The effects of nodes and resin on the me

Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

The effects of nodes and resin on the mechanical properties of laminated
bamboo timber produced from Gigantochloa scortechinii
Rogerson Anokye a,b, Edi Suhaimi Bakar a,c,⇑, Jegatheswaran Ratnasingam a, Adrian Choo Cheng Yong c,
Nova Noliza Bakar d
a

Department of Forest Production, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Department of Interior Architecture and Furniture Production, Kumasi Polytechnic, P.O. Box 854, Kumasi, Ghana
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, UPM, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
d
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Andalas, 25163 Padang, West Sumatera, Indonesia
b
c

h i g h l i g h t s
 Flexural performance of laminated bamboo timber with nodes improves with increase in node intervals.
 Weakness in node are attributed to low density and the irregular vascular bundle arrangements.
 Phenol formaldehyde provides higher performance than polyvinyl acetate in the LBT bonding.
 Glue type and spread rate have utmost influence on the compression and shear bond strengths of the LBT.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 July 2015
Received in revised form 12 November 2015
Accepted 13 December 2015

Keywords:
Laminated bamboo timber
Mechanical properties
Nodes
Phenol formaldehyde

Polyvinyl acetate

a b s t r a c t
The objective of this work was to evaluate the mechanical properties of laminated bamboo timber (LBT)
manufactured from bamboo (Gigantochloa scortechinii). Bamboo strips containing nodes were used to
produce laminated samples. Each bamboo mat was arranged with 5 cm intervals ranging from 0 cm to
15 cm between the nodes in successive laminae. Phenol formaldehyde (PF) and polyvinyl acetate
(PVAc) were used at two spread rates of 200 g/m2 and 250 g/m2. The best mechanical properties were
found in samples without nodes. Increasing intervals also resulted in increasing strengths. In all the
mechanical properties studied, PF had higher strength with 200 g/m2 spread rate except for shear where
PVAc had similar values with PF. It appears that interval levels in the joints influenced the overall
mechanical properties of the samples.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Bamboo is native to Southeast Asia, South America, Africa, etc.
where they grow in abundance. However, the economic development of bamboo is relatively slow. In Africa especially in Ghana,
the most common non-timber forest product is wild bamboo. Bamboo covers about 300,000 ha with Bambusa vulgaris as the most
common species (95% of the bamboo stands). Despite its abundance, bamboo has not been extensively utilized [1,2]. Eighteen
exotic species has also been introduced from Hawaii and many of

them are striving. Bamboo application in Africa has been limited
to rural housing, handicrafts, temporal posts and props in the
building industry, furniture and recently on charcoal production.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Forest Production, Faculty of Forestry,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
E-mail address: edisuhaimi@upm.edu.my (E.S. Bakar).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.083
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

They are mostly used in the round culm form which does not
require much complicated processing. As forest products continues
to decrease with the ever increasing demand for wood and wood
products in the country, there is a need to innovatively develop
bamboo as a substitute to slow growing hardwoods for furniture
manufacturing.
The Asian region has made some progress in the development
of bamboo with China taking the lead of producing a new type of
bamboo composite panel (over 90% bamboo) called laminated
bamboo fibrillated-veneer lumber (LBL). LBL has been extensively
promoted because of its high strength and stiffness [3,4]. In Malaysia, many studies have also been conducted on the most common

bamboo species which are Gigantochloa scortechinii and B. vulgaris.
The majority of the studies were concentrated on the properties of
laminated bamboo as both boarding and structural members.
Accordingly, most of the studies in Malaysia examined bending

286

R. Anokye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

and compression properties. The effects of layer structure, bamboo
species, oil treatment, and glue type on the mechanical properties
of laminated bamboo boarding have all been studied and found
the bamboo strips to have yielded excellent mechanical properties
[5–9].
Experiences of Asian countries have shown undoubtedly that
bamboo is a valuable and sustainable natural resource [10]. Its fast
growing characteristic, capability to easily replenish itself after
harvesting, advancement of processing technology, versatility of
its use coupled with its low Eco-cost [3] has made bamboo furniture an imperative substitute to complement conventional wood
furniture in the world market.

Laminated bamboo as the most popular bamboo product with
good market acceptance requires the need for more study. The
low density and the irregular vascular bundle arrangements of
the nodes of bamboo affect most of the physical properties of laminated bamboo timber (LBT) [11,12]. These weak parts of the bamboo culms have not been extensively studied. A thorough
understanding of the carefully arranged node features in the LBT
to assume the optimum strength is therefore required.
Accordingly, the aim of this study was to verify the mechanical
properties of LBT panels produced from G. scortechinii bamboo
under different glue types, glue spreading rates and the node interval arrangements.

Table 1
Experimental design of the LBT at different node intervals.
Coding

Glue type

Glue spread
rate (g/m2)

Distance between

joints (cm)

PF-L-A
PF-L-B
PF-L-C
PF-H-A
PF-H-B
PF-H-C
PV-L-A
PV-L-B
PV-L-C
PV-H-A
PV-H-B
PV-H-C

PF
PF
PF
PF
PF

PF
PVAc
PVAc
PVAc
PVAc
PVAc
PVAc

200
200
200
250
250
250
200
200
200
250
250
250

5
10
15
5
10
15
5
10
15
5
10
15

PF = phenol formaldehyde, PV = polyvinyl acetate, L = 200 g/m2 spread rate and
H = 250 g/m2 spread rate; A, B, C intervals between nodes of 5, 10 and 15 cm
respectively.

1.47 MPa for 30 min for the samples with PF and cold press at the same pressure for
4 h at room temperature for samples with PVAc. The experimental codes are PV and

PF for glue types, L and H for glue spread rates, and A, B and C for the node intervals
between the successive lamina (Table 1). Similar strips were prepared and laminated for specimens without nodes as control.
2.2. Mechanical properties of LBT

2. Materials and methods
2.1. Material preparation
G. scortechinii (buluh semantan) was used for this study. This was based on the
results of our previous studies on the physical properties of the bamboo strips of the
selected species [11]. The bamboo was harvested from the Forestry Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM).
Twelve (12) bamboo culms were selected and used for this investigation. Bamboo strips were prepared from parts taken only up to 3 m height of the culm from
the bottom. These were then reduced into groups containing only internodes and
ones with nodes with an average length of 30 cm. The selected culms were split into
3 cm widths which provides an optimum yield of strip before preserved in a solution of Borax for 15 min. After air-drying under a shed until 12% moisture content
(MC), the splits were planed to final strip dimensions of 5 mm  20 mm  300 mm
to remove the inner waxy and epidermal layers. The strips were then glued edge-toedge with PVAc glue and pressed horizontally using clamps to obtain a wide mat.
The glued members of 5 mm  100 mm  300 mm were subsequently plied
together with the surface of the epidermal layer facing one direction to ensure an
optimum adhesive performance [8,13]. The nodes were aligned alternatively in successive lamina at different interval groups of 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm to determine
the optimal distance as shown in Fig. 1.
Two different glue types – phenol formaldehyde (PF) of 49% solid content and

viscosity of 6 cP at 25 °C and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) of 65% solid content and viscosity of 2 cP at 25 °C and 65% and two glue spread rates (200 and 250 g/m2) were
used for board lamination [14]. Pressing was carried out at 140 °C and a pressure of

The basic mechanical properties of LBT for the G. scortechinii were evaluated in
the static bending, compression and shear test. LBT without node and those containing nodes underwent static bending to examine the effect of the node intervals
on the strength. The static bending was done in flatwise or perpendicular to the
lamination glue lines. LBT without nodes underwent compression and shear tests
to determine the effect of the glue types and their spread rates on the compressive
and shear strengths. LBT specimens were reduced to sizes of
20 mm  20 mm  300 mm for static bending tests with 4 replicates totaling 48
specimens for the variables containing nodes and 16 specimens for those without
nodes as control. The compressive and the shear tests were performed using
20 mm  20 mm  40 mm and 20 mm  20 mm  150 mm specimens, respectively. Ten replicates each were used for the various tests. The standard ASTM
3043-00 [15] was referred to for the static bending test, with a consideration of
lamination orientation. ASTM D143-09 [16] and ASTM D7078-12 [17] were also
referred to for the compressive and shear tests respectively whiles, ASTM 526699 [18] was referred to for the estimation of percentage of wood failure in adhesive
bonding.

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Failure behavior of LBT under bending test

The bending test of 20 mm  20 mm  300 mm laminated
bamboo members with internode and those with nodes were per-

Fig. 1. Laminate bamboo timber at different node intervals.

R. Anokye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

formed for G. scortechinii sampled from basal growth part for its
wall thickness with horizontal lamination direction. The results
indicated that most of the failures in the samples with node
occurred at the node (Figs. 2–4). This may be due to the low density, irregular vascular bundles arrangements, and consequently
low strength of the strip in the node site [11,19,20].
Regardless of the glue type and the glue spread rates, the nature
of failures was rather based on the node intervals since almost all
the specimens started failing from the node at the tension side of
the load. Specimens bonded with 5 cm intervals broke from the
bottom laminae and propagate through the nearest glue line until
it emerges through the next node on the successive laminae
(Fig. 2). This confirms that the bamboo material below
the adhesive-wood interphase layer is weaker than the bond line
[21]. In some of them, the split continues through the glue line.

287

This is believed to have been caused by the closeness of the nodes.
The 10 cm node intervals exhibited a similar trend of the 5 cm but
most of them could not break through to the glue line and therefore extends through a split in the laminae (Fig. 3). This was also
found to be as same with that samples laminated 15 cm interval
(Fig. 4). With these fracture behavioral results, the study suggests
that nodes are very weak points and should not be aligned close
together in successive lamina in LBT.
3.2. Effects of glue type on the static bending strength of LBT with node
The MOE of LBT from G. scortechinii shown in Fig. 5 revealed
that LBT specimens with nodes bonded with PF glue exhibited a
higher performance by about 13.86% than PVAc. The MOR also
showed a similar trend of increase over that of the PVAc. However,

Fig. 2. Failure behavior of LBT at 5 cm node intervals on static bending.

Fig. 3. Failure behavior of LBT at 10 cm node intervals on static bending.

288

R. Anokye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

Fig. 4. Failure behavior of LBT at 15 cm node intervals on static bending.

5cm

10cm

15cm

140.00 117.80
127.50
128.70
112.48 122.40
120.00 109.87
102.80
99.70
95.57
89.10
98.21
100.00
89.35
89.50
90.41 86.42
83.50
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
200g/m2

250g/m2

200g/m2

PF

250g/m2

PVAc

Glue Spread Rate

MOE (MPa)

MOR (MPa)

without node

without node
5cm
10cm
15cm
18.00
15.74
16.26
14.87
16.00 14.17 14.59
13.15
12.61
14.00
11.88
10.48
10.42
12.00
9.60
9.15
10.38
8.94
9.72
8.94
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
200g/m2

250g/m2

200g/m2

PF

250g/m2

PVAc

Glue Spread Rate

Fig. 5. Comparison of the effects of node interval on the bending strength of LBT.

the result of the statistical analysis showed no significant
difference in the glue type on both MOE and MOR (at 5% level of
probability) (Table 2).
3.3. Effects of glue type, glue spread rate and node intervals on the
static bending strength of LBT
The overall results of the effects of glue type, glue spread rate
and the node intervals on the static bending (MOE and MOR) are
Table 2
ANOVA on the effect of glue type, glue spread rate and the node interval on the LBT.
Source

Glue type
Spread rate
Node interval
Glue type⁄spread rate
Glue type⁄node interval
Spread rate⁄node interval
Glue type⁄spread rate⁄node
interval

MOE

MOR

F values

P
values

F values

P
values

4.266ns
.286ns
13.38⁄⁄
.654ns
1.583ns
3.004ns
.447ns

.430
.595
.000
.421
.211
.055
.641

1.087ns
2.882ns
5.856⁄⁄
3.049ns
.401ns
1.856ns
.592ns

.301
.095
.001
.084
.671
.163
.555

ns = Not significant, p > 0.05, *significant at 95%, **significant up to 95%.

shown in Table 2. The table showed clearly that there was no significant difference in the MOE and MOR among the means of the
glue types and the spread rates as well as the interactions between
all the three factors. However, there was a significant difference
among the means of the node intervals.
MOR recorded for samples with different node intervals showed
almost the same strength with the node intervals of 5 cm and
10 cm. LBT with 10 cm interval joints yielded 1% and 7.6% higher
MOR than 5 cm and 15 cm intervals respectively (Fig. 5). The best
strength yield of LBT with nodes was found to have come from
laminated specimens bonded with 200 g/m2 of PF aligned at an
interval of 10 cm. There was a significant difference among the
means of the node intervals from samples without node to 15 cm
(Table 2). In all, the control samples (without node) yielded significantly higher strengths, indicating that samples without nodes
have higher strength than samples with nodes at shorter intervals.
3.4. Effects of the glue type and the glue spread rate on the
compression strength of LBT
The compressive strength test revealed that samples bonded
with PF glue exhibited higher performance than those bonded with
PVAc (Fig. 6). The average compressive strength of the specimens
tested were 54.01 MPa with PF at 250 g/m2 recording the highest

289

80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00

67.18

b
61.36

b

a
45.18

a

42.31

40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

200g/m2

250g/m2

200g/m2

250g/m2

PV

PF

Percentage of bamboo failure (%)

Compression strength parallel
to grain (MPa)

R. Anokye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

120

b

80

a
75

a
78

200g/m2

250g/m2

40
20
0

PV

strength of 67.18 MPa. This is a bit higher than what was obtained
by Anwar et al. when similar products from the same species were
tested [22]. Yeh and Lin, also had an average compressive strength
of 69.6 MPa with a different bamboo species [9]. Between the two
glue types, samples bonded with PF showed 46.9% higher strength
than samples bonded with PVAc. This large difference might be due
to the plasticization of PF within the vascular bundles closer to the
glue line from the hot pressing.
The failure phenomena of the specimens based on the various
glue types and the glue spread rates of the LBT compressed parallel
to grain showed damages from the top and propagating either
along the glue line or through the bamboo material. It was evident
that most of the specimens bonded with PVAc failed faster as their
deformations could not reach the bottom. Similar crushing behavior was identified when strips of the same species was subjected to
compression parallel to grain [8].
3.5. Effects of glue type and spread rate on the shear bond strength of
LBT
According to Fig. 7, the isolated effect of the type of glue and
spread rate were analyzed. The values found for PF was statistically
not different from values found for the PVAc. However, the values
of glue line shear strength are lower when compared with the values reported by Anwar et al. [23], who found an average value of
3.12 N/mm2 for the untreated plybamboo from the same species.
The difference may have been as a result of the laminae orientations used in our study.
The glue spread rates (200 g/m2 and 250 g/m2) generally
were significantly different (at p 6 0.05) in the bond shear. This

Shear strength (MPa)

3.50

2.97a

2.61a

3.00
2.50

2.41b

1.92b

2.00
1.50
1.00

88

60

Glue type / glue spread rate
Fig. 6. Effects of the glue type and the glue spread rate on the compressive strength
parallel to grain of the LBT. Means denoted by the same letter are not significantly
different at 5% probability level.

b

92

100

200g/m2

250g/m2
PF

Glue type / Spread rate
Fig. 8. Percentage of failure of Gigantochloa scortechinii under glue line shear.

emphasized the work of Frihart and Hunt who found that several
wood glues have poor ‘‘gap-filling” abilities [21]. That is, they bond
tightly to wood but not to themselves and thereby requiring a minimal glue line for maximum strength. Brady and Kamke also found
better penetration of glue in a more porous and permeable wood
causing more effective glue line [24]. It can therefore be inferred
that the rate of glue spread can have a significant influence on
the shear bond strength of the LBT. The results gathered shows a
considerable improvement in the MOE and MOR results of many
laminated bamboo and other wood products ranging from 65% to
over 200% respectively [25].
Failure of the substrate (G. scortechinii) was observed in all specimens in glue line shear (Fig. 8). An average wood failure of 83.25%
obtained indicated that spread rate used is, at least, enough to
guarantee failure of the substrate. The spread rates did not show
a significant difference in substrate failure. However, there was a
significant difference among the two glue types in terms of their
percentage of failure. Adamopoulos et al., found similar results
with the two glues studied [26]. They attributed it to a higher penetration of the adhesives in the vessels by PVAc than with PF. The
results proved that, the specimens met the minimum shear
strength requirement of Malaysia Standard: MS 228 [27].
4. Conclusions
1. The results revealed that most of the failures on the bending
occurred at the node which was attributed to the low density
and the irregular vascular bundle arrangements indicating the
node as having low strength.
2. The flexural performance of the LBT containing nodes increases
with increase in node intervals. Generally, 10 cm interval is adequate for overlapping the nodes in order to attain the maximum
performance.
3. Phenol formaldehyde showed a higher performance than polyvinyl acetate in the LBT bonding on both MOE and MOR.
4. The type of glue and the spread rate were also found to be of
utmost influence in the compression and shear bond strengths
of the LBT.

0.50
0.00
200g/m2

250g/m2
PV

200g/m2

250g/m2
PF

Glue type / Glue spread rate
Fig. 7. Effects of the glue type and the glue spread rate on the glue line shear
strength. Means denoted by the same letter are not significantly different at 5%
probability level.

However, a study on compression and shear at the nodes as well
as the depth of penetration of the glue could be carried out in
future to confirm this results of this study.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Malaysia for providing facilities and financial support through

290

R. Anokye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 105 (2016) 285–290

RUG Grant GP-IPB/2013/9413401, which made it possible to carry
out this research. The authors also wish to express their gratitude
to the staff of the Faculty of Forestry and FRIM for their support
during this work. The results are part of the Ph.D. project of Rogerson Anokye.

[12]

[13]

[14]

References
[1] R. Anokye, G. Adu, The status of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
development in Ghana, J. Environ. Sci. Comput. Sci. Eng. Technol. (JECET) 3
(1) (2014) 144–155.
[2] M. Brink, Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. [Internet]. Record from
PROTA4U. in: D. Louppe, A.A. Oteng-Amoako, M. Brink (Eds.), Plant Resources
of Tropical Africa (PROTA), Wageningen, Netherlands, 2008. (accessed 18.03.15).
[3] X.F. Yu, H.L. Sun, W.J. Yu, Manufacturing technology and performance of
structural laminated veneer lumber from Bambusa distegia, China Wood Ind.
25 (4) (2011) 1–3.
[4] F.D. Meng, Y.L. Yu, R.X. Zhu, Y.H. Zhang, W.J. Yu, Effect of resin impregnation
rate on physical and mechanical properties of laminated bamboo fibrillated
veneer lumber, China Wood Ind. 25 (2) (2011) 1–3.
[5] K. Rassiah, M.M.H. Megat, A. Ali, Mechanical properties of laminated bamboo
strips from Gigantochloa scortechinii/polyester composite, Mater. Des. 57
(2014) (2014) 551–559.
[6] S. Talabgaew, V. Laemlaksakul, Experimental studies on the mechanical
property of laminated bamboo in Thailand, World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 34
(2007) 327–331.
[7] M. Mahdavi, P.L. Clouston, A.M. Asce, S.R. Arwade, Development of laminated
bamboo lumber: review of processing, performance, and economical
considerations, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23 (7) (2011) 1036–1042, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-553.
[8] H. Hamdan, A. Zaidon, M.M. Tamizi, Mechanical properties and failure
behaviour of Gigantochloa scortechinii, J. Trop. For. Sci. 21 (4) (2009) 336–344.
[9] M.-C. Yeh, Y.-L. Lin, Finger joint performance of structural laminated bamboo
member, J. Wood Sci. 58 (2) (2011) 120–127, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s10086-011-1233-7.
[10] B.M.E. Dannenmann, C. Choocharoen, W. Spreer, M. Nagle, H. Leis, A. Neef, J.
Mueller, Tropentag 2007 University of Kassel-Witzenhausen and University of
Göttingen, October 9–11, 2007.
[11] R. Anokye, R.M. Kalong, E.S. Bakar, J. Ratnasingam, M. Jawaid, K. Awang,
Variations in moisture content affect the shrinkage of Gigantochloa scortechinii

[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]

[27]

and Bambusa vulgaris at different heights of the bamboo culm, BioResources 9
(4) (2014) 7484–7493.
A.S. Nordahlia, U.M.K. Anwar, H. Hamdan, M.A.L.S. Mahanim, Anatomical,
physical and strength properties of Schizostachyum brachycladum (buluh
lemang), J. Bamboo Rattan 10 (4) (2011) 111–122.
D. Liu, J. Song, D.P. Anderson, P.R. Chang, Y. Hua, Bamboo fiber and its
reinforced composites: structure and properties, Cellulose 19 (5) (2012) 1449–
1480, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-012-9741-1.
S. Aicher, H. Reinhardt, H. Garrecht, Material and Joints in Timber Structures:
Recent Developments of Technology, Springer Science & Business Media
(2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7811-5_32.
ASTM D3043-2011, Standard Test Method for Structural Panels in Flexure,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.10, Philadelphia, PA.
ASTM. D143-09, Standard Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of
Timber, D143, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM D7078-12, Standard Test Method for Shear Properties of Composite
Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM D5266-99, Standard Practice for Estimating the Percentage of Wood
Failure in Adhesive Bonded Joints, Annual book of ASTM standards, vol. 15.06,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2005.
Shamsun Nahar, M. Hasan, Effect of chemical composition, anatomy and cell
wall structure on tensile properties of bamboo fiber, Eng. J. 17 (1) (2013) 61–
68, http://dx.doi.org/10.4186/ej.2013.17.1.61.
S. Amada, Y. Ichikawa, T. Munekata, Y. Nagase, H. Shimizu, Fiber texture and
mechanical graded structure of bamboo, Compos. B Eng. 28 (1–2) (1997) 13–
20, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-8368(96)00020-0.
C.R. Frihart, C.G. Hunt, Adhesives with Wood Materials- Bond Formation and
Performance, Wood Handbook, Chapter 10: (retrieved 20.03.15).
D. Biswas, B.S. Kanti, M. Mozaffar Hossain, Physical and mechanical properties
of urea formaldehyde-bonded particleboard made from bamboo waste, Int. J.
Adhes. Adhes. 31 (2) (2011) 84–87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.
2010.11.006.
U.M.K. Anwar, M.T. Paridah, H. Hamdan, M. Abd Latif, A. Ziadon, Adhesion and
bonding from Gigantochloa scortechinii, Am. J. Appl. Sci. (2005) 53–58.
D.A. Brady, F.A. Kamke, Effects of hot-pressing parameters on resin
penetration, For. Prod. J. 38 (11/12) (1988).
J.F. Correal, J.S. Echeverry, F. Ramirez, L.E. Yamín, Constr. Build. Mater. 73
(2014) (2014) 105–112, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.056.
S. Adamopoulos, A. Bastani, P. Gascón-Garrido, H. Militz, C. Mai, Adhesive
bonding of beech wood modified with a phenol formaldehyde compound, Eur.
J. Wood Wood Prod. 70 (6) (2012) 897–901.
Anononymous, Specification for Plywood (First Revision) MS 228: 1991 UDC
674-419.23, Standard and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia, 1991.