The Development of Ideal Body Image Perceptions in the United States

Jeanne B. Martin, PhD, RD, FADA, LD

T he perception of ‘‘ideal’’ body image is developed over time and may change during the course of one’s lifetime. Some

current influences on the development of ideal body image are explored. Resources are provided to assist the formation of realistic body images, thus increasing self-esteem and hopefully decreasing the rise of eating disorders due to body image dissatisfaction. Nutr Today. 2010;45(3):98–110

B ody image refers to a subjective concept of one’s

physical appearance based on self-observation and the reaction of others. ‘‘Ideal’’ body image is the

phrase used to refer to the body size determined by one’s cultural group to epitomize beauty and/or success in achievement of the optimum physical state as defined by that group. The ‘‘ideal’’ body image can vary between cultural groups, within ethnic groups, and within any other group to which one belongs. Where do Americans derive their perception of ideal body image? What are some of the factors that influence the perception of ideal body image as one develops along the life span? How can health professionals, parents, teachers, and friends affect the development of healthy, positive body images among American youth? This article examines a variety of the influences affecting the development of the American ideal body image perceptions at different stages of the life cycle. The identified influences might have similar effects on the population in other countries that purchase American products, watch American television and movies, listen to American music, read American periodicals, and visit our country. The globalization of today’s marketplace hastens the popularity of selected role models and the pursuit of the ideal body image in vogue at the time. Understanding the factors influencing the development of a healthy body image is of interest to many disciplines, educators, and target groups throughout the world.

Body Image Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

The concept of ideal body image directly impacts a person’s body image satisfaction or dissatisfaction. For the purposes of this article, body image satisfaction refers to one’s personal body image being similar to one’s concept of his/her ideal body image. In addition, one’s ideal body image represents the physical ideal that one seeks to emulate, be that a high-fashion model, celebrity, movie star, elite athlete, fitness professional, or other such role model. Body image dissatisfaction refers to the degree one’s personal body image differs from one’s perceived ideal body image or one’s subjective feelings of dissatisfaction with one’s physical appearance. Body dissatisfaction is a precursor for negative self-perception or self-worth and can lead to the development of eating disorders. 1Y3

Ultrathin, ideal body image models and actresses have increasingly been featured in the media from the early 1900s with the thin, short-haired flapper to Twiggy in the 1960s to the majority of today’s fashion models, centerfolds and celebrities being 15% or less of their expected body weight in regard to their age and height, a major characteristic for anorexia nervosa. There was a short departure from the very thin media-portrayed ideal body image during the Marilyn Monroe era of the 1950s, but the usual trend in the media has been to portray thin, toned, fit females while at the same time observing continued weight gain in all segments of the American population. The detrimental effect of this discrepancy, exacerbated by greater media exposure, has been increased body dissatisfaction, leading to an increase in dieting, use of weight-loss products, and eating disorder tendencies among adolescents, women, and

men. 2 The dieting industry is a multibillion-dollar business in the United States. The unrealistic, unattainable, and unhealthy ideal body image projected by the media has pervaded television, movies, the print media, and the Internet. The effect on girls and women of having a

98 Nutrition Today, Volume 45 Number 3 May/June, 2010

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subconscious ideal beauty standard has been studied 4 and perceptions of the cultural standard were so difficult by many researchers. Bryd-Bredbenner et al report

to attain, the women who internalized the cultural changes over the past 80 years in the anthropometric

standards for weight and appearance were most likely measurements of idealized females and young women.

to fail to achieve them, leading to negative emotional The anthropometric measurements for the idealized

consequences, body shame, and to disordered eating 11 female body images in the media (ie, Playboy Magazine

behaviors. Lynch et al studied the difference in body Playmates of the Year, ‘‘Miss America’’ pageant winners,

size perception between African American and white and fashion models) all declined significantly over time,

women to understand the disparity in obesity prevalence whereas the body mass index (BMI) has steadily risen 4 between the 2 groups. They found that whites had greater

for young American women in general. body dissatisfaction and thus more attempts to lose In a recent survey on body image conducted by the

weight than the African American women over the 13-year Girl Scouts of America, most girls (59%) reported that

study period. The researchers also found that body size they were dissatisfied with their body shape; 66% wanted

perception predicted weight change over time in the to lose weight; 65% correctly identified themselves as

young adults followed in the CARDIA (Coronary Artery being either normal weight or overweight; and 33% had

Risk Development in Young Adults) study. One possible

a distorted image about their weight. Girls younger explanation presented was that white women placed more than 18 years were more affected by media stimuli

cultural emphasis on thinness and thus increased their using thin models than college-age and older women.

anxiety, had less self-efficacy, and had less ability to Promotion of false images (airbrushing, digital

rationally cope with their body weight that resulted in enhancement) that few women can obtain propels

body image dissatisfaction, consequently leading to greater many young women into eating disorders and promotes 5,6 7 weight gain. Many successful ethnic minority celebrities

an irrational fear of being fat. Bennett et al report appear more comfortable with their personal body image

a global study in 2004 by the Dove ‘‘Real Beauty’’ that often does not meet the ‘‘ideal golden girl’’ body campaign, where 42% of first- to third-grade girls state

image. These women can serve as excellent role models they want to be thinner and 81% of 10-year-olds are

for size acceptance and by achieving a healthy weight. afraid of getting fat. Only 2% of women and girls in 7 Currently, Michelle Obama, the First Lady of the United

this study would describe themselves as beautiful. States, serves as an excellent healthy, physically fit black The differences in ethnic subgroup perceptions of ideal

American female role model.

body image have recently been studied by several researchers in the United States. White, Hispanic, and

Body Mass Index Changes Over Time

black American women have different cultural values 8 that affect their ideal body image perception. Schooler

As stated previously, Americans are heavier now than reported girls’ body satisfaction, acculturation, and use

ever before. More than 66% of adults in the United States 12,13 of mainstream, black-oriented and Spanish-language

are overweight, and more than 32% are obese. television in a recent study of 81 girls 11 to 17 years

Anthropometry is one way to assess nutritional status in of age. Of the group being studied, 52 girls were followed

children and adults. Body mass index is commonly used up for 2 years. Frequent viewing of mainstream TV

as a method to evaluate healthy body weight and to was associated with decreases in body image satisfaction.

simply express the relationship of weight-to-height. On the other hand, frequent viewing of black-oriented

Body mass index is the weight in kilograms divided 2 TV was associated with greater body satisfaction. Grabe 9 by the height in meters squared (kg/m ); or weight in

and Hyde conducted a meta-analysis of ethnicity and pounds times 705 divided by the height in inches 2 body dissatisfaction among women in the United States

). The lowest health risk category on studies published since 1990, with the exception

occurs with BMI between 20 and 25. People with a of 2 articles. More than 50% of the studies were

BMI within this range have lower rates of chronic disease. published after 2000. Their analysis of 98 studies

The ideal BMI for US women is between 21.3 and 22.1, 14,15 suggests that what once was known as the ‘‘golden girl

and for US men, between 21.9 and 22.4. The problem’’ no longer exists. Women from all ethnic

international classification for overweight is a BMI of groups studied (white, Asian American, Hispanic, and

greater than or equal to 25.0, and for obese, a BMI greater black American) had similar body dissatisfaction levels;

than or equal to 30. Underweight is classified as a BMI 16 however, black American women were more satisfied

of less than 18.5. Weight, height, BMI, and girth with their body size than white women. 10 measurements all have their place in evaluating health

Bessenoff and Snow examined the relationship status and level of nutritional risk. between self-discrepancies and body shame. Their study

There are times when BMI might not reflect an demonstrated that when women’s personal body ideals

accurate picture of nutritional status. A small percentage

Nutrition Today, Volume 45 Number 3 May/June, 2010 99

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of the US population has a BMI of less than 18.5. The Service Web site, promoting the film, ‘‘Miss America,’’ World Health Organization reports the most recent

at http://pbs.org/wgbh/amex/missamerica /sfeature/ 15 data reflect that 2.38% of the US population was

sf_list.html, provides the average vital statistics for the underweight according to their BMI classification.

75 women who won the ‘‘Miss America’’ title up to 2002. Among that group, 3.26% were women, and 1.48% 17 The composite winner is 20 years 3 months old, with an were men.

A low BMI indicates the person should be average weight of 121 lb; height of 5 ft 6.5 in. The last further evaluated for being underweight and possibly

body measurements for bust, waist, and hips of the having concern for under nutrition. Genetics plays a

winners were reported in 1986 on this Web site. The role in the determination of health, and sometimes,

height and weight measurements were provided until

a low BMI is not unhealthy for an individual. On the 2002. Figure presents the decline in BMI of Miss America 19 other side of the equation, athletes are a subgroup of the

pageant winners from 1922 to 1999. population whose body weight appropriateness is not

The 2008 Miss America, Kirsten Haglund, had a BMI best measured by BMI. Muscle weighs more than fat so

of 16.29 (moderate thinness) when she assumed her the muscular athlete has a higher BMI than a nonathlete

reign. As a recovering anorexic, she chose eating of the same weight and height. For most muscular

disorders as her social platform and has become a athletes, their BMI places many of them in the overweight

well-received spokesperson for the National Eating or obese category. These individuals are not overweight

Disorders Association. Her platform has been ‘‘Healthy or obese, but have a high level of active muscle. Body

Living, Healthy Body Image and Lifestyle’’ as the ideal composition is one measure used to assist health

goal for a productive, successful life. 5,18Y20 She has served providers in determining an individual’s health status,

as an effective role model for young women on how to and clinical judgment should be used to interpret the

successfully manage an eating disorder. value of BMI for each individual. Body mass index values should be placed into proper perspective when working with different population subgroups and ethnicities.

The Role of Dolls and the Development

The BMI of ‘‘Miss America’’ has steadily decreased over the past 80 years. In the 1920s, the BMI of the Miss

of Perceived ‘‘Ideal’’ Body Image

America pageant winners was around 22, now considered 14,15 The ideal body image perception of Americans starts to within the normal BMI range (BMI, 18.5Y24.99).

develop at an early age, perhaps when children begin downward trend reached a low of 16.9 in the 2000s.

The

playing with dolls. When one looks at a favorite Many contestant winners fell below the World Health 18,19

American doll used in play by our children, what body Organization’s cutoff for underweight (BMI e18.5).

image is projected? The Barbie Doll debuted in 1959 at The ideal body image that the contestants and winners of

the New York International American Toy Fair. It was the Miss America pageant project by their actual body

the one of first American dolls modeled after the teenage 21 size is one of extreme thinness. The Public Broadcasting

fashion model. The Barbie Doll and its many variations,

Figure. Trend in body mass index (BMI) of ‘‘Miss America’’ pageant winners 1922 to 1999. 19 The horizontal line represents the World Health Organization’s BMI cutoff point for under nutrition (18.5). Adapted from JAMA. 19

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created by Mattel toy maker, have been extremely successful over the past 50 years. Similar dolls are now made by other manufacturers. However, the body proportions of the Barbie Doll, including the elongated neck, the large breasts, and the small waist, are not representative of the average American woman’s physique. Table 1 compares the average American woman’s physical measurements, based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) National Center for Health Statistics from 2003 to 2006 and compiled in the National Health Statistics Report, 22,23 with the estimated physical measurements of

the Barbie Doll 24 and the average body measurements (bust, waist, and hips) for the winners of the ‘‘Miss America pageant’’ from 1921 until 1986. 18

The perceived ideal body image conveyed subconsciously to young girls playing with dolls is an area in need of further research. Questions such as the following need more study. Would a young girl choose the slim, tall doll over a more robust doll? At what age and what determinants affect her choice of a doll? In addition, if the slim, tall doll is chosen more often, the reason or reasons why young girls select the slimmer doll need investigation. The ideal body image perception developed by young girls from playing with ultrathin dolls with an unnatural body proportion and an unhealthy BMI may influence their self-esteem, as well as the formation of their own ideal body image as they mature. The ideal body image conveyed through the ultrathin dolls is not one that is achievable by most maturing young ladies. The discrepancy between perceived and realistic ideal body image may lead to body dissatisfaction, depression, and eventually eating disorders. 25

Male dolls produced along the Barbie Doll line are similarly proportioned to appear tall and slim. Young boys might perceive this physical profile as being their

ideal body image. On the other hand, the Batman doll or other more muscular action-figure dolls convey a different body image. The more muscular male dolls, when compared with the average American male, also present a skewed body image picture. Table 2 compares the Batman doll and the GI Joe doll measurements with the average American male based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys conducted by the CDC’s National Center for Health Statistics from 2003 to 2006 and compiled in the National Health Statistics Report in October 2008. 22,23 The CDC’s Body and Mind program activity presented in ‘‘If These Dolls Were Real

People’’ 25 was used to project a real person’s body measurements for the muscular Batman and GI Joe dolls to compare their dimensions with measurements of the average American male. The muscular body image of the male dolls is the ideal body image that young males playing with the dolls would most likely normalize and probably desire to emulate. Similar to females, young males’ perception of ideal body image formed from playing with muscular action figures might be unachievable when they reach maturity, also contributing to possible body dissatisfaction, dysmorphia, and depression. The Body and Mind program activity investigates how media and entertainment can influence perceptions of ideal body image and how these perceptions affect mental and physical health. Students involved in this activity can compare measurements of popular dolls with the average measurements of adults in the United States and discuss how unrealistic proportions might affect their own perception of ‘‘normal’’ or ideal, as well as their own mental and physical health status. This educational activity can assist our young people in evaluating the various body images and body sizes that they are exposed to in a realistic manner.

Dolls are also made in the body image of star athletes, politicians, movie actresses, and pop singers. The impact

Table 1. Comparison of Body Measurements for the Average American Woman, Barbie Doll, and the Average ‘‘Miss America’’

Measurements

Average American Woman

Barbie Doll Average ‘‘Miss America’’ Height

5 ft 3.8 in (162.2cm) a 6 ft (182.88 cm) b 5 ft 6.5 in (168.9 cm) c Weight

164.7 lb (74.7 kg) a 101 lb (45.91 kg) b 121 lb (55 kg) c Bust

39.5 in (100.33cm) b 39 in (99.06 cm) b 34.66 in (88.04 cm) c Waist

33 in (83.82 cm) b 18 in (45.72 cm) b 23.83 in (60.53 cm) c Hips

42 in (106.68 cm) b 33 in (83.82 cm) b 35.12 in (89.21 cm) c BMI

a Data from the National Center for Health Statistics. 22 b http://www.dietbites.com/size-average-woman.html. 24

c http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/missamerica/sfeature/sf_list.html. 18

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Modeling Industry and Idealized Body Type

Another strong influence on developing ideal body image perceptions comes from the modeling industry. Ultrathinness has been the ideal body image projected by the modeling industry for many years. The ‘‘lean’’ body type is the predominant body image sought in the hiring of models to market clothing, jewelry, cosmetics, and other products because of the seemingly ideal thin body image conveyed in the print media and supported by popular demand. In 2006, Madrid’s Fashion Week banned models considered dangerously thin from catwalk shows. The ban in Spain came weeks after 22-year-old Uruguay model, Luisel Ramos, with a BMI of 14.5, died of a heart attack in August 2006 moments after stepping off a catwalk. Her death came shortly before Brazilian model Ana Carolina Reston died at the age of 21 years in November 2006 with a BMI of 13.4. Reston was 5 ft 8 in tall and weighed only 88 lb at the time of her death. Models auditioning for Madrid Fashion Week are now examined by doctors, and those with a BMI that is too low are not permitted on the runway. Guidelines now state that fashion models in Madrid, Spain, as well as in Milan, Italy, need to have

a BMI of 18 or higher to work as a model. In March 2008, Italy also introduced a US $1.5 million campaign against eating disorders. Italy also has banned newspaper and television stations showing women who are under size

4 to 6 in an effort to provide the public with realistic images of women. The Health Minister of Germany has issued guidelines for fashion model sizes to be at least a size 2 and the models to be older than 16 years to walk on runways. 5,26Y32

In January 2007, the Council of Fashion Designers of America released a list of recommendations as part of a new health initiative to prevent anorexia, bulimia, and smoking. The guidelines, which are not binding for the industry, include keeping models under 16 off the runway, educating those in the industry about eating disorders, and prohibiting smoking and alcohol use by models during fashion shows. Americans concerned with inappropriate ideal body image being projected by the modeling industry need to voice their concern for the model sizes and the unattainable image of perfection that is being marketed to our youth and women of all ages. 26,29,30 However, the fashion industry’s reinforcement of the underweight body size with size

Table labeling intensified in the marketplace several years ago

o mparison

e rage

Average American

a Data

b http://www.dietbites.com/s

ize-average-man.html.

c Data

Prevention’s

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with ‘‘zero-sized’’ fashions, taking skinny fashions to a 33 and binge eating with increased frequency of reading new low. The self-perception and mind set of being a

magazine articles about dieting and weight loss. Male ‘‘zero’’ size appeal to the young person who might be

readers were more likely to be nonwhite, in the lower trying to distinguish themselves as being a zero or

socioeconomic status groups, and overweight. van den 36 nonexistent person, an individual who wants to be the

Berg et al studied if this association continued to exist smallest fashion size possible, or an individual with a

over time by evaluating data from Project EAT-II, the body image perception disorder that might combine with

5-year longitudinal study from 1999 to 2005 resurveying an eating disorder. American women are constantly

2516 of the participants from Project EAT-I. They found bombarded by images of the ‘‘ideal American woman,’’

that female adolescents continued to show increased with only a small percentage of the women physically

unhealthy weight-control behaviors (such as fasting, able to possibly attain this projected ideal.

skipping meals, and smoking more cigarettes) that were twice as high for magazine readers when compared with nonreaders. Extreme weight-control behaviors

Role Models in Print Media, Visual

(such as laxative use or vomiting) occurred 3 times

Media, and the Internet

greater in magazine readers than nonreaders. Male adolescents had no significant associations.

The American female is also bombarded with media Frequent exposure to magazine articles about dieting advertisements from the food, fashion, and cosmetic

was also associated with increased levels of psychosocial 37 industry. Food ads occur nearly 80 times more often

distress among the adolescents. Cohen reviews the in women’s magazines than in men’s magazines. Diet

effect of media exposure on body dissatisfaction, food ads appear 63 times more frequently in women’s

disordered eating, and the drive for thinness. She magazines, and women’s magazines include 12 times

discusses the social comparison theory and the more articles and ads focusing on weight, dieting,

cultivation theory to explain the relationship between and body size than do magazines targeted to the

media and thin internalization, thus increasing body male audience. The media consistently portrays the

dissatisfaction. Upward comparisons with media depicted extremely thin woman as the ideal body type. Changes

models and celebrities increased feelings of depression in anthropometric measurements, including BMI, of the

and anger and decreased feelings of self-worth in the ‘‘idealized’’ female body has declined significantly over

reader as explained by the social comparison theory. time, which is opposite the increasing body size of 4 The cultivation theory reports that individuals spending

American women. greater time watching media-created programming The role of mass media related to body dissatisfaction

(television, videos, etc) identify more with the begins with young girls reading fashion magazines at

media-depicted world than with the real world. Media the elementary schoolYage group. Pictures in magazines

exposure thus influences attitudes and behaviors and articles on weight control along with dieting

concerning body image, the drive for thinness, and 38 techniques directly impact the body shape beliefs of

disordered eating. Neumark-Sztainer 39 and Haines and

Neumark-Sztainer have highlighted the need to reading magazines stated that pictures influenced their

young girls. Field et al 34 reported that 69% of girls

develop programs addressing the prevention of obesity idea of the perfect body shape, and 47% reported wanting

and eating disorders in children and adolescents to lose weight because of the magazine pictures. The

simultaneously because many of the risk factors are frequency of reading fashion magazines was positively

shared between these weight-related disorders. associated with the prevalence of dieting to lose weight,

Body image dissatisfaction has become more prevalent 40 going on a diet because of the magazine article,

among the preadolescent population. Skemp-Arlt et al increasing exercise to lose weight or improve body

report that 50.6% of the 261 third- through fifth-graders shape, and deciding to exercise because of the magazine

surveyed were dissatisfied with their current body shape, article. Utter et al 35 evaluating data from Project

with 41.8% wanting to be thinner and 8.8% wanting to EAT-I (Eating Among Teens), a school-based survey of

be larger. A greater percentage of the girls (45.1%) nutrition and weight concerns among adolescents,

wanted to be thinner, and 12.3% of the boys desired to sampled 4746 middle and high school students from

have a larger body size. Elementary schoolYaged girls 1998 to 1999. The survey was designed to investigate

state that being obese is worse than being handicapped; the factors influencing eating habits of adolescents, to

60% or more of American girls report that they have determine if youth were meeting national dietary

gone on a weight-loss diet; 50% of adult American recommendations, and to explore dieting and physical

women report they are dissatisfied with their physical 4 41 activity patterns among youth. Results from this survey

appearance. The Girl Scout Research Institute reports reported strong associations for weight-control behaviors

that 3 of 4 girls (73%) compare how they look to girls

Nutrition Today, Volume 45 Number 3 May/June, 2010 103

in the media sometimes, with 3 of 10 girls (29%)

comparing their looks all of the time. Ahern et al 42 and

Tucci and Peters 43 report that young women making associations between underweight models and positive attributes report elevated eating disorder symptoms.

Body dissatisfaction is enhanced when the media promotes unrealistic body images through their marketing efforts. The chasm between media-defined ideal body image and realistic body size continues to widen. Individuals should be conscious of their exposure time and reaction to the media’s influence toward their development of their ideal body image. Occasionally, in a publication’s Letters to the Editor section, one sees objection to the body size of the models used in that publication. The perception of ideal body size by the average reader is affected when they compare their own body size with that of the featured models. The American print media has a responsibility to select models that reflect healthy body weight to serve as role models for the American public. Other countries have published their own standards for body size in their modeling size guidelines since the deaths of internationally recognized elite models at the peak of their career. Continued support for this movement is encouraged and hopefully will spread to more countries that are also dealing with body image concerns.

America the Beautiful, a recent film documentary by filmmaker Darryl Roberts, advocates that girls and women reject the media-driven worship of the impossible-to-achieve ‘‘perfect’’ body. The movie sheds light on the cause and effect of body images and beauty obsession and the tragic outcome of increased incidence of eating disorders among young and older women in the United States. Misperceptions of the perfect body size and thus the ideal body image, the role of airbrushing, digital image enhancement, breast augmentation, plastic surgery, liposuction, and so on, in the fashion industry are revealed in this documentary. Suggestions are made that ‘‘American women stop fixing the body that was never broken.’’ 5,44,45 The DVD of this documentary will provide an excellent resource for presentation of the topic followed by a discussion of body image concerns among young women. Raising the public awareness of the media’s influence on the perception of ideal body image is critical in addressing changes needed in the marketplace.

Internet exposure is another factor influencing the development of a healthy ideal body image. The Internet has enabled all users of the Internet access to a seemingly unlimited supply of information. Unfortunately, not all of the Internet sources are reliable or authentic. Some of the information is sound, accurate, and verifiable, and other information is biased and inaccurate. Monitored and unmonitored chat rooms exist for any concern from eating disorders to the most recent weight-loss fad. Drugs

may also be ordered through the Internet. Parents and educators should discuss and monitor Internet use by young children and teens.

Photo Labeling: Model Images Versus Product Only

Several studies have been conducted regarding college students’ degree of body satisfaction with exposure to a product advertisement with or without a model of the same sex as the viewer of the advertisement. Internalization of the ideal body shape, as presented in the media, is accepted as a causal factor in the development of eating disorders. Male models in the print media are usually muscular, and female models are usually thin to extremely thin. When shown 2 advertisements for products, one with an ideal-body-size model and the product, and the other with the product alone, the level of body satisfaction by the viewers decreased when viewing the ad containing an ideal-body-size model and the product. When the product was viewed alone, the body satisfaction of the viewers did not change. This held true for male and female photo-labeled model images. 1,2,46Y48

Video Games

Video games are one of the fastest growing media in the United States, with sales more than US $10 billion a year. Adolescents spend almost 7 hours each day exposed to some form of media. Given this investment of time, the gender roles and body images displayed by the characters in the video games should be observed by parents, teachers, or other adults supervising this activity

of our youth. Miller and Summers 49 review the influence video games have on players in terms of behavior, self-perception, self-esteem, and body image. Male characters usually appear extremely muscular, powerful, and often violent. Female characters appear more attractive and slender and are often minimally clothed. 49

Television and Athletes

An example of the influence of television on the world’s perception of ideal body image and exposure time to the media was the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, broadcast for 3600 hours over 14 days. Over 215 million Americans, more than 70% of the population, watched some part of the games. The impact of the media and the accompanying advertising that funds the broadcast is phenomenal. Because of the type of clothing worn in the events of the Summer Olympics, body size of the participants is readily apparent. The repeated exposure via television to men and women at the peak of their

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fitness and athletic abilities from swimming and suffering from body obsession. Ergogenic aids are gymnastics (the 2 most highly covered venues), to beach

products that purportedly boost one’s exercise capacity, volleyball, wrestling, and more, has an impact on the

physical performance, and responsiveness to training. 51 ideal body image perception of the more than 52 million 50 unique viewers. Sound nutritional practices, intense

Stronger, LeanerI Sicker, Meaner

workout programs, self-discipline, and good genetics work together to maximize the athletes’ body potential.

The US Drug Enforcement Administration reports As stated earlier, the BMI of most athletes is higher than

dangerously high levels of anabolic-androgenic steroid that of the average person’s because of their increased

use among young Americans. Anabolic-androgenic muscle mass. Michael Phelps, the 8-time gold-medal

steroids increase the risk of heart disease, liver cancer, winner in Men’s Swimming events at the 2008 Summer

depression, stunted growth, eating disorders, and Olympics, is a role model for our youth. Just before the

infertility and increased episodes of hostility and 2008 Summer Olympics, he was 23 years of age; his

aggression among its users. If mixed with alcohol use, height, 6 ft 4 in, and his weight, 195 lb. Thus, his BMI

steroids can damage the liver. Internet marketing of was 23.74. He was in the very active exercise category

products has produced global availability with limited with a recommended caloric need intake of 4065 kcal/d.

controls on purchases. Athletes should serve as positive From his reported typical daily food intake, Michael Phelps

role models for our youth by avoiding illicit drug use to consumed approximately 10 375 kilocalories, composed

enhance their athletic abilities.

of 409 g protein (15.77%), 1518 g carbohydrate (58.5%), The direction our youth athletic training programs 308 g fat (26.7%), 2515 mg cholesterol, 75.5 g fiber, and

should continue to progress using specified training 719 g sugars (27.3%). Just prior to the Olympics, it was

regimens to build skills and muscles, coupled with 52,53 reported that he exercised more than 30 hours per week.

sound nutrition and health advice. The Adolescents The Olympic-level athletes fine tune their bodies to attain

Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids program peak performance levels. The Olympians’ dedication to

geared to high school football players and the Athletes their sport is evidenced by making the Olympic team and

Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives competing for world records while maintaining their body

designed for adolescent girls on sports teams were at the perceived ideal body image for their sport.

developed by the Oregon Health and Science University For some athletes, as well as for the general population,

and serve as model prevention programs addressing risky body image can take an unhealthy turn. Ideal body image

behaviors in youth. 51

misperceptions can lead to the inappropriate use of restricted dietary intake, supplement and ergogenic aid use,

Steroid Use Among Adolescents

or overexercising. Anorexia athletica is a term used to describe the continuum of subclinical eating behaviors

Genetics plays a large role on the potential body size of athletes who fail to meet the criteria for an eating

we each may attain and has a large impact on the ideal disorder but exhibit at least 1 unhealthy method of weight

that is even achievable. For some adolescents, seeking control. Disordered eating behaviors (semistarvation,

the ideal athletic body shape and the ability to build purging, excessive exercising, laxative use, excessive fiber

muscle mass naturally through exercise and proper supplementation consumption) are used to achieve an

nutrition is elusive. The use of anabolic-androgenic ideal body weight deemed necessary for success in certain

steroids by youth to achieve the ideal body image has 53Y55 sports. Participants in the aesthetic sports (such as

Muscle dysmorphia, a gymnastics, diving, figure skating) and weight-dependent

been well documented.

history of physical or sexual abuse, or a history of sports (such as wrestling, judo, karate) have the highest 51 high-risk behavior has been associated with an increased 53

scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory. Approximately risk of initiating or continuing steroid abuse. Analysis 50% of women with eating disorders have been found

of the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, conducted by to compulsively overexercise as well. The term exercise

the US CDC, sampled more than 16 000 US public and addict describes someone who exercises excessively, often

private high school students. Those students reporting doing ‘‘whatever it takes’’ to make additional time in the

problem behaviors such as binge drinking, cocaine use, day to exercise more. Many men perceive that the ideal

fighting, and sexual risk taking were associated with body size has about 28 lb more muscle than their own.

higher odds of lifetime steroid use, thus expanding the Muscle dysmorphia is a complex disorder that has many

target group for education regarding steroid abuse from 52 56 behaviors associated with acquiring and maintaining

the male athlete only. Pisetsky et al examined the use muscle mass. This desire for more muscle mass has

of steroids, among other substances, and the association coincided with an increase in the number of men

between disordered eating among the 13 917 US high experiencing eating disorders, using ergogenic aids, and

school participants of the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior

Nutrition Today, Volume 45 Number 3 May/June, 2010 105

Continuing Education Development of Ideal Body Image Perceptions

Surveillance System. Among other findings, the problem behaviors and steroid use appears to be researchers also found that participants with reported

constant between the 1997 and 2005 surveys, indicating disordered eating or individuals with body image

target groups to focus educational programming concerns were more likely to use steroids to alter their

addressing positive body images and healthy ways to body shape and size. Thus, the association between

achieve them.

Table 3. Additional Web Links to Educational Information and Intervention Programs Dealing With Fitness, Nutrition, and Positive Body Image 64Y75

http://www.nichd.nih.gov/msy/ ‘‘Media Smart Youth: Eat, Think and Be Active’’ is an interactive after-school education program for young people aged 11 to 13 years sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 64

http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_mind/body_image/body_image.html The Nemours Foundation is an information resource for teens focused on the development of positive body image and self-esteem. 65

http://www.brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/nutrition/home.htm An example of one

of the many college and universities with student health programs addressing healthy body image, nutrition, and wellness concerns. 66

http://www.bodyimageprogram.org/program/reflectionsbia/ ‘‘Reflections: Body Image Program,’’ 67 a peer-led eating

disorder prevention program targeting sorority members at major universities, engaging social support systems to provide sustainable eating disorders prevention programs. The peer-led interventions have reduced thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint and bulimic pathology among the participants. Reflections also

held a ‘‘Fat Talk Y Free Week’’ 68 aimed at eliminating ‘‘fat talk’’ from one’s everyday life and for those they love. At least 5 national sororities have approved the Reflections program for implementation at their chapters. 67 Y 71

www.bodypositive.com This Web site seeks to boost well-being, self-esteem, and positive body image at any healthy weight.

Offers resources, activism issues, forums, and strategies to help people find acceptance for their body weight concerns. 72

http://win.niddk.nih.gov/ The Weight-control Information Network (WIN) is an information service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, NIH. WIN was established in 1994 to provide the general public,

health professionals, the media, and Congress with up-to-date, science-based information on obesity, weight control,

physical activity, positive body image, and related nutritional issues. 73 Example Web sites within this service are: http://win.niddk.nih.gov/publications/take_charge.htm Take Charge of Your Health. A Guide for Teenagers focuses

on healthy eating, physical activity and how to make successful changes in a teen’s daily life. 74

http://www.win.niddk.nih.gov/sisters/index.htm Sisters Together: Move More, Eat Better is a national initiative to

encourage black women to maintain a healthy weight by becoming more physically active and eating healthier foods. 75 The WIN Web site provides current links to a variety of federal and state educational information and intervention programs

dealing with fitness, nutrition, and positive body image. Links to other Web sites are found at http://win.niddk.nih.gov/ resources/index.htm#size. 76 Several of these are provided below: www.mypyramid.gov US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) food guidance system. This Web site contains

general guidance on food and healthy eating, with tips and suggestions for making smart dietary choices. The site also features interactive tools that can customize food and calorie recommendations according to your age, sex, and physical activity level.

www.fitness.gov The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports provides regular updates on the council’s activities as well as resources on how to get involved in its programs. www.girlshealth.gov The Office on Women’s Health provides girls with reliable health information on physical

activity, nutrition, and stress reduction. www.fns.usda.gov/tn USDA’s Team Nutrition Web site focuses on the role nutritious school meals, nutrition

education, and a health-promoting school environment play in helping students learn to enjoy healthy eating and physical activity.

www.cdc.gov/powerfulbones The CDC’s Powerful Bones, Powerful Girls is a national health campaign that provides tips on healthy eating and physical activity sponsored by the Office of Women’s Health.

www.canfit.org The California Adolescent Nutrition and Fitness Program provides resources on adolescent nutrition and body image, fitness, and more. It is oriented toward adolescents in low-income communities and communities of color.

http://hin.nhlbi.nih.gov/portion/keep.htm A Web site from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute that

discusses food portion sizes and portion distortion.

106 Nutrition Today, Volume 45 Number 3 May/June, 2010 Copyright @ 20 Copyright @ 20 10 10 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

Development of Ideal Body Image Perceptions Continuing Education

Project EAT-II also surveyed adolescents on their use of achieve them. We need to be aware of the strong steroids. Approximately 1.5% of the adolescents surveyed

influence that the media has on the development of a used steroids, with use decreasing as they aged. The use of

healthy body image and pay attention to the unrealistic steroids differed by ethnicity but not by socioeconomic 35,57Y59 60 body image portrayed by certain dolls and action figures,

status. Tager et al demonstrated that male the print media, television programs and advertisements, adolescents, increasingly dissatisfied with their bodies,

and video games. We need to monitor the exposure time engaged in eating disorders, used anabolic-androgenic

of the population to these images and be aware of the steroids and untested dietary supplements to control

body images portrayed in the materials we supply in the their weight and to gain muscle. Interestingly, the

form of magazines or educational media in our waiting fastest-growing illegal-steroid user group that has been

rooms, in schools, and at home. We also need to check identified is the female adolescent, although their

the signals we send to others when talking about weight, prevalence rates tend to be much lower than those of male

body size concerns, and special diets. We need to teach adolescents. Female adolescent usage is most likely

women and men to view their own bodies as sources of motivated by seeking the ideal body image of models and

strength and self-confidence and not as decorative actresses with well-defined muscles. 52,55,61 Monitoring

objects or to sacrifice healthy ways of life to achieve an the Future, an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes,

elusive ideal thinness. We need to listen more and talk and values of American secondary school and college

less to our youth to discover who they are and which role students, as well as young adults, has reported a decreased

models they desire to emulate. We need to discuss use of anabolic steroids since the peak usage levels

appropriate body image and size issues among our social reached between 1999 and 2002. Reports indicate the

support systems, as well as the dangers of unhealthy current prevalence rate of usage has dropped by greater

dieting practices often promoted by the media. The than 50%. This is probably attributed to the Anabolic

chasm between the media-defined ideal body size Control Act of 2004, which gave the Drug Enforcement

perception and reality is continuing to diverge. Health Agency greater regulation of the sale and possession of steroids. 55

professionals, educators, and parents should make it a priority to work with the fashion industry, the media, the entertainment industry, and legislators to take responsibility for the body image messages and nutrition

Programs Addressing Body

misinformation that are being sent to our youth and

Image Concerns

adults. More research is needed in this area and especially on the development of appropriate body

There are many programs available that can help raise image among ethnically diverse groups. the awareness of young people to the discrepancy in

perceived versus actual ideal body image. The Body Awareness program, sponsored by the National Institutes

Jeanne B. Martin, PhD, RD, FADA, LD, is a nutrition consultant and an of Health, is intended to raise awareness of the media’s 62,63

adjunct associate professor with the Dell Center for the Advancement of effect on early teenagers’ body perception.

Healthy Living, The University of Texas School of Public Health living in 2001, more than 1000 high school and college students

Since

Wimberley.

have participated in this program whose aim is to help Correspondence: Jeanne B. Martin, PhD, RD, FADA, LD, The Dell Center for girls not develop eating disorders by engaging in ‘‘body

Advancement of Healthy Living, The University of Texas School of Public activism.’’ Stice et al 62 have demonstrated that the risk

Health, 419 Hermosa Paloma, Wimberley, TX 78676 (jbmjgm@yahoo.com). of developing eating disorders has been reduced by

61% among participants completing the program. The

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program participants continue to exhibit positive body image attitudes up to 3 years after entering the program. 1. Grabe S, Ward LM, Hyde JS. The role of the media in

body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of Table 3 provides Web links and a brief description of

experimental and correlational studies. Psychol Bull. other successful programs with useful information on 64Y75

2008;134:460Y476.

nutrition, physical activity, and healthy lifestyles. 2. Dittmar H, Halliwell E, Stirling E. Understanding the impact of thin media models on women’s body-focused

Health Professionals, Health Educators, affect: the roles of thin-ideal internalization and weight

related self-discrepancy activation in experimental

Parents, and Other Role Models

The Development of Ideal Body Image Perceptions in the United States