Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol10.Issue1.1999:
Electrokinetic remediation of metals-contaminated
sediments: a technology demonstration involving
former waste lagoons
M artin A. Wills
LB&M Asso c iate s, ‘ A’ Ave nue , Lawto n, USA
John C. Haley
LB&M Asso c iate s, ‘ A’ Ave nue , Lawto n, USA
Gene L. Fabian
US Army Enviro nme ntal Ce nte r, MD, USA
R. M ark Bricka
US Army Engine e rs, Wate rways Expe rime nt Statio n, Vic ksburg, USA
Keywords
Contamination, Metals, Tec hnology
Abstract
Ele c tro kine tic s (EK) is an e me rging re me diatio n te c hno lo gy fo r the
in situ re mo val o f he avy me tals,
vo latile o rganic c o mpo unds, and
radio nuc lide s fro m so ils and
se dime nts. Naval Air We apo ns
Statio n Po int Mugu, Califo rnia will
ho st an EK te c hno lo gy de mo nstratio n. The de mo nstratio n will
c o nsist o f installing and o pe rating
an EK syste m, whic h is e ngine e re d to re mo ve c admium and
c hro mium fro m fo rme r e le c tro plating waste lago o ns. The
se le c te d site is adjac e nt to and
e nc ro ac he s o n an e nviro nme ntally
se nsitive salt marsh are a fo r
fe de rally pro te c te d wildlife . The
e le c tro kine tic pro c e ss will be
use d to mo bilize and e xtrac t
he avy me tals fro m the me talsc o ntaminate d so il by applying a
lo w ampe rage dire c t c urre nt
ac ro ss an array o f e le c tro de s
plac e d in the c o ntaminate d so il.
The de mo nstratio n will fo c us o n
the e ffe c tive ne ss o f the EK
pro c e ss fo r re mo ving he avy
me tals fro m the tidal marsh are a.
The EK de mo nstratio n will be use d
to c o lle c t c o st-e ffe c tive data
ne c e ssary to addre ss bo th the
te c hnic al and e c o no mic fe asibility
o f using this te c hno lo gy in are as
whe re so ils are po ro us, wate r is
brac kish, and the syste m is
susc e ptible to tidal influe nc e s.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [ 1999] 3 1 –3 6
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
Introduction
Th e US Ar m y E n vir on m en ta l Cen ter
(USAE C) is pr epa r in g to con du ct a tech n ology dem on str a tion of E K a s a m eth od of
r em ovin g h eavy m eta ls fr om soils. Th e
dem on str a tion is spon sor ed by th e en vir on m en ta l secu r ity tech n ology cer tifica tion
pr ogr a m (E STCP ) a n d th e Sou th west Division , N ava l F a cilities E n gin eer in g Com m a n d
(NAVFAC SOUTHWE ST DIV). It w ill be con du cted a t th e N ava l Air Wea pon s Sta tion
(NAWS), Poin t Mu gu , Ca lifor n ia , Site 5 – Old
Ar ea 6 Sh ops. Th e tech n ology is bein g in vestiga ted for th is ecologica lly sen sitive a r ea
beca u se of its poten tia l to be a less in va sive
tech n ology. A k ey elem en t of th e dem on str a tion is to deter m in e th e costs a ssocia ted w ith
th e u se of th e tech n ology.
Background
Loca ted in Ven tu r a Cou n ty, Ca lifor n ia , NAWS
Poin t Mu gu Reser va tion com pr ises a ppr oxim a tely 4,500 a cr es in th e wester n por tion of
th e Ven tu r a Ba sin (F igu r es 1 a n d 2). Th e
in sta lla tion is a ppr oxim a tely 50 m iles n or th west of Los An geles a n d bor der s th e wester n
slopes of th e Sa n ta Mon ica Mou n ta in s.
P a st m ilita r y a n d in du str ia l oper a tion s a t
NAWS Poin t Mu gu in clu ded electr opla tin g
a n d m eta l fin ish in g pr ocesses, explosive a n d
pr opella n t m a n u fa ctu r in g a n d u se, a n d th e
u se of lea d-ba sed pa in ts. Th ese oper a tion s
r esu lted in la r ge tr a cts of la n d bein g con ta m in a ted w ith m eta ls.
Site 5 – Old Are a 6 Sho ps
Site 5 is a la r ge a r ea wh er e electr opla tin g a n d
m eta l fin ish in g oper a tion s wer e con du cted.
Th e Old Ar ea 6 Sh ops w ith in Site 5 a r e
loca ted a lon g Bea ch Roa d, ju st west of th e
sou th en d of La gu n a Roa d (F igu r e 3). Th e
a r ea of stu dy is a ppr oxim a tely 1/ 2 a cr e a n d
in clu des two for m er w a ste la goon s loca ted in
th e cen ter of Site 5. Th e la goon s a r e u n lin ed
a n d wer e u sed between 1947 a n d 1978 to
r eceive w a ste w a ter disch a r ge fr om electr opla tin g a n d m eta l fi n ish in g a ctivities. Th e
la r gest w a ste gen er a tor in th e a r ea w a s th e
pla tin g sh op, wh ich r epor tedly disposed of a n
estim a ted 95 m illion ga llon s of pla tin g r in sa te
between 1948 a n d 1965. Addition a lly, u p to
60,000 ga llon s of w a ste ph otovolta ic fixer
solu tion a n d sm a ll qu a n tities of or ga n ic
solven ts a n d r ock et fu el wer e r epor tedly
disposed of in th e la goon s fr om th e la te 1940s
u n til th e ea r ly 1950s.
In 1988, su r fa ce soil a n d soil bor in g sa m ples
wer e collected fr om th e Old Ar ea 6 site a n d
a n a lyzed for a n u m ber of con stitu en ts. Soil
sa m ples collected fr om ten su r fa ce a n d two
bor in g poin ts con ta in ed con cen tr a tion s of
vola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds (VOCs) a n d sem ivola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds (SVOCs). On ly
soil bor in gs SB5-1 a n d SB5-2 a n d su r fa ce soil
sa m ple SS5-4 (F igu r e 3) a r e loca ted a bou t th e
w a ste la goon s (P RC, 1993). All soil sa m ples
wer e a n a lyzed for polych lor in a ted biph en yls
(P CB) a n d pesticides. P CBs wer e on ly
detected in a du plica te sa m ple fr om on e of th e
bor in gs. Dich lor odiph en yltr ich lor oeth a n e
(DDT) a n d its m eta bolites wer e detected in
on ly th r ee su r fa ce sa m ples. Meta l a n a lytes
wer e detected in a ll loca tion s. In 1994, th e
N avy a u th or ized th e em er gen cy r em ova l of
117 cu bic ya r ds of soil fr om th e for m er w a ste
la goon s.
Summary of existing site condition
Follow in g th e 1994 em er gen cy r em ova l,
su r fa ce sa m plin g w ith in th e la goon s
in dica ted th a t th e levels of ch r om iu m a n d
ca dm iu m still exceeded a llow a ble lim its for
Ca lifor n ia (22 CCR 66261.24). Beca u se of th e
[ 31 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley, Figure 1
Gene L. Fabian and
NAWS po int Mugu re gio nal lo c atio n map
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
California
5
101
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
33
101
154
14
PT.
CONCEPTION
101
150
r
ive
125
SANTA
R
VALLEY
BARBARA
ara SIMI
125
118
Cl
210
VENTURA
nta THOUSAND OAKS
a
S
405
OXNARD
PORT HUENEME
HOLLYWOOD
1
NAWS
POINT MUGU
CHANNEL ISLAND
210
10
10
LOS ANGELES
5
405
LONG
BEACH
SAN NICOLAS ISLAND
SCALES IN MILES
0
15
30
MODIFIED FROM ERTEC, 1991
Figure 2
NAWS po int Mugu ge ne ral lo c atio n map
[ 32 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
poten tia l for da m a ge to th e m a r sh a r ea , th e
sta te of Ca lifor n ia wou ld n ot per m it fu r th er
excava tion of soil fr om th ese two for m er
w a ste la goon s for th e pu r pose of r em edia tion .
Co ntaminants o f c o nc e rn
Th e pr in cipa l con ta m in a n ts of con cer n a t th e
site a r e ch r om iu m , ca dm iu m , copper, n ick el
a n d silver. Addition a l con ta m in a n ts of
poten tia l con cer n in clu de a r sen ic, ber ylliu m ,
m a n ga n ese, fl u or ide, tetr a ch lor oeth a n e,
tr ich lor oeth en e (TCE ) a n d Ar oclor -1260 (P CB
tr a de n a m e).
Enviro nme ntal c o nside ratio ns
Th e Poin t Mu gu a r ea con ta in s a n exten sive
tida l m a r sh a r ea , a n d is on e of th e la r ger
r em a in in g coa sta l wetla n ds in th e USA. Th e
Site 5 ch a r a cter iza tion a r ea is im m edia tely
a dja cen t to pa r t of th is coa sta l wetla n d.
Im pa ct on th is a r ea du r in g fi eld oper a tion s
w ill be m in im ized th r ou gh u se of sh or test
pa th s to m on itor in g a r ea s a n d k eepin g
per son n el in tr u sion to a m in im u m . Th e
Figure 3
Site 5 o ld are a 6 sho ps lo c atio n map
.
MW5-7
Former Waste
Lagoons
SS5-2
SB5-1
LAGUNA RD
MW5-6
TIDAL
MARSH
AREA
SB5-2
Sea Wall
Key
Monitoring Well
Surface-Soil Sampling Site
Building
In itia l obser va tion s of th e electr ok in etic
ph en om en a a r e cr edited to Reu ss (1809) wh o
n oted th a t w a ter w a s tr a n spor ted th r ou gh
sa tu r a ted soil wh en electr ic poten tia l w a s
a pplied (Ma ttson a n d Lin dgr en , 1994). Se ga ll
et a l. (1980) r epor ted th a t electr ok in etics m ay
be a pplied to h a za r dou s w a ste r em edia tion
fr om dew a ter in g slu dges r ich in h eavy
m eta ls. Mor e r ecen tly, th e Uk r a in ia n gover n m en t h a s been a ttem ptin g to u se electr ok in etics in con ju n ction w ith h ydr a u lic flu sh in g to dr ive r a dion u clides deep in to th e soil
pr ofi le to r ecla im lost fa r m in g la n d fr om th e
Ch er n obyl a cciden t (Ma ttson a n d Lin dgr en ,
1994). La gem a n et a l. (1989) h a s descr ibed
field-sca le r em ova l of h eavy m eta ls fr om
sa tu r a ted soils in Th e N eth er la n ds.
BEACH RD.
MW5-1
Soil Boring Sampling Site
Technology history
Technology description
Th e electr ok in etic pr ocess sepa r a tes a n d
extr a cts h eavy m eta ls fr om th e m eta lscon ta m in a ted soil th r ou gh th e a pplica tion of
low a m per a ge dir ect cu r r en ts a cr oss a n a r r ay
of electr odes pla ced in th e con ta m in a ted soil.
Th e a pplica tion of th e electr ic field between
th e electr odes h a s sever a l effects on th e soil,
w a ter, a n d th e con ta m in a n ts:
• E lectr om igr a tion ;
• E lectr o-osm osis;
• Ch a n ges in soil solu tion pH;
• E lectr oph or esis.
TIDAL
MARSH
AREA
MW5-5
ligh t-footed cla pper r a il, a feder a lly a n d sta te
listed en da n ger ed bir d species, n ests in th is
m a r sh a r ea du r in g th e per iod 15 Febr u a r y –
15 Septem ber. N oisy or in tr u sive a ctivities
a r e n ot per m itted du r in g th e n estin g sea son .
All a ctivities m u st be clea r ed w ith th e NAWS
Poin t Mu gu Wildlife a n d N a tu r a l Resou r ces
specia lists ch a r ged w ith pr otectin g th is a r ea .
0
250
500
Ele c tro migratio n
E lectr om igr a tion is th e ph ysica l tr a n spor t
m ech a n ism th a t is pr in cipa lly r espon sible for
m ovin g ion s th r ou gh w a ter or m oist soil by
a n a pplied dir ect cu r r en t field (Kelsh , 1996).
Ion m igr a tion r a tes w ill va r y som ewh a t by
species a n d gen er a lly con for m to th e tr a n sfer en ce m ea su r ed for dilu te a qu eou s solu tion s,
bu t a dsor ption (th e a dh er en ce of con ta m in a n ts to soil pa r ticles) by soil ca n be in flu en ced by con ta m in a n t ch a r a cter istics su ch a s
specia tion , ion ic size, pola r ity, a n d con cen tr a tion . Th is in flu en ce ca n be m ost sever e for
ca tion s th a t a r e ch ela ted by h u m ic m a ter ia ls
or r ea ct w ith soil a n ion s to for m pr ecipita tes,
e.g. w ith ca r bon a te or su lfide (Kelsh , 1996).
[ 33 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
Ele c tro -o smo sis
E lectr o-osm osis is th e m ovem en t of w a ter
th r ou gh soil ca u sed by a n a pplied dir ect cu r r en t field. It ca n be im por ta n t in soils of low
per m ea bility, a n d h a s been u sed r ela tively
su ccessfu lly in slu dge dew a ter in g a n d soil
sta biliza tion (Kelsh , 1996). Th e effect is h igh ly
depen den t on th e n a tu r e of th e electr ica l
dou ble layer of ch a r ge a t th e solid-liqu id
in ter fa ce, w ith good tr a n spor t obser ved for
fin e-gr a in ed sedim en ts a n d soils (clays a n d
silts) w ith h igh su r fa ce ch a r ges a n d low electr ica l con du ctivity (Kelsh , 1996).
Change s in so il so lutio n pH
pH ch a n ges occu r u n der th e in flu en ce of th e
cu r r en t a s a r esu lt of electr olysis r ea ction s a t
th e electr odes (USAE WE S, 1997). Oxida tion of
w a ter occu r s a t th e a n ode a n d gen er a tes H +
ion s, equ a tion (1) (USAE WE S, 1997). H + ion s
gen er a te a n a cid fr on t wh ich slow ly m igr a tes
to th e ca th ode. In con tr a st, w a ter is r edu ced
a t th e ca th ode a n d gen er a tes OH ion s, equ a tion (2), wh ich m igr a tes a s a ba se fr on t
tow a r ds th e a n ode (USAE WE S, 1997).
—
—
2H 2O – 4e O 2 + 4H
—
+
+
4H 2O – 4e 2H + 4OH
(1)
—
(2)
Ele c tro pho re sis
Electr oph or esis r efer s to th e m ovem en t of
ch a r ged pa r ticles u n der th e in flu en ce of th e
electr ic field (USAEWES, 1997). As w ith electr om igr ation , positively ch a r ged pa r ticles
m igr ate tow a r ds th e cath ode, a n d n egatively
ch a r ged pa r ticles m igr ate tow a r ds th e a n ode.
Wh ile electr oph or etic tr a n spor t occu r s in
soils, it is su spected to h ave less of a n in flu en ce
on con ta m in a n t tr eatm en t th a n th e oth er ph en om en a discu ssed above (USAEWES, 1997).
Electrokinetic experimentation
Electr ok in etics h a s been tested pr edom in a n tly
in th e la bor a tor y w ith lim ited field tr ia ls.
La bor a tor y (ben ch -sca le) exper im en ts em ploy
sm a ll test cells w ith soils spik ed w ith k n ow n
a m ou n ts of con ta m in a n ts or dyes th a t sim u la te con ta m in a n ts a n d con ta m in a n t k in etics.
Most of th e pr esen t wor k h a s been ben ch -sca le
testin g u sin g soils a n d sedim en ts fr om con ta m in a ted sites th r ou gh ou t th e USA a n d Eu r ope.
P ilot-sca le testin g in th e USA a n d Eu r ope h a s
been per for m ed in clay-type soils a n d
sedim en ts con ta m in a ted w ith r a dion u clides
a n d h eavy m eta ls.
E lectr ok in etic exper im en ts a t USAE WE S
u sin g sa n d a n d gr avel-type soils a n d
sedim en ts a r e still bein g per for m ed in th e
ben ch - a n d isola ted pilot-sca le tests. Th e focu s
of th e dem on str a tion a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu is
to va lida te th e tech n ology on sa n d a n d gr avel
[ 34 ]
sedim en ts u n der th e h a r sh con dition s
pr esen t in a sa lin e tida l m a r sh en vir on m en t.
System description
NAWS Poin t Mu gu w a s selected for a fu ll-sca le
electr ok in etics dem on str a tion to r em ove
m eta l con ta m in a n ts fr om th e soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter. EK h a s th e poten tia l to r em ove m eta ls,
r a dion u clides, a n d ch lor in a ted h ydr oca r bon
con ta m in a n ts fr om soil, sedim en t, m u d,
slu dge, a n d m a r in e dr edgin g u sin g electr och em ica l a n d electr ok in etic pr ocesses to disa ssocia te a n d th en r em ove ion ic con ta m in a n ts.
System design
Th e tech n ology will involve th e u se of cer a m ic
electr odes th at a r e divided in to cath ode a n d
a n ode a r r ays. Application of dir ect cu r r en t
(DC) or a lter n atin g cu r r en t (AC) to th e electr odes will in itiate ion a n d water m ovem en t
towa r d th e electr odes (Figu r e 4). Meta l ion s,
a m m on iu m ion s, hydr on iu m ion s a n d positively ch a r ged or ga n ic com pou n ds m ove
towa r d th e cath ode. An ion s su ch a s ch lor ide,
cya n ide, flu or ide, hydr oxyl, n itr ate, a n d n ega tively ch a r ged or ga n ic com pou n ds m ove
towa r d th e a n ode. Th e electr odes a r e position ed
in side per m eable ca sin gs th at a r e in ser ted in to
th e wa ste m ater ia l. After th e a n n u lu s of ea ch
ca sin g is filled with water, th e cu r r en t is tu r n ed
on . Th e water pa sses fr om th e a n ode ca sin g
in to th e wa ste a n d towa r d th e cath ode.
System operation
Th e tech n ology dem on str a tion w ill be
con du cted in two test cells a t Site 5 – Ar ea 6 a t
NAWS Poin t Mu gu (F igu r e 5). E a ch test cell
w ill be oper a ted a n d m on itor ed a s a sepa r a te
u n it. Th e fir st test cell (TC # 1) con ta in s th e
two for m er w a ste la goon s a n d th e su r r ou n din g ber m s (a ppr oxim a tely 60 × 40 foot a r ea ).
Con ta m in a n t depth to 11 feet w a s deter m in ed
in th is test cell fr om a 1997 ch a r a cter iza tion
stu dy don e by LB&M Associa tes, (LB&M,
1997). An electr ica lly n on -con du ctive sh eet
pile ba r r ier w a ll w ill be in sta lled to a depth of
20 feet a r ou n d th e test cell to pr even t u n con tr olled m ovem en t of m eta l ion s a n d con ta m in a n ts ou tside of th e test cell a n d to m itiga te
th e effects of gr ou n dw a ter flow a n d tida l
effects w ith in th e test cell.
Th e secon d test cell (TC # 2) w ill en com pa ss
a 30 × 100 foot a r ea im m edia tely n or th of TC
# 1 in th e tida l m a r sh (F igu r e 5).
Con ta m in a n t depth w a s deter m in ed to be 2
feet in th is test cell (LB&M, 1997). N o pr otective ba r r ier w ill be in sta lled a r ou n d TC # 2
a n d w ill be open to both gr ou n dw a ter flow
a n d tida l effects. On ly a fter th e E K system is
sh ow n to be oper a tin g w ith in th e con fin es of
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Figure 4
Syste m illustratio n
Efflue nt Co lle c tio n
Po we r Supply
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
Ele c tro de
We lls
Ele c tric Transpo rt o f Co ntaminants Enhanc e d
by Applic atio n o f No n-Unifo rm Ele c tric Fie ld
ek
id
lC
re
Figure 5
Site 5 Old Are a 6 Sho ps te st c e ll and sample lo c atio ns
a
Mud
Flat
T
Tidal
Marsh
Te st
Ce ll 1
op
Sl
e
Hard
Stand
Be ac h Ro ad
th e TC # 1 bou n da r ies w ill th e E K system in
TC # 2 be sta r ted.
Gr ou n dw a ter a n d per iodic soil sa m ples w ill
be ta k en to eva lu a te th e dyn a m ics of th e tech n ology pr ocess. Cu r r en tly, gr ou n dw a ter sa m plin g even ts w ill occu r tw ice m on th ly for five
m on th s; soil sa m ples a r e sch edu led for on e
per m on th th r ou gh ou t th e life of th e tech n ology dem on str a tion . Gr ou n dw a ter sa m ples
w ill be ta k en fr om th e th r ee dow n gr a dien t
wells in sta lled du r in g th e ch a r a cter iza tion
ph a se of th e pr oject, a n d fr om th e on e
existin g u p gr a dien t well loca ted n or th of
Bea ch Roa d (F igu r e 5). P ie zom eter s w ill be
in sta lled in th e w a ste la goon s to m on itor th e
per for m a n ce of th e tech n ology; pie zom eter s
w ill a lso be pla ced ou tside of th e ba r r ier w a ll
to detect br ea k th r ou gh of ta r get com pou n ds.
Conclusions
Sin ce th e tech n ology h a s yet to be dem on str a ted a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu , r esu lts a n d
con clu sion s a r e n ot ava ila ble. However, th e
[ 35 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
objectives of th e dem on str a tion for th e tech n ology dem on str a tion a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu
w ill be a s follow s:
• to dem on str a te th e effectiven ess of th e E K
tech n ology in r edu cin g ch r om iu m a n d
ca dm iu m con cen tr a tion s a t or below m a n da ted Ca lifor n ia levels;
• to docu m en t th e tech n ology’s per for m a n ce
effectiven ess in r em ovin g con ta m in a n ts in
a n en vir on m en ta lly h ostile settin g;
• to collect da ta a n d esta blish th e cost-effectiven ess of a n em er gin g tech n ology; a n d
• to test th e tech n ology in a n en vir on m en ta lly sen sitive a r ea .
References and further reading
Feder a l Register (FR 47946-48) (1985), Feder a l Register An n ou n cem en t Statin g Policies Related to
Resea r ch Developm en t, a n d Dem on str ation
Per m its on Com pr eh en sive Envir on m en ta l
Respon se Com pen sation a n d Liability Act Sites.
Kelsh , D.J . (1996), Electrok in etic S oil R em ed ia tion ,
Scien ce Applica tion s In ter n a tion a l Cor por a tion (SAIC) Ga ith er sbu r g, Ma r yla n d.
La gem a n , R., Pool, W. a n d Seffin ga , G. (1989),
“E lectr o-r ecla m a tion : th eor y a n d pr a ctice”,
Ch em istr y a n d In d u str y, Vol. 10, p. 585.
[ 36 ]
LB&M Associa tes, In c. (1997), Tech n ica l Da ta
Repor t for th e F Y 1997 Ch a r a cter iza tion E ven t
cover in g th e E va lu a tion a n d In vestiga tion of
In Situ E lectr ok in etic Rem edia tion of Meta ls
Con ta m in a ted Soils a t Site 5 (Old Ar ea 6
Sh ops) N ava l Air Wea pon s Sta tion Poin t
Mu gu , CA.
Ma ttson , E .D., a n d Lin dgr en , E .R. (1994), Electrok in etics: A n In n ova tiv e T ech n olog y for In -situ
R em ed ia tion of Hea vy M eta ls, 8th An n u a l
Ou tdoor Action Con fer en ce, N a tion a l
Gr ou n dw a ter Associa tion .
P RC E n vir on m en ta l Ma n a gem en t, In c. a n d J a m es
M. Mon tgom er y, Con su ltin g E n gin eer s, In c.,
(1993), R em ed ia l In v estiga tion / Fea sib ility
S tu d y: S ites 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, a n d 11, N ava l Air
Wea pon s Sta tion Poin t Mu gu , Ca lifor n ia ,
Con tr a ct Ta sk Or der N u m ber : 0225, Con tr a ct
N u m ber : N 62474-88-D-5086.
Reu ss, F.F. (1809), M em oires d e la S ociete Im per ia le
d es N a tu ra listes d e M oscou , Vol. 2, p. 327.
Se ga ll, B.A., O’Ba n n on , C.E . a n d Ma tth ia s, J .A.
(1980), Electroosm osis Ch em istr y a n d Wa ter
Qu a lity; Geotech n ica l En gin eer in g Division ,
Vol. 106, p. 1143.
USAE WE S (1997), Un ited Sta tes Ar m y E n gin eer s,
Dr a ft Ven dor P a ck a ge for th e Poin t Mu gu
E lectr ok in etics Stu dy, Wa ter w ays E xper im en t
Sta tion , Vick sbu r g, Mississippi.
sediments: a technology demonstration involving
former waste lagoons
M artin A. Wills
LB&M Asso c iate s, ‘ A’ Ave nue , Lawto n, USA
John C. Haley
LB&M Asso c iate s, ‘ A’ Ave nue , Lawto n, USA
Gene L. Fabian
US Army Enviro nme ntal Ce nte r, MD, USA
R. M ark Bricka
US Army Engine e rs, Wate rways Expe rime nt Statio n, Vic ksburg, USA
Keywords
Contamination, Metals, Tec hnology
Abstract
Ele c tro kine tic s (EK) is an e me rging re me diatio n te c hno lo gy fo r the
in situ re mo val o f he avy me tals,
vo latile o rganic c o mpo unds, and
radio nuc lide s fro m so ils and
se dime nts. Naval Air We apo ns
Statio n Po int Mugu, Califo rnia will
ho st an EK te c hno lo gy de mo nstratio n. The de mo nstratio n will
c o nsist o f installing and o pe rating
an EK syste m, whic h is e ngine e re d to re mo ve c admium and
c hro mium fro m fo rme r e le c tro plating waste lago o ns. The
se le c te d site is adjac e nt to and
e nc ro ac he s o n an e nviro nme ntally
se nsitive salt marsh are a fo r
fe de rally pro te c te d wildlife . The
e le c tro kine tic pro c e ss will be
use d to mo bilize and e xtrac t
he avy me tals fro m the me talsc o ntaminate d so il by applying a
lo w ampe rage dire c t c urre nt
ac ro ss an array o f e le c tro de s
plac e d in the c o ntaminate d so il.
The de mo nstratio n will fo c us o n
the e ffe c tive ne ss o f the EK
pro c e ss fo r re mo ving he avy
me tals fro m the tidal marsh are a.
The EK de mo nstratio n will be use d
to c o lle c t c o st-e ffe c tive data
ne c e ssary to addre ss bo th the
te c hnic al and e c o no mic fe asibility
o f using this te c hno lo gy in are as
whe re so ils are po ro us, wate r is
brac kish, and the syste m is
susc e ptible to tidal influe nc e s.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [ 1999] 3 1 –3 6
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
Introduction
Th e US Ar m y E n vir on m en ta l Cen ter
(USAE C) is pr epa r in g to con du ct a tech n ology dem on str a tion of E K a s a m eth od of
r em ovin g h eavy m eta ls fr om soils. Th e
dem on str a tion is spon sor ed by th e en vir on m en ta l secu r ity tech n ology cer tifica tion
pr ogr a m (E STCP ) a n d th e Sou th west Division , N ava l F a cilities E n gin eer in g Com m a n d
(NAVFAC SOUTHWE ST DIV). It w ill be con du cted a t th e N ava l Air Wea pon s Sta tion
(NAWS), Poin t Mu gu , Ca lifor n ia , Site 5 – Old
Ar ea 6 Sh ops. Th e tech n ology is bein g in vestiga ted for th is ecologica lly sen sitive a r ea
beca u se of its poten tia l to be a less in va sive
tech n ology. A k ey elem en t of th e dem on str a tion is to deter m in e th e costs a ssocia ted w ith
th e u se of th e tech n ology.
Background
Loca ted in Ven tu r a Cou n ty, Ca lifor n ia , NAWS
Poin t Mu gu Reser va tion com pr ises a ppr oxim a tely 4,500 a cr es in th e wester n por tion of
th e Ven tu r a Ba sin (F igu r es 1 a n d 2). Th e
in sta lla tion is a ppr oxim a tely 50 m iles n or th west of Los An geles a n d bor der s th e wester n
slopes of th e Sa n ta Mon ica Mou n ta in s.
P a st m ilita r y a n d in du str ia l oper a tion s a t
NAWS Poin t Mu gu in clu ded electr opla tin g
a n d m eta l fin ish in g pr ocesses, explosive a n d
pr opella n t m a n u fa ctu r in g a n d u se, a n d th e
u se of lea d-ba sed pa in ts. Th ese oper a tion s
r esu lted in la r ge tr a cts of la n d bein g con ta m in a ted w ith m eta ls.
Site 5 – Old Are a 6 Sho ps
Site 5 is a la r ge a r ea wh er e electr opla tin g a n d
m eta l fin ish in g oper a tion s wer e con du cted.
Th e Old Ar ea 6 Sh ops w ith in Site 5 a r e
loca ted a lon g Bea ch Roa d, ju st west of th e
sou th en d of La gu n a Roa d (F igu r e 3). Th e
a r ea of stu dy is a ppr oxim a tely 1/ 2 a cr e a n d
in clu des two for m er w a ste la goon s loca ted in
th e cen ter of Site 5. Th e la goon s a r e u n lin ed
a n d wer e u sed between 1947 a n d 1978 to
r eceive w a ste w a ter disch a r ge fr om electr opla tin g a n d m eta l fi n ish in g a ctivities. Th e
la r gest w a ste gen er a tor in th e a r ea w a s th e
pla tin g sh op, wh ich r epor tedly disposed of a n
estim a ted 95 m illion ga llon s of pla tin g r in sa te
between 1948 a n d 1965. Addition a lly, u p to
60,000 ga llon s of w a ste ph otovolta ic fixer
solu tion a n d sm a ll qu a n tities of or ga n ic
solven ts a n d r ock et fu el wer e r epor tedly
disposed of in th e la goon s fr om th e la te 1940s
u n til th e ea r ly 1950s.
In 1988, su r fa ce soil a n d soil bor in g sa m ples
wer e collected fr om th e Old Ar ea 6 site a n d
a n a lyzed for a n u m ber of con stitu en ts. Soil
sa m ples collected fr om ten su r fa ce a n d two
bor in g poin ts con ta in ed con cen tr a tion s of
vola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds (VOCs) a n d sem ivola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds (SVOCs). On ly
soil bor in gs SB5-1 a n d SB5-2 a n d su r fa ce soil
sa m ple SS5-4 (F igu r e 3) a r e loca ted a bou t th e
w a ste la goon s (P RC, 1993). All soil sa m ples
wer e a n a lyzed for polych lor in a ted biph en yls
(P CB) a n d pesticides. P CBs wer e on ly
detected in a du plica te sa m ple fr om on e of th e
bor in gs. Dich lor odiph en yltr ich lor oeth a n e
(DDT) a n d its m eta bolites wer e detected in
on ly th r ee su r fa ce sa m ples. Meta l a n a lytes
wer e detected in a ll loca tion s. In 1994, th e
N avy a u th or ized th e em er gen cy r em ova l of
117 cu bic ya r ds of soil fr om th e for m er w a ste
la goon s.
Summary of existing site condition
Follow in g th e 1994 em er gen cy r em ova l,
su r fa ce sa m plin g w ith in th e la goon s
in dica ted th a t th e levels of ch r om iu m a n d
ca dm iu m still exceeded a llow a ble lim its for
Ca lifor n ia (22 CCR 66261.24). Beca u se of th e
[ 31 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley, Figure 1
Gene L. Fabian and
NAWS po int Mugu re gio nal lo c atio n map
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
California
5
101
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
33
101
154
14
PT.
CONCEPTION
101
150
r
ive
125
SANTA
R
VALLEY
BARBARA
ara SIMI
125
118
Cl
210
VENTURA
nta THOUSAND OAKS
a
S
405
OXNARD
PORT HUENEME
HOLLYWOOD
1
NAWS
POINT MUGU
CHANNEL ISLAND
210
10
10
LOS ANGELES
5
405
LONG
BEACH
SAN NICOLAS ISLAND
SCALES IN MILES
0
15
30
MODIFIED FROM ERTEC, 1991
Figure 2
NAWS po int Mugu ge ne ral lo c atio n map
[ 32 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
poten tia l for da m a ge to th e m a r sh a r ea , th e
sta te of Ca lifor n ia wou ld n ot per m it fu r th er
excava tion of soil fr om th ese two for m er
w a ste la goon s for th e pu r pose of r em edia tion .
Co ntaminants o f c o nc e rn
Th e pr in cipa l con ta m in a n ts of con cer n a t th e
site a r e ch r om iu m , ca dm iu m , copper, n ick el
a n d silver. Addition a l con ta m in a n ts of
poten tia l con cer n in clu de a r sen ic, ber ylliu m ,
m a n ga n ese, fl u or ide, tetr a ch lor oeth a n e,
tr ich lor oeth en e (TCE ) a n d Ar oclor -1260 (P CB
tr a de n a m e).
Enviro nme ntal c o nside ratio ns
Th e Poin t Mu gu a r ea con ta in s a n exten sive
tida l m a r sh a r ea , a n d is on e of th e la r ger
r em a in in g coa sta l wetla n ds in th e USA. Th e
Site 5 ch a r a cter iza tion a r ea is im m edia tely
a dja cen t to pa r t of th is coa sta l wetla n d.
Im pa ct on th is a r ea du r in g fi eld oper a tion s
w ill be m in im ized th r ou gh u se of sh or test
pa th s to m on itor in g a r ea s a n d k eepin g
per son n el in tr u sion to a m in im u m . Th e
Figure 3
Site 5 o ld are a 6 sho ps lo c atio n map
.
MW5-7
Former Waste
Lagoons
SS5-2
SB5-1
LAGUNA RD
MW5-6
TIDAL
MARSH
AREA
SB5-2
Sea Wall
Key
Monitoring Well
Surface-Soil Sampling Site
Building
In itia l obser va tion s of th e electr ok in etic
ph en om en a a r e cr edited to Reu ss (1809) wh o
n oted th a t w a ter w a s tr a n spor ted th r ou gh
sa tu r a ted soil wh en electr ic poten tia l w a s
a pplied (Ma ttson a n d Lin dgr en , 1994). Se ga ll
et a l. (1980) r epor ted th a t electr ok in etics m ay
be a pplied to h a za r dou s w a ste r em edia tion
fr om dew a ter in g slu dges r ich in h eavy
m eta ls. Mor e r ecen tly, th e Uk r a in ia n gover n m en t h a s been a ttem ptin g to u se electr ok in etics in con ju n ction w ith h ydr a u lic flu sh in g to dr ive r a dion u clides deep in to th e soil
pr ofi le to r ecla im lost fa r m in g la n d fr om th e
Ch er n obyl a cciden t (Ma ttson a n d Lin dgr en ,
1994). La gem a n et a l. (1989) h a s descr ibed
field-sca le r em ova l of h eavy m eta ls fr om
sa tu r a ted soils in Th e N eth er la n ds.
BEACH RD.
MW5-1
Soil Boring Sampling Site
Technology history
Technology description
Th e electr ok in etic pr ocess sepa r a tes a n d
extr a cts h eavy m eta ls fr om th e m eta lscon ta m in a ted soil th r ou gh th e a pplica tion of
low a m per a ge dir ect cu r r en ts a cr oss a n a r r ay
of electr odes pla ced in th e con ta m in a ted soil.
Th e a pplica tion of th e electr ic field between
th e electr odes h a s sever a l effects on th e soil,
w a ter, a n d th e con ta m in a n ts:
• E lectr om igr a tion ;
• E lectr o-osm osis;
• Ch a n ges in soil solu tion pH;
• E lectr oph or esis.
TIDAL
MARSH
AREA
MW5-5
ligh t-footed cla pper r a il, a feder a lly a n d sta te
listed en da n ger ed bir d species, n ests in th is
m a r sh a r ea du r in g th e per iod 15 Febr u a r y –
15 Septem ber. N oisy or in tr u sive a ctivities
a r e n ot per m itted du r in g th e n estin g sea son .
All a ctivities m u st be clea r ed w ith th e NAWS
Poin t Mu gu Wildlife a n d N a tu r a l Resou r ces
specia lists ch a r ged w ith pr otectin g th is a r ea .
0
250
500
Ele c tro migratio n
E lectr om igr a tion is th e ph ysica l tr a n spor t
m ech a n ism th a t is pr in cipa lly r espon sible for
m ovin g ion s th r ou gh w a ter or m oist soil by
a n a pplied dir ect cu r r en t field (Kelsh , 1996).
Ion m igr a tion r a tes w ill va r y som ewh a t by
species a n d gen er a lly con for m to th e tr a n sfer en ce m ea su r ed for dilu te a qu eou s solu tion s,
bu t a dsor ption (th e a dh er en ce of con ta m in a n ts to soil pa r ticles) by soil ca n be in flu en ced by con ta m in a n t ch a r a cter istics su ch a s
specia tion , ion ic size, pola r ity, a n d con cen tr a tion . Th is in flu en ce ca n be m ost sever e for
ca tion s th a t a r e ch ela ted by h u m ic m a ter ia ls
or r ea ct w ith soil a n ion s to for m pr ecipita tes,
e.g. w ith ca r bon a te or su lfide (Kelsh , 1996).
[ 33 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
Ele c tro -o smo sis
E lectr o-osm osis is th e m ovem en t of w a ter
th r ou gh soil ca u sed by a n a pplied dir ect cu r r en t field. It ca n be im por ta n t in soils of low
per m ea bility, a n d h a s been u sed r ela tively
su ccessfu lly in slu dge dew a ter in g a n d soil
sta biliza tion (Kelsh , 1996). Th e effect is h igh ly
depen den t on th e n a tu r e of th e electr ica l
dou ble layer of ch a r ge a t th e solid-liqu id
in ter fa ce, w ith good tr a n spor t obser ved for
fin e-gr a in ed sedim en ts a n d soils (clays a n d
silts) w ith h igh su r fa ce ch a r ges a n d low electr ica l con du ctivity (Kelsh , 1996).
Change s in so il so lutio n pH
pH ch a n ges occu r u n der th e in flu en ce of th e
cu r r en t a s a r esu lt of electr olysis r ea ction s a t
th e electr odes (USAE WE S, 1997). Oxida tion of
w a ter occu r s a t th e a n ode a n d gen er a tes H +
ion s, equ a tion (1) (USAE WE S, 1997). H + ion s
gen er a te a n a cid fr on t wh ich slow ly m igr a tes
to th e ca th ode. In con tr a st, w a ter is r edu ced
a t th e ca th ode a n d gen er a tes OH ion s, equ a tion (2), wh ich m igr a tes a s a ba se fr on t
tow a r ds th e a n ode (USAE WE S, 1997).
—
—
2H 2O – 4e O 2 + 4H
—
+
+
4H 2O – 4e 2H + 4OH
(1)
—
(2)
Ele c tro pho re sis
Electr oph or esis r efer s to th e m ovem en t of
ch a r ged pa r ticles u n der th e in flu en ce of th e
electr ic field (USAEWES, 1997). As w ith electr om igr ation , positively ch a r ged pa r ticles
m igr ate tow a r ds th e cath ode, a n d n egatively
ch a r ged pa r ticles m igr ate tow a r ds th e a n ode.
Wh ile electr oph or etic tr a n spor t occu r s in
soils, it is su spected to h ave less of a n in flu en ce
on con ta m in a n t tr eatm en t th a n th e oth er ph en om en a discu ssed above (USAEWES, 1997).
Electrokinetic experimentation
Electr ok in etics h a s been tested pr edom in a n tly
in th e la bor a tor y w ith lim ited field tr ia ls.
La bor a tor y (ben ch -sca le) exper im en ts em ploy
sm a ll test cells w ith soils spik ed w ith k n ow n
a m ou n ts of con ta m in a n ts or dyes th a t sim u la te con ta m in a n ts a n d con ta m in a n t k in etics.
Most of th e pr esen t wor k h a s been ben ch -sca le
testin g u sin g soils a n d sedim en ts fr om con ta m in a ted sites th r ou gh ou t th e USA a n d Eu r ope.
P ilot-sca le testin g in th e USA a n d Eu r ope h a s
been per for m ed in clay-type soils a n d
sedim en ts con ta m in a ted w ith r a dion u clides
a n d h eavy m eta ls.
E lectr ok in etic exper im en ts a t USAE WE S
u sin g sa n d a n d gr avel-type soils a n d
sedim en ts a r e still bein g per for m ed in th e
ben ch - a n d isola ted pilot-sca le tests. Th e focu s
of th e dem on str a tion a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu is
to va lida te th e tech n ology on sa n d a n d gr avel
[ 34 ]
sedim en ts u n der th e h a r sh con dition s
pr esen t in a sa lin e tida l m a r sh en vir on m en t.
System description
NAWS Poin t Mu gu w a s selected for a fu ll-sca le
electr ok in etics dem on str a tion to r em ove
m eta l con ta m in a n ts fr om th e soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter. EK h a s th e poten tia l to r em ove m eta ls,
r a dion u clides, a n d ch lor in a ted h ydr oca r bon
con ta m in a n ts fr om soil, sedim en t, m u d,
slu dge, a n d m a r in e dr edgin g u sin g electr och em ica l a n d electr ok in etic pr ocesses to disa ssocia te a n d th en r em ove ion ic con ta m in a n ts.
System design
Th e tech n ology will involve th e u se of cer a m ic
electr odes th at a r e divided in to cath ode a n d
a n ode a r r ays. Application of dir ect cu r r en t
(DC) or a lter n atin g cu r r en t (AC) to th e electr odes will in itiate ion a n d water m ovem en t
towa r d th e electr odes (Figu r e 4). Meta l ion s,
a m m on iu m ion s, hydr on iu m ion s a n d positively ch a r ged or ga n ic com pou n ds m ove
towa r d th e cath ode. An ion s su ch a s ch lor ide,
cya n ide, flu or ide, hydr oxyl, n itr ate, a n d n ega tively ch a r ged or ga n ic com pou n ds m ove
towa r d th e a n ode. Th e electr odes a r e position ed
in side per m eable ca sin gs th at a r e in ser ted in to
th e wa ste m ater ia l. After th e a n n u lu s of ea ch
ca sin g is filled with water, th e cu r r en t is tu r n ed
on . Th e water pa sses fr om th e a n ode ca sin g
in to th e wa ste a n d towa r d th e cath ode.
System operation
Th e tech n ology dem on str a tion w ill be
con du cted in two test cells a t Site 5 – Ar ea 6 a t
NAWS Poin t Mu gu (F igu r e 5). E a ch test cell
w ill be oper a ted a n d m on itor ed a s a sepa r a te
u n it. Th e fir st test cell (TC # 1) con ta in s th e
two for m er w a ste la goon s a n d th e su r r ou n din g ber m s (a ppr oxim a tely 60 × 40 foot a r ea ).
Con ta m in a n t depth to 11 feet w a s deter m in ed
in th is test cell fr om a 1997 ch a r a cter iza tion
stu dy don e by LB&M Associa tes, (LB&M,
1997). An electr ica lly n on -con du ctive sh eet
pile ba r r ier w a ll w ill be in sta lled to a depth of
20 feet a r ou n d th e test cell to pr even t u n con tr olled m ovem en t of m eta l ion s a n d con ta m in a n ts ou tside of th e test cell a n d to m itiga te
th e effects of gr ou n dw a ter flow a n d tida l
effects w ith in th e test cell.
Th e secon d test cell (TC # 2) w ill en com pa ss
a 30 × 100 foot a r ea im m edia tely n or th of TC
# 1 in th e tida l m a r sh (F igu r e 5).
Con ta m in a n t depth w a s deter m in ed to be 2
feet in th is test cell (LB&M, 1997). N o pr otective ba r r ier w ill be in sta lled a r ou n d TC # 2
a n d w ill be open to both gr ou n dw a ter flow
a n d tida l effects. On ly a fter th e E K system is
sh ow n to be oper a tin g w ith in th e con fin es of
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Figure 4
Syste m illustratio n
Efflue nt Co lle c tio n
Po we r Supply
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
Ele c tro de
We lls
Ele c tric Transpo rt o f Co ntaminants Enhanc e d
by Applic atio n o f No n-Unifo rm Ele c tric Fie ld
ek
id
lC
re
Figure 5
Site 5 Old Are a 6 Sho ps te st c e ll and sample lo c atio ns
a
Mud
Flat
T
Tidal
Marsh
Te st
Ce ll 1
op
Sl
e
Hard
Stand
Be ac h Ro ad
th e TC # 1 bou n da r ies w ill th e E K system in
TC # 2 be sta r ted.
Gr ou n dw a ter a n d per iodic soil sa m ples w ill
be ta k en to eva lu a te th e dyn a m ics of th e tech n ology pr ocess. Cu r r en tly, gr ou n dw a ter sa m plin g even ts w ill occu r tw ice m on th ly for five
m on th s; soil sa m ples a r e sch edu led for on e
per m on th th r ou gh ou t th e life of th e tech n ology dem on str a tion . Gr ou n dw a ter sa m ples
w ill be ta k en fr om th e th r ee dow n gr a dien t
wells in sta lled du r in g th e ch a r a cter iza tion
ph a se of th e pr oject, a n d fr om th e on e
existin g u p gr a dien t well loca ted n or th of
Bea ch Roa d (F igu r e 5). P ie zom eter s w ill be
in sta lled in th e w a ste la goon s to m on itor th e
per for m a n ce of th e tech n ology; pie zom eter s
w ill a lso be pla ced ou tside of th e ba r r ier w a ll
to detect br ea k th r ou gh of ta r get com pou n ds.
Conclusions
Sin ce th e tech n ology h a s yet to be dem on str a ted a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu , r esu lts a n d
con clu sion s a r e n ot ava ila ble. However, th e
[ 35 ]
Martin A. WIlls, John C. Haley,
Gene L. Fabian and
R. Mark Bric ka
Ele c tro kine tic re me diatio n o f
me tals-c o ntaminate d
se dime nts: a te c hno lo gy
de mo nstratio n invo lving
fo rme r waste lago o ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 1 –3 6
objectives of th e dem on str a tion for th e tech n ology dem on str a tion a t NAWS Poin t Mu gu
w ill be a s follow s:
• to dem on str a te th e effectiven ess of th e E K
tech n ology in r edu cin g ch r om iu m a n d
ca dm iu m con cen tr a tion s a t or below m a n da ted Ca lifor n ia levels;
• to docu m en t th e tech n ology’s per for m a n ce
effectiven ess in r em ovin g con ta m in a n ts in
a n en vir on m en ta lly h ostile settin g;
• to collect da ta a n d esta blish th e cost-effectiven ess of a n em er gin g tech n ology; a n d
• to test th e tech n ology in a n en vir on m en ta lly sen sitive a r ea .
References and further reading
Feder a l Register (FR 47946-48) (1985), Feder a l Register An n ou n cem en t Statin g Policies Related to
Resea r ch Developm en t, a n d Dem on str ation
Per m its on Com pr eh en sive Envir on m en ta l
Respon se Com pen sation a n d Liability Act Sites.
Kelsh , D.J . (1996), Electrok in etic S oil R em ed ia tion ,
Scien ce Applica tion s In ter n a tion a l Cor por a tion (SAIC) Ga ith er sbu r g, Ma r yla n d.
La gem a n , R., Pool, W. a n d Seffin ga , G. (1989),
“E lectr o-r ecla m a tion : th eor y a n d pr a ctice”,
Ch em istr y a n d In d u str y, Vol. 10, p. 585.
[ 36 ]
LB&M Associa tes, In c. (1997), Tech n ica l Da ta
Repor t for th e F Y 1997 Ch a r a cter iza tion E ven t
cover in g th e E va lu a tion a n d In vestiga tion of
In Situ E lectr ok in etic Rem edia tion of Meta ls
Con ta m in a ted Soils a t Site 5 (Old Ar ea 6
Sh ops) N ava l Air Wea pon s Sta tion Poin t
Mu gu , CA.
Ma ttson , E .D., a n d Lin dgr en , E .R. (1994), Electrok in etics: A n In n ova tiv e T ech n olog y for In -situ
R em ed ia tion of Hea vy M eta ls, 8th An n u a l
Ou tdoor Action Con fer en ce, N a tion a l
Gr ou n dw a ter Associa tion .
P RC E n vir on m en ta l Ma n a gem en t, In c. a n d J a m es
M. Mon tgom er y, Con su ltin g E n gin eer s, In c.,
(1993), R em ed ia l In v estiga tion / Fea sib ility
S tu d y: S ites 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, a n d 11, N ava l Air
Wea pon s Sta tion Poin t Mu gu , Ca lifor n ia ,
Con tr a ct Ta sk Or der N u m ber : 0225, Con tr a ct
N u m ber : N 62474-88-D-5086.
Reu ss, F.F. (1809), M em oires d e la S ociete Im per ia le
d es N a tu ra listes d e M oscou , Vol. 2, p. 327.
Se ga ll, B.A., O’Ba n n on , C.E . a n d Ma tth ia s, J .A.
(1980), Electroosm osis Ch em istr y a n d Wa ter
Qu a lity; Geotech n ica l En gin eer in g Division ,
Vol. 106, p. 1143.
USAE WE S (1997), Un ited Sta tes Ar m y E n gin eer s,
Dr a ft Ven dor P a ck a ge for th e Poin t Mu gu
E lectr ok in etics Stu dy, Wa ter w ays E xper im en t
Sta tion , Vick sbu r g, Mississippi.