, interdental voiceless fricative [θ], palatal
voiceless fricative[ʃ], and palatal voiceless affricate [ʧ] are not difficult enough to be
articulated by the respondents as shown by the accuracy score above 60%.

xii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRAK
LUVIYA, SUSI. Mispronunciation of Some English Consonants by Javanese Students in

English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas
Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Skripsi ini membahas kesalahan pengucapan huruf konsonan bahasa inggris oleh
mahasiswa jurusan sastra inggris di Universitas Sanata Dharma. Mahasiswa yang dijadikan
subyek pengamatan adalah mahasiswa asli orang jawa dan aktif menggunakan bahasa jawa.
Mahasiswa melafalkan kata-kata tertera di kertas. Kata-kata dipilih berdasarkan hasil
perbedaan dari konsonan bahasa jawa dan bahasa inggris. Pertimbangannya adalah karena
pada umumnya mahasiswa jawa mengalami kesulitan melafalkan beberapa konsonan
tertentu sehingga mereka mengganti dengan konsonan bahasa jawa yang mempunyai bunyi
hampir sama.
Di dalam skripsi ini ada dua permasalahan yang dibahas. Permasalahan pertama
adalah mencari tahu konsonan apa saja yang gagal diucapkan oleh responden. Berdasarkan
perbedaan tersebut, permasalahan kedua adalah meneliti perubahan fitur konsonan yang
dilakukan oleh responden.
Ada dua langkah yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Langkah pertama yang
diterapkan yaitu metode perbandingan, yakni membandingkan konsonan bahasa jawa dan
bahasa inggris. Hal ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan persamaan dan perbedaan dari
kedua bahasa. Langkah kedua yang digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua yaitu
dengan menganalisa perubahan fitur konsonan melalui perbedaan.
Penelitian telah menemukan bahwa terdapat tujuh (7) konsonan yang diprediksi

salah ucap sebagai hasil perbandingan dari dua bahasa yaitu bahasa Inggris dan bahasa
Jawa. Konsonan tersebut adalah [v, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]. Disamping itu, ada tujuh belas (17)
konsonan yang sama dari kedua bahasa, [b, d, ɡ, m, n, ŋ, z, w, l, r, p, t, k, , f, s, h]. Meskipun
demikian, fakta di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan pengucapan sering terjadi pada
konsonan labiodental voiced fricative [v] menjadi labiodental voiceless fricative [f],
interdental voiced fricative [ð] menjadi palatal voiced stop [ɖ], palatal voiced fricative [ʒ]
dilafalkan seperti penulisannya, dan palatal voiced affricate [ʤ] menjadi mediopalatal
voiced stop [j] yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai akurasi dibawah 60%. Kesalahan pengucapan
terjadi karena tidak adanya konsonan bahasa Inggris tersebut dalam system fonetik bahasa
Jawa. Konsonan lainn, yaitu interdental voiceless fricative [θ], palatal voiceless fricative[ʃ],
dan palatal voiceless affricate [ʧ] tidak terlalu sulit diucapkan oleh penutur bahasa Jawa asli
sebagaimana ditunjukkan dengan nilai akurasi diatas 60%.

xii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

MISPRONUNCIATION OF SOME ENGLISH CONSONANTS
BY JAVANESE STUDENTS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE OF
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters

By
SUSI LUVIYA
Student Number: 104214103
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
2016

i

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

MISPRONUNCIATION OF SOME ENGLISH CONSONANTS BY
JAVANESE STUDENTS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SANATA
DHARMA UNIVERSITY

By
SUSI LUVIYA
Student number: 104214103

Approved by

July 12, 2016

July 12, 2016

ii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

MISPRONUNCIATION OF SOME ENGLISH CONSONANTS BY
JAVANESE STUDENTS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SANATA
DHARMA UNIVERSITY

By
SUSI LUVIYA

Student number: 104214103
Defended before the Board of Examiners
On July, 2016
and Declared Acceptable

iii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

DO NOT COMPARE YOURSELF WITH
ANYONE IN THIS WORLD.
IF YOU DO SO, YOU ARE INSULTING
YOURSELF.

~ Bill Gates ~

iv

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

FOR MY BELOVED PARENTS,

YOU ARE ALWAYS ON MY MIND

AND

FOREVER IN MY HEART

v

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I declare that the thesis I have written does not contain any works or parts

of the works of the other people, except those cited in the quotations as any
academic paper should.

vi

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama

: Susi Luviya

Nomor Mahasiswa

: 104214103

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah yang berjudul
MISPRONUNCIATION OF SOME ENGLISH CONSONANTS BY
JAVANESE STUDENTS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SANATA
DHARMA UNIVERSITY
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam
bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan
secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk
kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan
royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal

: 25 Juli 2016

vii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise and great gratitude to God for blessings and help to complete this
thesis entitled ‘Mispronunciation of Some English Consonants by Javanese
Students in English Literature of Sanata Dharma University.
I want to express my sincere thanks to to Dr. B. Ria Lestari, MS as my
advisor in completing this thesis through the guidance and direction as well as the
encouragement that are very useful for the preparation and writing of this thesis. I
also want to say thanks to my co-advisor Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum. who
have given me help and guidance so that this thesis can be finished.
Next is to Javanese students of English Letters Department in Sanata
Dharma University thanks for being my respondents.
My truly thanks to my beloved parents. It is truly undoubted that love,
care, spirit, motivation, patience, and willingness to wait for my graduation and
prayers during days and nights are everything for me.
My sincere thanks and love are also dedicated to my beloved sister, Yuni
Mirani, thanks for supporting me.
I also address my appreciation to my beloved friends Meity Adelina
Kubuan, Febriana, Diana Fransiska, and Nensia Madeira thanks for being such a
great companion during our togetherness at campus.

viii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE

………………………………………………………….. i

APPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………………….. ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE
MOTTO PAGE

………………………………………………….. iii

………………………………………………………….. iv

DEDICATION PAGE

………………………………………………….. v

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

………………………………….. vi

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

………………………………….. vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

……………….……………………........ viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

……………………………………........

ix

ABSTRACT

………………………………………………………....

xii

ABSTRAK

………………………………………………………... xiii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION …………………………………….......

1

…………………………………………

1

B. Problem formulation …………………………………………………

3

C. Objectives of the Study

…………………………………………

4

D. Definition of Term

…………………………………………

4

…………………………

6

…………………………………………

6

B. Review of Related Theories …………………………………………

8

1. English Phonetics

…………………………………………

8

2. Javanese Phonetics

…………………………………………

14

3. Consonant Features

…………………………………………

20

C. Theoretical Framework

…………………………………………

25

…………………………………

26

…………………………………………………

26

…………………………………………

26

C. Method of the Study …………………………………………………

26

A. Background of the Study

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Review of Related Studies

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study

B. Approach of the Study

ix

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

1. Data Collections …………………………………………………

26

…………………………………………………

27

…………

32

…

32

1. Manner of Articulation

…………………………………………

33

2. Place of Articulation

…………………………………………

34

…

35

…………………………………………

50

BIBLIOGRAPHY

…………………………………………………………

54

APPENDICES

…………………………………………………………

56

Appendix 1

…………………………………………………………

56

Appendix 2

…………………………………………………………

57

2. Data Analysis

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. The Comparison between English and Javanese Consonants

B. Phonology Analysis of English Consonants Mispronunciation

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION

x

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 English consonant place and manner of articulation …………… 9
Table 2 Javanese consonant manner and place of articulation ………... 15
Table 3 Javanese Consonant Features

……………………………..… 21

Table 4 English Consonant Features

……………………………….. 22

Table 5 The Data Indicator Words

……………………………….. 28

Table 6 The Grade of Pronunciation Accuracy

………………………. 30

Table 7 Percentage of Mispronunciation of Consonant [v] …………….

36

………………………………

37

Table 9 English and Indonesian Consonant [v]

………………………

38

Table 10 Mispronounciation of Consonant [θ]

………………………

39

………………

40

Table 12 Mispronunciation of [ð] ………………………………………

41

………………………

41

Table 14 Mispronounciation of [ʃ] ………………………………………

43

Table 15 Features consonant [ʃ] and [s]

………………………………

43

Table 16 Mispronounced Conosnant [ʒ]

……………………………… 44

Table 8 Feature Similarity of [v] and [f]

Table 11 Features differences between [θ] and [ʈ]
Table 13 Features contrast between [ð] and [d]

Table 17 Mispronunciation of [tʃ] ……………………………………… 46
Table 18 Features contrast of [tʃ] and [c] ………………………………

47

Table 19 Mispronounciation of [dʒ], [j], and [d] ……………………… 48
Table 20 Features Contrast of Consonant [dʒ], [j], and [ɖ]

xi

………

49

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRACT
LUVIYA, SUSI. Mispronunciation of Some English Consonants by Javanese
Students in English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta:
Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University,
2016.
This undergraduate thesis discusses mispronunciation of English
consonants by students in English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. The
subject are Javanese students. They actively speak Javanese. The respondents read
the words on the list. The words contain some English consonants which are
absent in Javanese feature inventories. The consideration is, in general, Javanese
students find difficulty in pronouncing those consonants. Then, they usually
change those English consonants with Javanese consonants which sound similar.
There are two problems to be discussed in this undergraduate thesis. The
first is comparing consonants in two different languages, Javanese and English.
The aim is to know English consonants which are predicted to be mispronounced.
The second problem is dedicated to observe consonant features change through
the differences.
There are two steps applied in this research. The first step is comparison
step that is comparing English and Javanese consonants. The aim is to describe
similarities and differences between both languages. The second step is used to
answer second problem formulation which is analyzing consonant features change
through the differences.
This research has found seven (7) consonants which are predicted to be
mispronounced by the respondents. The consonants are [v, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ].
Besides, there are seventeen (17) similar consonants from both. They are [b, d, ɡ,
m, n, ŋ, z, w, l, r, p, t, k, ʡ, f, s, h]. Nevertheless, the fact in the field shows that
mispronunciation often happened to labiodental voiced fricative [v] changes into
labiodental voiceless fricative [f], interdental voiced fricative [ð] into palatal
voiced stop [ɖ], palatal voiced fricative [ʒ] pronounce as spelling pronunciation,
and palatal voiced affricate [ʤ] into mediopalatal voiced stop [j] which has
indicated by the accuracy score under 60%. Mispronunciation happened because
of the absent of English in Javanese inventories. Then, the other consonants,
interdental voiceless fricative [θ], palatal voiceless fricative[ʃ], and palatal
voiceless affricate [ʧ] are not difficult enough to be articulated by the respondents
as shown by the accuracy score above 60%.

xii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRAK
LUVIYA, SUSI. Mispronunciation of Some English Consonants by Javanese Students in
English Literature of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris,
Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Skripsi ini membahas kesalahan pengucapan huruf konsonan bahasa inggris oleh
mahasiswa jurusan sastra inggris di Universitas Sanata Dharma. Mahasiswa yang
dijadikan subyek pengamatan adalah mahasiswa asli orang jawa dan aktif menggunakan
bahasa jawa. Mahasiswa melafalkan kata-kata tertera di kertas. Kata-kata dipilih
berdasarkan hasil perbedaan dari konsonan bahasa jawa dan bahasa inggris.
Pertimbangannya adalah karena pada umumnya mahasiswa jawa mengalami kesulitan
melafalkan beberapa konsonan tertentu sehingga mereka mengganti dengan konsonan
bahasa jawa yang mempunyai bunyi hampir sama.
Di dalam skripsi ini ada dua permasalahan yang dibahas. Permasalahan pertama
adalah mencari tahu konsonan apa saja yang gagal diucapkan oleh responden.
Berdasarkan perbedaan tersebut, permasalahan kedua adalah meneliti perubahan fitur
konsonan yang dilakukan oleh responden.
Ada dua langkah yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Langkah pertama yang
diterapkan yaitu metode perbandingan, yakni membandingkan konsonan bahasa jawa
dan bahasa inggris. Hal ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan persamaan dan perbedaan
dari kedua bahasa. Langkah kedua yang digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan
kedua yaitu dengan menganalisa perubahan fitur konsonan melalui perbedaan.
Penelitian telah menemukan bahwa terdapat tujuh (7) konsonan yang diprediksi
salah ucap sebagai hasil perbandingan dari dua bahasa yaitu bahasa Inggris dan bahasa
Jawa. Konsonan tersebut adalah [ , θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]. Disamping itu, ada tujuh belas (17)
konsonan yang sama dari kedua bahasa, [b, d, ɡ, , , ŋ, z, , l, r, p, t, k, , f, s, h].
Meskipun demikian, fakta di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan pengucapan
sering terjadi pada konsonan labiodental voiced fricative [v] menjadi labiodental
voiceless fricative [f], interdental voiced fricative [ð] menjadi palatal voiced stop [ɖ],
palatal voiced fricative [ʒ] dilafalkan seperti penulisannya, dan palatal voiced affricate
[ʤ] menjadi mediopalatal voiced stop [j] yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai akurasi dibawah
60%. Kesalahan pengucapan terjadi karena tidak adanya konsonan bahasa Inggris
tersebut dalam system fonetik bahasa Jawa. Konsonan lainn, yaitu interdental voiceless
fricative [θ], palatal voiceless fricative[ʃ], dan palatal voiceless affricate [ʧ] tidak terlalu
sulit diucapkan oleh penutur bahasa Jawa asli sebagaimana ditunjukkan dengan nilai
akurasi diatas 60%.

xiii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background of Study
Language is a tool for communication. There are so many languages
which are spoken all over the world including English. English is considered as a
foreign language in several countries. Nowadays, English has become popular in
the world. Everybody can speak English well. With the ability to speak English,
people can communicate with other people from a different part of the world.
In Indonesia itself, each region has its own local languages. Javanese is the
biggest local spoken language. It is about 72,5 million people who speak Javanese
language. Elinor C. Horne states that Javanese belongs to Malayo-Polynesian
group which has members such as, Malay, Javanese, Sundanese and Madurese
(Horne, 1961: xxi). Although it is not an official language of Indonesia, Javanese
is recognized as a regional language in the three provinces of Java with the largest
concentrations of speakers of Javanese, namely, Central Java, East Java, and
Yogyakarta.
When Javanese people speak Javanese, they do not find difficulties. They
speak fluently because it is their own language. But, when they speak other
languages, it means that they are learning to produce a new sound. Horne says
that:
Some Javanese sounds are very much like English sounds, and some are
only a little different; a few are entirely dissimilar. Every speech sound is a

1

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

complex action involving simultaneous movements of the vocal equipment
(lips, teeth, tongue, top of the mouth, nasal passages, back of the throat,
larynx or vocal cords, and lungs), so that two sounds may be alike in some
respects but unlike in others (Horne, 1961: xxi).

The differences of English and Javanese are the member of alphabets
which have different members from each other. Javanese also lacks of accent
which means that Javanese does not have any stresses in the certain syllables. All
the words pronounce the same.
While speaking English, Javanese find difficulties, especially in certain
consonants. It can be noticed when they say ‘together’, it should be pronounced
/təˈgɛðə/ while Javanese pronounce /tu’geder/. Another word is ‘verb’ which has
phonetic transcription /vəːb/. Javanese cannot pronounce it well. Even, the
pronunciation of the word ‘verb’ changes into /fɛːb/. The initial consonant changes
from labiodental voiced fricative [v] changes into labiodental voiceless fricative
[f].
The phonetic transcriptions that Javanese produce are not the same as the
phonetic transcriptions of Standard English which are written in the dictionary.
Summarizing from Jones in 1962, the task of learning to remember what is the
appropriate sequence of sounds to use in any given word or sentence is greatly
facilitated by the use of phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription may be
defined as an ambiguous system by means of writing, the basic principle being to
assign one and only one letter to each phoneme of the language (Jones, 1962: 6).
The production of sounds should be written. Based on the facts which
have been mentioned, the writer wants to observe what Javanese miss while

2

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

pronouncing English words in certain consonants. The reason why this case is
chosen as the study is that sometimes, Javanese students miss some consonants
when they speak English words.
According to Indriani, English alphabet is divided into two; twenty four
consonants and twelve vowels (2001: 8-13). Besides, based on Tata Bahasa Jawa
Mutakhir book, there are twenty three consonants and nine vowels in Javanese
(Wedhawati, 2001: 41). It is really interesting to analyze English consonants
mispronounce by Javanese. They usually change the similar consonants e.g.
‘share’ which should be pronounced /ʃɛr/ becomes /sɛr/. They changed the /ʃ/ into
/s/.
The way Javanese students pronounce the English words and the sounds’
production of the words will be discussed in this research. There is also
identification of problem that may occur. Comparing English Javanese consonants
is needed in order to show what consonants disappear in both languages. The use
of phonetic alphabet is based on International Phonetic Association (IPA) as the
standard worldwide.

B. Problem Formulation
Based on the difficulties occuring among Javanese students, the problems
can be formulated as:
1. What are the consonant features which are mispronounced by Javanese
students?
2. What cause feature changes through the differences?

3

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

C. Objectives of the Study
From the problem formulations, there are two objectives of the study. The
first objective is to find English consonants which are potentionally to be
mispronounced. The second objective is to observe the feature changes through
the differences.

D. Definition of Term
The definition of terms is given in order to lead the writer to analyze these
objects of the study.
In 1957, Wise explains that Phonetics may be defined as a study of
muscular action of frequently very generalized nature, but typically centered in
what are called the organs of speech, the action of the vocal organs in speech, and
of nerve current to the brain, interpreted there as acoustic phenomena, speech
sounds as heard.
As Wise said in his book, a consonant is a speech sound which is used
marginally with a vowel or diphthong to constitute a syllable (Wise, 1957: 74).
According to Krashen, mispronunciation is the performance errors or
mistakes of pronunciation caused by fatigue and inattention, and also lack of
knowledge of the rules of the language (Krashen, 1982: 139).
In this research, the speakers are Javanese students. What the writer means
by Javanese students are the students of English Literature Department of Sanata
Dharma University who are Javanese from Central Java and Yogyakarta. They

4

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

originally speak Javanese as the mother tongue. They speak English as a foreign
language.

5

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter is divided into four parts: review of related studies, review of
related theories, review of related backgrounds, and theoretical framework. The
first part, review of related studies, is to review other researches which have done
by other researchers. The second part is to review the theories which are related to
this study. The third part is to review the background of the study including social
background or biographical background. The fourth part is to explain the theories
and the related studies in solving the problem formulations.

A. Review of Related Studies
Many studies have discussed about Javanese people mispronouncing
English words. For example, in the article ‘An Analysis of Javanese
Pronunciation Interference in Speech of the Fifth Semester English Students of
Muhammadiyah University of Purworejo in the Academic Year 2012/2013’ done
by Phopy Chandradewi from English Education Study Program, Teacher Training
and Education Sciences Faculty, Muhammadiyah University of Purworejo.
The study of Javanese pronunciation has been done by Phopy
Chandradewi recently. The study shows the Javanese pronunciation interference
in speech. She analyzed the data based on open questionnaire and interview. The
data were collected from the students of fifth semester of Muhammadiyah
University of Purworejo (Chandradewi, 2013: 1-2).

6

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Chandradewi has found vowel interference when Javanese people
pronounce /Λ/, /u:/, /I/, / :/ and /æ/ in the words; /blood/, /new/, /meal/, /prophet/,
/work/, and /bad/. Consonant interference when Javanese pronounce plosive
sounds; /p/, /t/, and /k/ as initial position of the words; /page /, /time/, and /knife/.
There is also diphthong which is the biggest problem of Javanese people
pronouncing English words (Chandradewi, 2013: 4).
Another research, which is similar, has been done by Aloysius Prianto
Raharjo in his thesis in 2010, The English Consonant Mispronunciation Produced
by Sundanese Native Speakers. He analyzed Sundanese mispronunciations in
producing English consonant. The aim is to know the differences between English
and Sundanese and also the English consonant mispronunciation produced by
Sundanese native speakers as the result of consonant differences (Prianto, 2010:
x).
He has predicted that nine consonants would be mispronounced by the
speakers such as [f, v, θ, ð, ʒ, ʃ, dʒ, tʃ, z]. After analyzing, he has found that [f, θ,

ð, ʒ, z] are the consonant mispronunciation which often occurred. Besides,

consonant [v, ʃ, dʒ, tʃ] were not difficult to be pronounced by Sundanese. The

mispronunciation was caused by their absence in the Sundanese phonological
system (Prianto, 2010: x).

Phopy Chandradewi has analyzed Javanese pronunciation interference in
speech including vowels, diphthongs, and consonants. However, in the term of
consonants, she just found consonants interfere when Javanese pronounce plosive
sounds especially /p, t, k/ in initial position (Chandradewi, 2003:4). In this paper,

7

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

the writer wants to develope Phopy’s finding. It focuses only on analysing all
consonants that are potential to be mispronounced by Javanese.
Furthermore, the writer also uses the theory applied in Aloysius Prianto
Raharjo’s paper, which has similar objective, but the target is different. Aloysius
Prianto Raharjo analyzed Sundanese while the writer will analyze Javanese.

B. Review of Related Theories
In this part, the writer discusses the theories from some linguists to
analyze the problem formulations. The paper focuses on the consonant
mispronunciations produced by Javanese people. It is important to understand
both Javanese and English in order to find out the finding. Here are the theories
that will be applied
1. English Phonetics
Phonetics is the branch of linguistic that study speech sounds. Speech is a
complicated process. Schreuder, in English Phonetic and Pronunciation book,
states that the object of phonetics is to describe the way in which speech sounds
are produced by the organs of speech. It means that we should know how the
speech sounds are produced (Schreuder, 1948:9).
a. English Consonant
According to Dardjowidjojo, in the production of a consonant, the parts of
the mouth involved are the tongue, the lips, the teeth, the tooth ridge, the palate
and the velum, and the uvula. These are called the points of articulation

8

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(Dardjowidjojo, 2009: 23). There are two points of articulation; manner and place
of articulation. The table below shows category of each consonant:

Glottal

t

k

Ɂ

vd

b

d

ɡ

Nasal

vd

m

n

ŋ

Fricative

vl

f

θ

s

vd

v

ð

z

Palatal

p

Interdental

vl

Stop

Labiodental

Velar

Alveolar

Bilabial

1 Table of English consonant place and manner of articulation

ʃ

vl

ʒ

vd

dʒ

Glide

vd

j

Liquid

vd

Affricate

vl: voiceless

h

tʃ

w

l, r
vd: voiced

source: (Sahulata, 1988:15)

i. Place of Articulation
In the production of speech sounds, the organs in the upper part of the
mouth may be described as place or points of articulation (Sahulata, 1988: 9).
Place of articulation is defined into seven types.
1. Bilabial
The consonants are pronounced by bringing the lips together. The
consonants are [p], [b], [m]. Here are the examples: ‘pat’ /pæt/, ‘bat’ /bæt/, ‘mat’
/bæt/ (Sahulata, 1988: 10).

9

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

2. Labiodental
Labio- refers to lips while dental is referring to teeth. The sounds are
articulated in a way the upper teeth touching the bottom lip. The consonants
belong to labiodental are [f] and [v] (Fromkin, 2003:242). For example: ‘fat’ /fæt/,
‘vat’ /væt/.
3. Interdental
The sounds are formed with the tongue insert between the bottom lip and
the upper lip. The sounds are represented by the [θ] and [ð]. The examples: ‘think’
/θɪŋk/ dan ‘these’ /ðiːz/ (Fromkin, 2003:242).
4. Alveolar
The alveolar consonants are produced by the front part of tongue rising on
the alveolar ridge. The consonants are [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l], and [r] (Sahulata,
1988: 10). For examples: ‘top’ /t ːp/, ‘dip’ /dɪp/, ‘nut’ /nʌt/, ‘sit’ /sɪt/, ‘zoo’ /zuː/,
‘lap’ /læp/, ‘right’ /raɪt/.

When we pronounce the consonant [l] and [r], we can feel our tongue
touching the bony tooth ridge. We can feel it through pronouncing consonant [l]
in a word ‘lap’ /læp/. The tip of the tongue rises to the alveolar ridge leaving the
rest of the tongue down. According to An Introduction to Language book, [r] is
pronounced in a variety ways. But, many English speakers pronounced it by
curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge (Fromkin, 2003: 197).
5. Palatal
In producing consonants [j], [ʒ], [ʃ], [dʒ], and [tʃ], the front part of tongue
rise to the palate just behind the alveolar ridge. These are called palatal. For

10

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

examples: ‘you’ /juː/, ‘azure’ /æz.jʊər/, ‘sure’ /ʃʊr/, ‘judge’ /dʒʌdʒ/, ‘church’
/tʃ ːtʃ/ (Sahulata, 1988: 11).

6. Velar

Sounds produced with the back of the tongue touches the palate is called
velar. The sounds are represented by the symbols: [k], [ɡ], [ŋ] and [w]. Here are
the examples: ‘kite’ /kaɪt/, ‘guy’ /ɡaɪ/, ‘sing’ /sɪŋ/, and ‘wipe’ /waɪp/. The [w] in
the word ‘wipe’ is velar; when it is formed with the back of the tongue is raised
toward the velum (Sahulata, 1988: 11).
7. Glottal
The glottal sound is articulated in the glottis. The sounds are represented
by [?] and [h]. The glottis is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx.
When the glottis is open and the air flows, it produced [h]. For example: ‘house’
/haʊs/. But, when the glottis is closed completely, and then released, the resulting
sound is called glottal stop. The symbol of phonetic transcription is [?]. For
example, we try to pronounce the words ‘butter’ /ˈbʌtɁ.ɚ/ and ‘bottle’ /ˈb ː.t Ɂl ̩/

without pronouncing the –tt (Sahulata, 1988: 11-12).
ii. Manner of Articulation

Based on An Introduction to Sounds and Sounds Systems of English book;
manner of articulations describe consonant sounds of how they are articulated.
That is how the airstream is modified by the vocal tract to produce the sound
(Sahulata, 1988: 12). The types of manner of articulation are as follows:

11

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

1. Voiced and Voiceless sound
If the vocal cords are together, the air flows through its way and cause a
vibration called voiced. A simply way to identify whether the consonant is voiced
or not can be noticed by the existence of the vibration in the vocal cords. The
voiced consonants are [b, d, ɡ, m, n, ŋ, v, z, ʒ, w, dʒ, ð] (Fromkin, 2003:244).

Voiceless sound can be articulated if the vocal cords are separated, the air

flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities. There is no vibration
while pronouncing voiceless consonant. The consonants are [p, t, k, f, , s, ʃ, h, tʃ]

(Fromkin, 2003:244).
2. Stop

The English consonants stop forms when the breath is either stopped
completely at some point and bursts through the stoppage with a slight explosion
(Ripman, 1957: 21). Thus, it is formed with stopping the airflow and then letting
it go abruptly. The sounds are also called plosive because a complete closure in
the vocal tract is made behind which the air pressure builds up and can be released
explosively. The sounds are [p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, Ɂ]. For example: ‘play’ /pleɪ/, ‘bed’
/bed/, ‘ten’ /ten/, ‘die’ /daɪ/, ‘keen’ /kiːn/, ‘go’ /goʊ/, ‘bottle’ /b ː.tɁl /.

3. Nasals

Most sounds are articulated orally with the velum raised, preventing
airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and
the airflow is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m, n, ŋ] sounds
(Sahulata, 1988: 13). Thus, the sounds are voiced sounds. For example: ‘my’
/maɪ/, ‘nine’ /naɪn/, ‘sink’ /sɪŋk/.

12

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

4. Fricatives
The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f, v, , ð,
s, z, ʒ, ʃ, h], involves almost blocking the airstream, and having the air push

through the narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is
produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives (Sahulata, 1988: 13). Here
are the examples: ‘fish’ /fɪʃ/, ‘veal’ /viːl/, ‘thin’ /θɪn/, ‘this’ /ðɪs/, ‘send’ /send/,

‘zinc’ /zɪŋk/, ‘vision’ /vɪʒ. ə n/, ‘share’ /ʃer/, ‘high’ /haɪ/. The [h] is classified as a
fricative because of the hissing sound produced by air or noise at the glottis.
5. Affricates
There are two consonants belong to this manner; [tʃ] and [dʒ]. They are
articulated by stopping the airstream completely and causing the effect of fricative
when it is pronounced (Sahulata, 1988: 13). The consonants of affricates can be
seen in the words: ‘chair’ /tʃer/, ‘join’ /dʒɔɪn/.
6. Glide
The glide sounds are produced with the tongue moving or gliding to or
from a position associated with a neighboring vowel sound. Glides are traditional
sounds which sometimes are called semivowels. The sounds are [w] and [j]. They
are usually followed by a vowel (Sahulata, 1988: 14).
The [w] is formed by both raising the back of the tongue towards the
velum simultaneously rounding the lips. For example: ‘we’ /wiː/. While the [j] is
formed by the blade of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate in a position
almost identical to that in producing the vowel sound [i] in the word ‘beat’ /biːt/
(Fromkin, 2003: 250).

13

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

7. Liquid
When we pronounced liquid sounds, there is some obstruction of the
airstream in the mouth. But, it is not enough to cause any real friction. Words like
‘please’ /pliːz/ and ‘price’ /praɪs/ consist liquid sounds which are [l] and [r]
(Fromkin, 2003: 250).
2. Javanese Phonetics
According to Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir book, there are twenty three
consonants. They are [p, b, m, f, w, t, d, n, l, r, ṭ, ḍ, s, z, c, j, h, y, ň, g, k, ŋ, Ɂ]
(Wedhawati, 2001:65).

a. Javanese Consonant
Similar to English consonant, the Javanese consonants can be classified
into two classes, place of articulation and manner of articulation. Each class has
similar definition with English place and manner of articulation. Thus, it is
skipped to provide the same definition of each type of place and manner of
articulation. This only gives a definition of the different type and brings an
example from each type of place and manner of articulations. The table below
shows category of each consonant:

14

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

d

vd m

Fricative vl

Liquid

vd

vl: voiceless

Laminoalveolar

n
f

ʧ

k

Ɂ

ʤ

ɡ

ɲ

ŋ

s

h

z

Affricate vd
vd

ʈ

ɖ

vd

Glide

Glottal

vd b

Alveolar

Apikodental
t

Velar

Nasal

p

Mediopalatal

vl

Palatal

Stop

Labiodental

Bilabial

2 Table of Javanese consonant manner and place of articulation

r
w

j
l

vd: voiced

source: (Wedhawati, 2001:42)

i. Place of Articulation
Based on Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir, place of articulation in Javanese is
divided into nine. They are bilabial, labiodental, apiko-dental, alveolar, palatal,
lamino-alviolar, medio-palatal, dorso-velar, glottal/laryngeal (Wedhawati, 2001:4364). The explanation of each category is explained below

1. Billabial
The sound of Javanese bilabials are [p, b, m]. The examples of phoneme
[p] are sapi [sapi] ‘cow’ and pitik [pitIʡ] ‘chicken’, …ora ganep. [… ora ghanəp]
‘…incomplete’, …isih tetep [… isɪh tətəp] ‘… same’, madhep mantep [madhəpm
mantəp] ‘faithful and obedient’, kerep lunga [kərəpl luŋͻ] ‘often go’, ganep
[ghanəp] ‘complete’ (Wedhawati, 2001:44).
The distribution of [b] is on initial word or initial syllable. It is pronounced
by obstructing the airstream from lungs completely and then releasing it in order

15

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

to come up the explosion. The examples are bali [bhali] ‘go home’, sabar [sabhar]
‘patient’, …bab pitu […bhap pitu] ‘…chapter VII’, …sepuluh bab […səpulUh
bhap-#] ‘…ten chapters’ (Wedhawati, 2001:45-46).
The examples of phoneme /m/ are mara [mͻrͻ] ‘come’ and mata [mͻtͻ]
‘eye’, …woh pelem […wͻh pələm-#] ‘mango’ (Wedhawati, 2001:47).
2. Labiodental
The labiodental sounds are [f] and [w]. The examples of [f] are foto [foto]
‘photo’ and pasif [pasif] ‘passive’, universitas [univərsitas] ‘university’
(Wedhawati, 2001:48).

Phoneme /w/ is only distributed on initial word or syllable. The /w/ cannot
be placed as a final word. The examples are wani [wani] ‘brave’ and tawa [tɔwɔ]
‘bargain’ (Wedhawati, 2001:49).
3. Apiko-dental
The members of apiko-dental are [t, d. The examples of [t] are tali [tali]
‘rope’ and buta [bhutɔ] ‘giant’, ...ora luput [ora lupʊt-#] ‘...not wrong’, papat nem
[papatn nəm] ‘four six’, kawat listrik [kawatl lIstrIk] ‘electrical wire’, lepat sanget
[ləpats saŋət] ‘really wrong’ (Wedhawati, 2001:49).
According to Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir book, The examples of
phoneme [d] are dina [dhinɔ] ‘day’ and padu [padhu] ‘quarrel’, driji [drijhi] ‘,
...murid pinter [murIt pintər] ‘clever student’, ...dadi murid [dhadhi murIt-#]
‘become a student’ (Wedhawati, 2001:51-53).

16

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

4. Alveolar
The alveolar consonants are [n, l, r]. The examples of phoneme /n/ are
naga [nɔghɔ] ‘dragon’ and nama [nɔmɔ] ‘name’, ...ana dalan [...ɔnɔ dhalan-#] ‘on
the way’, tandha [tͻɳɖhͻ] ‘mark’ (Wedhawati, 2001:53-54).

Phoneme /l/ only has one allophone, [l]. The examples are lali [lali]

‘forget’ and gula [ghulɔ] ‘sugar’ (Wedhawati, 2001:55).
Phoneme /r/ has allophone [r]. The examples are raga [rɔghɔ] ‘body’ and

kabar [kabhar] ‘news’ (Wedhawati, 2001:55).
5. Lamino-alveolar

Lamino-Alviolar consonants in Javanese are articulated in a way the
tongue touches the alveolar ridge. The consonants are [s] and [z]. Phoneme /s/ has
allophone [s]. The example is salah [salah] ‘wrong’ (Wedhawati, 2001:57).
Phoneme /z/ is adoption of foreign language, especially Arabic. The
example are zakat [zakat] ‘charity’ and ziarah [ziyarah] ‘pilgrimage’ (Wedhawati,
2001:57).

6. Palatal
The palatal consonants are /ʈ, ɖ/. The example are thukul [ʈukUl] ‘grow’

and thimik [ʈimi?] ‘slow’ (Wedhawati, 2001:55-56).

Phoneme /ɖ/ has two allophones. The example are dhadha [ɖhɔɖhɔ] ‘chest’

and dhudha [ɖhuɖhɔ] ‘widower’, ndherdheg [nɖrədhək] ‘tremble’ (Wedhawati,
2001:56).

17

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

7. Medio-palatal
These sounds are formed with the middle part of tongue and palate. The
consonants are [ʧ, ʤ, j, ŋ]. Phoneme /ʧ/ cannot be distributed on the final word or
syllable. The example are coba [ʧobhɔ] ‘try’ and waca [wɔʧɔ] ‘read’ (Wedhawati,
2001:57).

The examples of phoneme [ʤ] are aja [ɔʤɔ] ‘do not’, ajrih [aʤrIh]
‘affraid’ (Wedhawati, 2001:58).
Phoneme /ɲ/ has distribution on initial or middle of word. It cannot be
placed in the final word. The examples are banyu [bha ɲu] ‘water’ and nyawa
[ɲɔwɔ] ‘soul’ (Wedhawati, 2001:59).

Phoneme [j] cannot be distributed on final word, the example are yuto
[yutͻ] ‘million’ and ayu [ayu] ‘beautiful’ (Wedhawati, 2001:59).
8. Velar
The consonants of velar are /ɡ/, /k/ and /ŋ/. The examples of phoneme [k]
are kuku [kuku] ‘nail’, …ing kretek […Iŋ krətək-#] ‘…on bridge’, ikhtiyar
[Ixtiyar] ‘effort’ (Wedhawati, 2001:60).
Phoneme /ɡ/ has examples gula [ghulͻ] ‘sugar’, gliyer [gliyər] ‘headache’,
…ndableg tenan […ndhablək tənan] ‘…really stubborn’,

bocahe ndableg

[bhocahe ndhablək-#] ‘the child is really stubborn’ (Wedhawati, 2001:61-63).
The distribution of phoneme /ŋ/ is on initial, middle or final of word. The
example is ngarep [ŋarəp] ‘front’ (Wedhawati, 2001:63).

18

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

9. Glottal
Javanese glottal/laryngeal sound is pronounced by producing the
consonant in larynx. The consonant is [h]. Phoneme /h/ has allophone [h]. The
distribution is on initial, middle or final of word. The example is adoh [adhͻh]

‘far’ (Wedhawati, 2001:63-64).

There is also glottal stop. The member is represented by [ʡ]. It is produced
with obstruction in the vocal cord. The vocal cord purses, so glottis will be closed.
It can be distributed only on final syllable or word and initial word. For examples;
galak [ghala?] ‘vicious’ and apik [?apI?] ‘good’ (Wedhawati, 2001:64).
ii. Manner of Articulation
Javanese manner of articulation is classified into seven types. Here are just
the examples of each type.
1. Voiced and Voiceless sound
Voiced sounds are [b, d, ɖ, ʤ, g, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, l, z, r, w, j]. Voiceless sounds

are [p, t, ṭ, c, k, Ɂ, f, s, h] (Wedhawati, 2001:42).

2. Stop and Nasal

Based on Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir, stop consonants are represented by
[p, b, t, d, ʈ, ɖ, ʧ, y, k, g, ʡ]. They are called stop because when it is formed, the
airstream stops for a moment (Wedhawati, 2001:42).
Nasal sounds can be classified as continuant. The consonants are [m, n, ɲ,

ŋ] (Wedhawati, 2001:42).

19

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

3. Fricative
There are four consonants of fricative. They are [f, s, z, h] (Wedhawati,
2001:42).

4. Affricate
The sound is only [r]. The example is ‘raga’ /rhᴐghᴐ/ ‘body’ (Wedhawati,

2001:42).

5. Glide
Javanese glide sounds are [w, j]. There is a little airstream in the mouth
when it is produced (Wedhawati, 2001:42).
6. Liquid
Liquid sound is [l], as can be seen through the word ‘lara’ /lᴐrᴐ/ ‘sick’
(Wedhawati, 2001:42).

3. Theory of Consonant Features
All consonants are classified as distinctive features to distinguish the
sounds of a language from one another (Sahulata, 1988: 76). Table below shows
consonants feature of English:

20

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

3 Table of Javanese Consonant Features
p b m f w t d n l r s z ʈ ɖ ʧ ʤɲ j

k ɡ ŋ h Ɂ

[Son]

- - + - + - - + + + - - - - - + + + - - + -

-

[Cont]

- - - + + - - - + + + + - - - + + + - -

- +

-

[Cons]

+ + + + - + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + +

+

[Syll]

- - - - - - - - -

-

-

- - - - - - - + - - - + -

-

[Nasal] - - + - - - - + -

- - - - - - - -

- - -

-

[Ant]

+ + + + - + + + + - + + + + - - -

- - -

-

-

-

[Cor]

- - - - - + + + + + + + + + - - + - - -

-

-

-

[Strd]

- - - + - - - - -

-

-

-

[Vd]

- + + - + - + + + + - + - - - + + + - + + -

-

[Lat]

- - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - -

- - -

-

-

[Obst]

+ + - + - + + - -

- + + + + + - -

- + + - +

+

- - + + + - - + + + + + + + + + -

+ - - + +

-

[Del

- + + - - + - -

- - -

-

rel]
Source: (Fromkin, 2003: 300)
The table below shows consonants feature of Javanese:

21

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

4 Table of English Consonant Features

[Son]

p b m w f v θ ð t d n s z l r ʃ ʒ tʃ

[Cont]

-

-

+ - - + -

- - -

+ + + + + - - - + + + + + + -

-

+ - - - +

[Cons]

+ + +

-

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+

- + + + +

[Syll]

- - -

-

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

-

-

- - - - -

[Nasal]

- - +

-

- - - - - - + - - - - - -

-

-

- - - + -

[Ant]

+ + +

-

+ + + + + + + + + + - - -

-

-

- - - - -

[Cor]

- - -

-

- - + + + + + + + + + + + +

+

- - - - -

[Strd]

- - -

-

+ + - - - - - + + - - + + +

+

- - - - -

[Vd]

- + + + - + - + - + + - + + + - + -

+

+ - + + -

[Lat]

- - -

-

- - - - - - - - - + - - -

-

-

- - - - -

[Obst]

+ + -

-

+ + + + + + - + + - - + + +

+

- + + - +

- - + + + + + + - - + + + + + + + +

+

+ - - + +

[Del

- - + + - - - - - - + - - + + - -

dʒ j k g ŋ h

rel]
Source: ((Wedhawati, 2001:65)
a. Sonorant
A sonorant is a sound whose phonetic content is predominantly made up
by the sound waves associated with voicing (Giegerich, 1992: 93). The member of
[+son] are approximants and nasals; [m n ŋ ɲ l r w j]. The [-son] cover up

fricatives and oral stops. They are [p t k b d ɡ f v s z θ ð ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ].
b. Continuant:

A continuant is a sound during whose production the air stream is not
blocked in the oral cavity (Giegerich, 1992: 93). The approximants and fricatives
are [+cont]. They are [l r w j ɲ f v s z ʃ ʒ θ ð]. The opposite is [-cont] which covers

nasal and oral stops (that is, ‘stop’ in general). They are [m n ŋ p t k b d ɡ tʃ dʒ].

22

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

c. Consonantal:
Consonantal sounds are produced with a radical obstruction in the vocal
tract (Giegerich, 1992: 94). This feature describes all sounds made with closure in
the vocal tract greater than that needed for glides. All consonants except certain
semivowel (liquid approximants) are [+cons], and all vowels are [-cons]
(Giegerich, 1992: 94).
d. Syllabic
Traditionally it has been difficult to provide such a definition, although the
speakers seem to be able to determine the syllabic vowel of a word. Liquids and
naslas can be also be syllabic – function as a syllable – as shown by the words
‘Rachel’ [reʃl], ‘faker’ [fekr], ‘rhythm’ [rɪðm], and ‘button’ [bʌtn] (Fromkin,
2003: 258).
e. Nasal
Nasal sounds are produced with a lowered velum, which allows the air
stream to escape through the nose. Non-nasal sounds are produced with a raised
velum, so that the air stream can only escape through the mouth (Giegerich, 1992:
124). They are [m n ŋ ɲ].
f. Anterior

Anterior sounds are produced with an obstruction that is located in front of
the palate-alveolar region of the mouth (Giegerich, 1992: 116). Non-anterior
sounds are produced without such an obstruction. [+ant] cover term for bilabial,
labiodental, dental and alveolar place of articulation. [-ant] is the post-alveolar

23

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

category (with /r/ as the only member) together with palate-alveolar, palatal, velar
and glottal sounds.
g. Coronal
Coronal sounds are produced with the blade of the tongue raised above its
neutral position (Giegerich, 1992: 116). Non-coronal sounds are produced with
the blade of the tongue in the neutral position. Fromkin and Rodman say that the
consonants whose [+cor] cover alveolars, palatals, affricates and liquid. They are
[t d n l tʃ d�