Vinay and Darbelnet (2000:99) state that “translation procedures are the basic technique
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Review of Related Literature 2.1.1 Translation as The Process of Transferring Meaning.
Translation is to translate from one language to another language or to translate from Source Language to Target Language to get the meaning. Since there are many different languages in the world, the study of translation plays a very important role to transfer the meaning from one language into another one. The meaning can be translated in the oral or written language.
Translation is becoming increasingly important as a medium of international communication. The study of translation will help people to understand the characteristics between two or more languages. Besides, translation is a modern means of communication. We know that there are so many languages in this world where each language has its own distinctive features than others. Therefore, in understanding those wide varieties of language people should know and study about translation. The establishment of communication between people belonging to different speech communities has long been an important form of linguistic performance.
Translation is a field of various procedures. In addition to word for word and sense for sense procedures the translator may use a variety of procedures that differ in importance according to contextual factors of both Source Language (SL) and Target Language (TL).
Newmark (1998:7) defines “translation is an instrument of education as well as of truth precisely because it has to reach readers whose cultural an educational level is different from and often lower or earlier than that of the readers of the original.
Catford also says that translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another. Clearly then, any theory of translation must draw upon a theory of language, a general linguistic theory.
In addition Nida defines “translation consist in reproducing in the receptor language the natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style. Differences in translations can generally be accounted for by three basic factors in translating: 1) the nature of the message, 2) the purpose or purposes of the author and 3) the type of audience.
Vinay and Darbelnet (2000:99) state that “translation procedures are the basic technique
of translation. According to them the procedures can be divided into two methods covering seven procedures, they are (i) direct translation; consists of borrowing, Calque and literal translation, and (ii) oblique translation, consisting of transposition, equivalent, modulation and adaptation.
Larson (1998:3) gives the meaning of translation that translation is basically a change of form. When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and other linguistics units, which are spoken or written. In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor language.
Translation also consists of studying of lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text. Larson (1998:15) divides translation into two types. The first one is form-based translation and the second one is meaning-based translation. Form-based translation could be defined as a type of translation which attempts to follow the form of the source language and it is commonly known as literal translation. On the another hand, meaning-based translation which is also known as idiomatic translation, is a type of translation that attempts to make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source language in the natural forms of the receptor language.
Nida (in Venuti 2000) argues there are three basic principles of translation. The basic principles are the loss of information, the addition of information and the skewing of information. Nida arranges these principles as a belief which sounds that there is no translation in a target language can be exact equivalent of the model in source language. Three basic of translation principles are: 1. Loss of Information.
The translation of items from the source language does not explain the whole information into the target language or is not translated and transferred into the target language. For example:
“Budi was ill when I met him in home” is translated into “Budi demam ketika saya menemuinya”.
2. Gain of Information.
The translation of items from the source language into target language is with addition of extra information. For example: “Ani gadis yang pintar” is translated into “Ani is a smart girl in class”. When translating from Indonesian into English the translator put an addition of information in psychology version, which is the verb to be and the feminine gender (she) as well as an article (a) is added to make the sense more clearly in the target language.
3. Skewing of Information The translation unit from the source language is not the exact equivalent with the target language. In this case the translator is skewing some words originally contained in Source
Language to make a more natural translation result in Target Language.
2.1.2 Process of Translation The process of translation consist of three types. First is anaysis source language text, second is transfer the message and third is restructurisation. Every translation process is set up as a transfer from an SL to a TL, the translation process can either go from native tongue to foreign language or from foreign language to native tongue, either type of transfer will present specific difficulties (Wills 1971).
In other words, translation as product instead of translating as process. Hence, in doing a translation process, there are potentially two sets of motivations: those of the producer of the source text and those of the translator. The goal of the translation process is the optimal synchronization of SL and TL, a text oriented comparison of the syntactic and lexical potentials of expression in the SL and the TL is an important translational process Larson (1998:4) simply presents the diagram of the translation process as follow: Source Language Target Language
Text to be Translation Translated
Discover the Meaning Re-express Meaning Meaning
Process of translation begins with the discovering of meaning of each term in Source Language and then it continues to the reconstruction meaning in target language. As stated before that meaning is the core problem which is going to be transferred from source language to target language as we can see in the diagram above. A detail understanding of meaning semantically and culturally will much help the translator in re-expressing the accurate translation result.
2.1.3 Types of Translation Procedures.
Vinay and Darbelnet (2000:99) arrange seven simple of translation procedures which
can be easily used to analyze the translation procedures used by a translator in transferring meanings from Source Language to Target Language. Those seven procedures could be summarized as below.
2.1.3.1 Borrowing.
This procedure is the simplest translation procedure. It is used usually when there is a metalinguistic gap in the target language, for example when a new technique or an unknown concept is introduced. It can also be used to create a particular stylistic effect, for example to introduce an element of local, source language color to the target language: tortilla, tequila, and sauna. Many old loanwords have later become a fixed part of the lexis of the borrowing language, for example word from English to French: alcool from alcohol, and redingote from riding-coat. There are some possibilities that may occur in this procedure; first, borrowing with no change in form and meaning ( pure loanwords), the second, borrowing with changes in form but without changes the meaning (mix loanwords) and the third, borrowing when part of the term is native and other part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed (loan blends) Examples:
a. Borrowing with no change in form and meaning (pure loanwords) voucher → voucher bonanza → bonanza bank → bank
b. Borrowing with change in form but without change the meaning (mix loanwords) dividend → dividen accrual akrual → credit kredit → debit debet →
c. Loan blend nominal account perkiraan nominal → bussines transaction transaksi usaha → temporary investment investasi sementara →
There are other general statements about the understanding of borrowing giving by some linguists. Hockett (1958:402) defines borrowing as follow, “the feature which is imitated is called the model; the language which is the model occurs, or the speaker of that language, called donor, the language which acquires something new in the process is borrowing language. The process itself called borrowing. From the statement bellow, it can be understood that loan word or borrowing word should not be return, which means that the donor makes no sacrifice and does not have to ask for permission. So, there is nothing change because the donor goes on speaking as before and only the borrower’s speech is altered. Lehman (1962:213) states, “The process by which word are imported into a language is known as borrowing.” Then, he also concludes that the influence of one language on another, the result of which have been termed borrowing. Thus, based on those statements, the understanding of borrowing can be simplified as a process whereby one language adopts a meaningful unit from another language, or a process in which one language adopts elements of another.
Hockett (1958:408-416) says that borrowing can be classified into three; they are loans, pronunciation borrowing, and grammatical borrowing.According to Bolinger (1975:421) that both form and meaning in loanwords is borrowed, with whatever degree of adaptation to the phonology of the borrowing languages. The borrower may adopt the donor’s word along with the object of practice: the new form in the borrower’s speech is then called loanword. The term loanword is used to denote words taken from foreign language and used it as though it were native to the language into which it has been borrowed. Therefore, the acquisition of a loanword constitutes in itself a lexical change and probably should say it constitutes or entails a semantic change. Loanwords are almost always free form (words or phrases); bound forms are borrowed as such only with extreme rarity. Then they also show some phonemic substitutions, which occur mainly depends on how those direct word borrowing from source language, assimilate into receptor’s language. Moreover, loanwords are direct borrowing from English whose overall morphemic shape is recognizable English, and which do not show any fusion with receptor’s language.
If a speaker imitates someone else’s pronunciation of a word, which is already familiar to the borrower, we may speak of pronunciation borrowing. Usually the donor and borrowing idiolects are mutually intelligible, and the motive is prestige. A style of pronunciation can also be imitated, usually for prestige reason, without specific reference to a particular word. Besides, pronunciation borrowing can operated across language boundaries.
Grammatical change can be brought about indirectly by borrowing-via sets of related loanwords. Grammatical change is the change in the grammatical core, which includes forms, which collectively called ‘functors’ and some functors are separate words. If a functor in one language should be borrowed into another as a loanword, retaining its functional status, the immediate consequence to be a grammatical change in the borrowing language might be naturally expected.
2.1.3.2 Borrowing (Loan Blends)
Borrowing (Loan Blends) is another form of loan translation: a complete syntagma (syntactic unit) is borrowed, but its individual elements are translated literally. The result can be a Borrowing (Loan Blends) of expression, which preserves the syntsctic structure of the source language while introducing a new mode of expression to the target language. It consists of phrases in direct (literal) translations of fixed expression in target language. The result can also be a structural Borrowing (Loan Blends), which introduces a whole new construction into the target language, for example science- fiction, used as such in French. Borrowing (Loan Blends) is loan translation (linear substitution) of morphologically analyzable source language syntagms which after a time, are often accepted, or at least tolerated by the target language community.
2.1.3.3 Literal Translation
This procedure is a word for word translation, replacement of source language syntactic structures, normally on the clause or sentence scale, by syntactic which are isomorphic (or near isomorphic) concerning number and type of speech parts and synonymous in term of content, where the resulting target language is grammatically correct and idiomatic. The translation has not needed to make any changes other than the obvious one, like those concerning grammatical concord or inflectional endings, This procedure is most commonly found in translations between closely related language. These are some examples of literal translation. Examples: Deferral penangguhan
→ revenue expenditure pengeluaran pendapatan → capital element unsur modal → capital increase modal bertambah → close the book menutup buku →
2.1.3.4 Procedure 4: Transposition
Transposition means the replacing of one word-class by another without changing the meaning of the message. It can also be used within a language, as when rewarding the phrase, for example ‘He announced that he would return’ to ‘He announced his return’ (the subordinate verb becomes a noun). In translation, there are two types of transposition: obligatory and optimal. It is also a change in the grammar from source language to target language (singular to plural; position of the adjective, changing the word class or part of speech). There are more examples of transposition Examples: sales journal
→ buku harian Penjualan equity
→ hak pemilikan hak proceeds → hasil diskonto balance sheet → neraca
2.1.3.5 Procedure 5: Modulation
Modulation means a variation in the message due to a change in the point of view: seeing something in different light. Using modulation is justified when a literal or transposed translation results in a form which is not quite natural and going against the felling of the target language. There are two types of modulation: fixed and free. Fixed or obligatory modulation must be used when for example translating a phrase ‘the time when’ to French as ‘le moment ou’. In this example, the time become moment, and when becomes where. In this case of fixed modulation, a competent bilingual will not hesitate to have recourse to this procedure if it supported by frequency or total acceptance of usage, or a status establish by the dictionary or grammar.
Free or optimal modulation takes place for example, when a negative expression in the source language positive in the target language because of language- specific stylistic features: ‘it is not difficult to show’ becomes ‘il est facile de demontrer’ (‘it is easy to show’). With the free modulation the process must be undergone anew in this case, and no fixation has taken place.
However, free modulation is not really optimal in the strict sense, for when it is correctly done, it must result in the ideal target language solution corresponding to the source language situation: a correct usage of free modulation makes a native reader of a target language say:
“Yes, that just how it would be said.” A free modulation may at any moment become fixed as soon as it becomes frequent, or is felt to be a unique solution.
2.1.3.6 Procedure 6: Equivalence
Two texts in different language will account for the same situation by means of very different stylistic and structural devices. The change which happened in the message with this procedure is usually syntagmatic, and it affects the whole message. Most examples of this procedure belong to the phraseological repertoire of idiom, clichés, and proverbs, nominal or adjectival collocation. For example the proverbs ‘too many cooks spoil the broth’ becomes ‘deux patrons font chavirer la barque’ (two skippers will capsize the boat”) in French. It must be remembered, that idioms, for example as like as two peas must not be translated as Borrowing (Loan Blends)s or any account, for the responsibility of introducing Borrowing (Loan Blends)s (of idiom) into a language that is already perfectly organized should be the author’s choice, not the translators. There are other examples of equivalence in accounting term: Examples: account payable hutang dagang
→ account receivable piutang dagang → marketable security surat berharga →
2.1.3.7 Procedure 7: Adaptation
This procedure is used in cases where the situation to which the message refers does not exist at all in the target language and must thus be created by reference to a new situation, which is judged to be equivalent. For example, it is culturally normal for an English father to kiss his daughter on the mouth, but a similar action would be culturally unacceptable in a French text, and must be translated as something like ‘il serra tendrement sa fille dans ses bras’ (‘he tenderly embraced his daughter in his arms’).
A refusal to make use of adaptations which are not only structural but also pertain to the presentation of idea or their arrangement in the paragraph, leads to a text that is perfectly correct but nevertheless invariably betray its status as translation by something indefinable in its tone, something that does not quite ring true.
2.2 Information Technology Terms
Stands for "Information Technology," and is pronounced "I.T." It refers to anything related to computing technology, such as networking, hardware, software, the Internet, or the people that work with these technologies. Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. IT jobs include computer programming, network administration, computer engineering, Web development, technical support, and many other related occupations. Since we live in the "information age," information technology has become a part of our everyday lives. That means the term "IT," already highly overused, is here to stay. And below provided some examples related to IT terms found in the Sony Ericsson W150i’s user guidebook and being categorized in 6 categories :
Term Category Hardware Software Software File Formats Software Software Internet Technical Bits and Bytes Internet Internet