Designing a set of English reading materials using content based instruction for biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta.

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ABSTRACT

Afikawati, Leoni. 2010. Designing a Set of English Reading Materials Using Content Based Instruction for Biology Teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

As English becomes lingua franca among people of different nations, government of Education Ministry in Indonesia places English as one of the compulsory subjects at schools. To make English learning effective, some schools in Indonesia utilize English as lingua franca in delivering materials of some school subjects other than English subject. One of the schools is SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. This school policy requires teachers other than English teachers to develop their English proficiencies. Apparently, reading skill plays important role for the teachers who always need to keep up-to-date information in order to support their teaching task. The writer discovers that Biology teachers of the school need to establish their reading skill for there are a lot of English written works dealing with Biology and for accomplishing the demands as teachers in the school. Therefore, the research is aimed at developing a set of English reading materials which is appropriate for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. Furthermore, the reading materials are expected to help them develop their English reading skills.

There were two problems formulated in the research. The problems were (1) How is a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta designed? and (2) What does the designed set of materials look like?.

To answer the first research problem, the writer employed some steps on Educational Research and Development (R & D) method which were completed with adapted steps from Yalden’s Model. The steps were (1) reviewing the literature, (2) conducting the needs survey, (3) describing the purposes, (4) developing the syllabus, (5) producing proto-syllabus, (6) producing pedagogical syllabus, (7) developing and implementing classroom procedures, (8) developing materials, (9) evaluating the designed materials, and (10) revising the designed materials.

In the research, the data was obtained through the needs survey. The results of the needs survey were the basis to develop the materials. Having completed with designing materials, the designed materials were evaluated by some English lecturers, an English teacher of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta, and the Biology teachers. The description of the evaluation was in percentages. In addition, the writer also used qualitative data analysis to describe the results of the evaluation. The data showed that the designed materials were acceptable and well-developed although there were some revisions needed. Some suggestions and evaluation of the designed materials were the basis for revising the designed materials.

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The presentation of the final version of the designed materials was the answer to the second research problem. The designed set of English reading materials consists of eight units, namely, Biology as Science, Reproduction, HIV-AIDS, Mercury, Alzheimer’s Disease, Bio-technology, Natural Disaster, and Global Warming. Each unit of the designed materials contains of four sections. The sections are Bring It to Mind, Let’s Start, Grammar Battle, and Completing Mission.

Finally, the writer expects that the designed set of English reading materials for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta could give benefits for those who need it especially for English instructor and the learners (Biology teachers).

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ABSTRAK

Afikawati, Leoni. 2010. Designing a Set of English Reading Materials Using Content Based Instruction for Biology Teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Dengan Bahasa Inggris digunakan sebagai bahasa pengantar antar umat manusia dari berbagai negara, pemerintah yang berada di Departemen Pendidikan Indonesia menempatkan Bahasa Inggris sebagai salah satu mata pelajaran wajib di sekolah-sekolah. Agar pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris efektif, beberapa sekolah di Indonesia menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa pengantar dalam menyampaikan materi di beberapa mata pelajaran sekolah selain dalam pelajaran Bahasa Inggris itu sendiri. Salah satu dari beberapa sekolah tersebut adalah SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. Kebijakan sekolah ini mengharuskan guru-guru yang bukan guru Bahasa Inggris untuk mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa Inggris mereka. Ternyata, kemampuan membaca berperan penting bagi guru-guru tersebut yang selalu memerlukan informasi yang up-to-date untuk mendukung tugas mengajar mereka. Penulis mendapati bahwa guru-guru Biologi di sekolah tersebut perlu mengembangkan kemampuan membaca karena banyak terdapat karya tulis dalam Bahasa Inggris yang berhubungan dengan Biologi dan karena untuk memenuhi kewajiban mereka sebagai guru di sekolah tersebut. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan seperangkat materi membaca yang sesuai bagi guru-guru Biologi di SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. Selanjutnya, materi membaca ini diharapkan dapat membantu mengembangkan kemampuan membaca Bahasa Inggris mereka.

Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini. Rumusan masalah tersebut adalah (1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi membaca Bahasa Inggris untuk guru-guru Biologi di SMAN 3 Yogyakarta dirancang? dan (2) Bagaimana penyajian seperangkat materi membaca Bahasa Inggris yang telah tersusun?.

Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah yang pertama, penulis menggunakan beberapa langkah dalam metode Educational Research and Development (R & D) yang telah dilengkapi dengan langkah-langkah dari model Yalden yang telah disesuaikan. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) meninjau pustaka, (2) melakukan survei kebutuhan, (3) menentukan tujuan, (4) mengembangkan silabus, (5) membuat proto-silabus, (6) membuat silabus pedagogik, (7) mengembangkan dan memasukkan prosedur kelas, (8) menyusun materi, (9) mengevaluasi materi, dan (10) memperbaiki materi.

Dalam penelitian ini, data diperoleh dari survei kebutuhan. Hasil dari survei kebutuhan merupakan dasar untuk menyusun materi. Setelah selesai, materi yang telah tersusun dievaluasi oleh beberapa dosen Bahasa Inggris, seorang guru Bahasa Inggris dari SMAN 3 Yogyakarta, dan guru-guru Biologi tersebut. Pemaparan evaluasi tersebut disajikan dalam bentuk prosentase. Sebagai tambahan, penulis juga menggunakan analisis data kualitatif untuk memaparkan

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hasil evaluasi. Data menunjukkan bahwa materi yang telah tersusun diterima dan tersusun dengan baik meskipun perlu dilakukan perbaikan. Beberapa saran dan evaluasi dari materi yang telah tersusun adalah dasar untuk memperbaiki materi.

Presentasi materi versi akhir merupakan jawaban dari rumusan masalah kedua. Seperangkat materi membaca Bahasa Inggris terdiri dari delapan unit, yaitu, Biology as Science, Reproduction, HIV-AIDS, Mercury, Alzheimer’s Disease, Bio-technology, Natural Disaster, dan Global Warming. Tiap unit dari materi terdapat empat bagian. Bagian-bagian itu adalah Bring It to Mind, Let’s Start, Grammar Battle, dan Completing Mission.

Akhir kata, penulis berharap bahwa seperangkat materi membaca Bahasa Inggris untuk guru-guru Biologi SMAN 3 Yogyakarta dapat memberikan manfaat bagi mereka yang memerlukannya terutama bagi instruktur Bahasa Inggris dan pelajar (guru-guru Biologi).

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DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH READING MATERIALS

USING CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION FOR BIOLOGY

TEACHERS OF SMAN 3 YOGYAKARTA

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Leoni Afikawati Student Number: 041214046

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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j{xÇ lÉâ UxÄ|xäx

Performed by Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston

Many nights we’ve prayed with no proof anyone could hear In our hearts a hopeful song we barely understood Now we are not afraid although we know there’s so much pain

We were moving mountains long before we knew we could

There can be miracles when you believe though hope is frail it’s hard to kill Who knows what miracles you can achieve when you believe somehow you will

You will when you believe

In this time of fear when prayer so often proves in vain Hope seemed like the summer birds too swiftly flown away Yet now I’m standing here, my heart’s so full I can’t explain

Seeking faith and speaking words I never thought I’d say

They don’t always happen when you ask and it’s easy to give in to your fears But when you’re blinded by your pain, can’t see your way clear through the rain

A small, but still, resilient voice says help is very near

I dedicated this thesis to Jesus Christ,

my beloved family, my truly best friend, and

those who keep supporting me

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ABSTRACT

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ABSTRAK

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to praise our Lord, Jesus Christ for all His blessings, love and guidance in every single step I take. In particular, my admiration is addressed for the strength He granted to me to accomplish my study at Sanata Dharma University. Additionally, I would like to give my honor to the greatest and holy woman in the universe, Mother Mary, for always being with me during the saddest and happiest times in my great life.

Second, I would like to thank my inspiring parents, Bapak Petrus Silam

and Ibu Rini Sudarwati, for their endless supports, care and love in every second of my life. For my beloved brother (Leona Pantamareta) and sisters (Leonanda Nilam Putranti and Leonita Senwa Mayla), thanks for giving me little sunshine in my days. For my truly best friend, Ana Humardhiana, thanks for always being there for me, for bitter-sweet moments we share together, and for all the precious things I owe that cannot be measured only by world’s things.

I dedicate my deepest gratitude to my sponsor, Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., for the guidance, advice, and corrections to improve my thesis, and for the patience, care and encouragement to accomplish my thesis. I would also like to thank to PBI’s teaching staff for educating me during my college years. For Mbak Tari and Mbak Dani, thanks for providing me with amazing assistance in the period of studying at PBI. For all the respondents of my research, thanks for the help, willingness and cooperation to improve the designed materials.

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My special thanks go to all my friends in PBI especially those who are from the year of 2004 that I cannot mention one by one, thanks for accompanying me in the struggling times completing my study. For all my friends in Catholic Community, thanks for the supports and all the things we laugh at together. I would like to thank Mbak Reni, Mbak Kolifah, Yuli, Rita, Wahyu, Anton and

Lukas for being my sisters and brothers who guide me to be the more mature me and for the good and bad times we share. My gratitude also goes to Ana’s family who keep supporting me to accomplish my thesis soon. I would like also to say thank you to Mas Nug for the help, willingness to understand me, and trying to always be there for me. My very special thank goes Mas Prast for the ongoing support and care, for all the times we had been together, and for colouring my life.

Last but not least, I would like to say thank you to everyone who helps me throughout the great times in accomplishing my thesis.

Leoni Afikawati

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TITLE PAGE ... .i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

DEDICATION PAGE... .iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...v

ABSTRACT... vi

ABSTRAK... viii

PUBLICATION PAGE...x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... .xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ... xvii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xix

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1

A. Research Background ...1

B. Problem Formulation ...5

C. Problem Limitation ...5

D. Research Objectives...6

F. Research Benefits ...7

G. Definition of Terms ...8

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CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW 10

A. Theoretical Descriptions ...10

1. Yalden’s Instructional Design ...10

2. Materials Development...14

3. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) ...18

a. ESP Methodology ...19

b. Needs Analysis...21

4. Content Based Instruction (CBI) ...23

a. Objectives of CBI...24

b. Characteristics of CBI...24

c. Principles of CBI...27

d. The Role of Learners and Teachers ...27

5. Reading ...28

a. The Nature of Reading ...28

b. Reading in the Content Area...29

c. Types of Reading Activity ...31

d. Reading Techniques...33

6. Biology Subject at SMAN 3 Yogyakarta ...34

B. Theoretical Framework ...36

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY 41

A. Research Method ...41

1. Research and Information Collecting ...42

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2. Planning ...43

3. Developing Preliminary Form of Product ...43

4. Preliminary Field Testing ...44

5. Main Product Revision ...44

B. Research Participants ...47

D. Research Instruments ...48

1. Questionnaire Sheet ...48

2. Interview Guidelines...49

E. Data Gathering Technique ...49

F. Data Analysis Technique...52

F. Research Procedure ...53

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 56

A. The Steps in Designing the Materials ...56

1. Reviewing the Literature ...57

2. Conducting the Needs Survey ...57

3. Describing the Purposes ...62

4. Developing the Syllabus ...62

5. Producing Proto-Syllabus ...63

6. Producing Pedagogical Syllabus ...68

7. Developing and Implementing Classroom Procedures...69

8. Developing the Materials...75

9. Evaluating the Designed Materials...76

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10. Revising the Designed Materials ...85

B. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ...86

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 93

A. Conclusions ...93

B. Suggestions...94

REFERENCES...96

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Techniques and Examples of Plus Category...……… 16

Table 2.2: Techniques and Examples of Minus Category ……… 17

Table 2.3: Techniques and Examples of Zero Category……… 17

Table 3.1: Specification of the Designed Materials……… ...…………46

Table 3.2: The Whole Process of Data Collection...51

Table 4.1: Summary of the Learners’ Questionnaires…… ...……… 58

Table 4.2: Summary of the Respondents’ Interviews……… 59

Table 4.3: Summary of the English Teacher’s Interview……… . 61

Table 4.4: The Topics of the Designed Materials… .……… 64

Table 4.5: The Learning Materials of the Designed Materials……… .………… 64

Table 4.6: The Learning Indicators of the Designed Materials ……… 66

Table 4.7: The Words in the Designed Materials .……… 68

Table 4.8: Results of the Expert Validation ..……… 77

Table 4.9: Results of the Expert Validation in Percentages..……… 80

Table 4.10: The Strengths and the Weaknesses of the Designed Materials...81

Table 4.11: Results of the Learners’ Evaluation……… 83

Table 4.12: Results of the Learners’ Evaluation in Percentages……… 83

Table 4.13: The Presentation of the Designed Materials….. ……… 86

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Instructional Design by Yalden………...………....13 Figure 2.2: The Steps of Designing Materials Adapted from Yalden’s Model...40 Figure 3.1: The Writer’s R & D Adopted Cycle Completed with Yalden’s

Adapted Model ...……… 45

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Letters of Permission...……… 98 Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Needs Analysis...……… 100 Appendix 3: Evaluation Questionnaire………… ...………… 103 Appendix 4: Questionnaire for Expert Validation ...105 Appendix 5: Overview of the Designed Set of Materials………… ...……108 Appendix 6: Syllabus and Lesson Plans…… ...……… 111 Appendix 7: Presentation of the Designed Set of the Materials

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of six parts. They are the research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, objectives of the research, research benefits and definition of terms used in the research.

A. Research Background

English, todays, is not merely a language which is used by its native speakers. It now widely spread around the world as a result of international trade, travel, and industry (McKay, 2002: 18). English is essential for those who deal with such international activities to share information, ideas, knowledge, and so on. Since English becomes lingua franca to communicate among people of different nations, people are required to be able to understand and use English as an access to enter world communication.

Indonesia, as a developing country, needs not only natural resources but also human resources which are important to maintain the elements of development. Qualified human resources are needed to keep this country in progress and to answer many problems that occur in this country. Beside mastering their own specialities, they are demanded to be able to interact with people from other countries. According to McKay (2002: 15-16),

“By the beginning of the nineteenth century Britain had become the world’s leading industrial and trading nation. Most of the innovations of the Industrial Revolution were of British origin, resulting in new terminology

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for technological and scientific advance. Hence, those who wanted to learn more about these innovations needed English both to understand the new terminology and talk to English speaking inventors and manufacturers.” Thus, English has important role in this globalization era.

Because English is neither mother tongue nor lingua franca among Indonesian, it needs to be learned and practiced. Moreover, Graddol (McKay, 2002: 18) notes “Today over 84 per cent of the internet servers are English medium…. These figures clearly demonstrate that one needs to know English today in order to access and contribute to both printed and electronic information.” Considering the matter, both governmental and non-governmental schools place English as a compulsory school subject. In addition, to improve education quality, some schools in Indonesia have used English as a language to convey information in certain school subjects other than English. The schools attempt to apply an international standard of education so that the students and/or the graduates can compete with others in the international level (Astika, 2009). Moreover, some regulations have been made by government of Indonesia as the foundations of the presence of SBI (Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional) in Indonesia.

To achieve the purpose of SBI, as stated above, the schools conduct bilingual classes for some school subjects. However, there are some problems that occur in carrying out bilingual classes. According to Astika (2009), one of the problems is the unprepared teachers to use English as the lingua franca in class. Although the portion of using English in bilingual classes is not as much as in English class, teachers of those subjects should learn English to avoid misunderstanding under topics discussed and to cope with their profession’s

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demand. Thus, some schools which apply SBI conduct English courses for the teachers to overcome the problem.

In recent days, the bilingual classes are still limited to some certain subjects. Some of the subjects include Math, Physics and Biology. Here, the writer focuses her research on English course for teachers of Biology. The writer also perceives that Biology is chosen because it uses more verbal language than other those subjects which mostly use numbers and there are always up-to-date English written works related to it which can be obtained easily. As a matter of fact, Biology teachers are still at the beginning level of English proficiency. Based on the survey (Astika, 2009), 33.3% of bilingual teachers do not have ability to communicate in English. Meanwhile, they are expected to be able to communicate in English for their profession’s demand and improvement of education quality. Therefore, they should be at least able to read and understand English texts since there are many written works related to Biology that are offered. This is essential for them to enrich their knowledge and to help them support their teaching tasks. Furthermore, as bilingual teachers, they have a task to develop learning materials in English. In developing the materials, teachers may modify the available books written in English. Here, they will employ their reading skills in completing the task. For these reasons, it is obvious that people use English not only for communicative purposes but also for specific purposes in order to deepen their knowledge in certain field and to accomplish their profession’s demand.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19), “English for specific purposes is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content

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and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning”. It means that the topics and the kind of teaching learning process are based on the learner’s needs. The need to learn English in specific purposes will appear when they find difficulties in reading English texts. In this research, the texts are related to Biology so that the English learning will be much meaningful to Biology teachers as the learners. Regarding with the reason stated above, the writer attempts to design a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers. Besides, there has not been such material available yet.

In conclusion, the reasons of deciding to design a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers are based on three considerations. First, the school policy requires Biology teachers to also use English in class as a means of communication. Second, many written works related to Biology which are important to support teaching-learning process are written in English. Third, the writer discovers that most Biology teachers are still at the beginning level of English proficiency. Therefore, the materials are designed as a guideline to help the learners understand English text.

By designing a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers, the writer expects the materials will be helpful for them in order to comprehend many written works in English and to increase their reading skill. Furthermore, they will enrich their knowledge to support their teaching tasks in bilingual classes for the development of education quality.

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B. Problem Formulation

In the research, there are two main problems that the writer is going to solve. The two problems can be formulated as follows:

1. How is a set of English reading materials using Content Based Instruction (CBI) for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta designed?

2. What does the designed set of English reading materials using Content Based Instruction (CBI) for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta look like?

C. Problem Limitation

The research is limited to the discussion on designing a set of English reading materials using CBI for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta. As stated in the research background, there are three main reasons why the writer chooses Biology subject as her research object. First, only certain classes use English as a lingua franca in class other than English. One of them is Biology. Second, Biology uses more verbal language than the other two subjects mentioned in the research background which have tendency to arithmetic. Last, there are a lot of up-to-date written works related to Biology which can be obtained easily, and the works are closely related to our daily life as human beings.

Apparently, the existence of schools which utilize English in teaching learning processes of school subjects other than English subject has not widely spread yet in Yogyakarta. For example, SMAN 3 Yogyakarta is one of some schools which apply it. In an online article entitled Program Pembelajaran SMA

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Negeri 3 Yogyakarta states that the school starts to apply Kelas Rintisan SMA Bertaraf Internasional (SBI) in the school year of 2006-2007. It also states that only some school subjects such as Math, Physics, and Biology which have been applied that program. Thus, it can be understood why the research is designed for SMA Negeri 3 Yogyakarta.

Also, the research is concerned with the appropriate English reading materials for Biology teachers. Reading materials play an important role toward the comprehension of English texts. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107), “materials help to organize the teaching and learning process by providing a path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt”. Since there is no particular material yet for Biology teachers which can help them to learn how to understand and comprehend English texts in their field, it is necessary to design suitable materials which are focused on reading in order to answer the needs of the Biology teachers.

D. Research Objectives

Considering the problems which have been stated in the problem formulation, the research is conducted to achieve the following objectives:

1. to discover how a set of English reading materials using CBI for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta is designed.

2. to present the designed set of English reading materials using CBI for Biology teachers of SMAN 3 Yogyakarta.

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E. Research Benefits

The research is intended to give benefits to a particular scientific area, especially English for Biology teachers. Therefore, the findings of the research are expected to bring valuable contributions to:

1. Biology teachers

They are provided with a set of English reading materials that help them to understand English texts in Biology field. Furthermore, it is expected that they will be motivated in reading English texts that are useful to enrich their knowledge dealing with their field.

2. English instructors

They are provided with a set of English reading materials which can be utilized to teach an English course for Biology teachers.

3. Others who concern with the field

By reading a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers, people can gain information from the texts while they improve their English reading skill.

4. Future researchers

They can learn from the research how to design a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers and later if they are willing to evaluate, re-construct and re-design the materials for Biology teachers.

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F. Definition of Terms

There are five key terms which are used in the research, they are: 1. Design

Based on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995: 314), design is “a drawing or an outline from which something may be made”. Meanwhile, Trochim (2006) states that “A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project … work together to try to address the central research questions.”. Here, design is a plan which is mentioned to facilitate intended subject that is Biology teachers to help them in language learning process.

2. Reading materials

According to Wallace (1992:3), “reading is an awareness of the way in which we use language”. Meanwhile, Nunan (1989:33) states that “reading is an interactive process between what a reader already knows about a given topic or subject and what the writer writes”. The writer concludes that reading is a skill to obtain information and writer’s message from text with aid of the readers’ background knowledge and awareness of language use. Thus, reading materials are materials to be used in language teaching activities in reading class in which there are learning objectives, reading texts, learning activities, learning indicators, and learning evaluation.

3. Content Based Instruction (CBI)

Content Based Instruction is “the integration of particular content with language teaching aims” (Brinton, 1989:2). Its aim is not only for developing

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second language skills but also maintaining the learners’ knowledge of a particular subject at once. Thus, knowledge of language and knowledge of subject matter which is Biology in the research are developed simultaneously.

4. Biology Teachers

From an online Biology Dictionary (2007), Biology is defined as the scientific study of the life; science that studies living world, living organisms and the phenomena, and characteristics of life processes. Teachers are persons who teach; especially those who teach in schools. It means that Biology teachers are a group of persons or people who teach the scientific study dealing with living things.

5. SMAN 3 Yogyakarta

SMAN 3 Yogyakarta is one of senior high schools in Yogyakarta. Like other senior high schools, this school also has aim which is to prepare the students to continue their education to the higher level. The school is located at Jl. Yos Sudarso no.7. To improve education quality, the school has implemented Kelas Rintisan SMA Bertaraf Internasional started at the school year of 2006-2007.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

There are two major sections that are going to be discussed in this chapter. They are the theoretical descriptions which contain reviews on related theories to answer the research problems and the theoretical framework which underlies the research.

A. Theoretical Descriptions

In this section, the writer elaborates five groups of theory and a description which will be used to develop a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers. Those are theory of instructional design, theory of materials development, theory of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), theory of Content-Based Instruction (CBI), theory of reading, and a description of Biology subject at SMAN 3 Yogyakarta.

1. Yalden’s Instructional Design

In accomplishing the research, the writer applied Yalden’s instructional design. As language is a means of communication, Yalden’s model is chosen for it takes communicative needs of the learners into account and it is sufficiently flexible providing that there is a recycling stage in the cycle. This model presents structured stages consisting of specified tasks needed to do by the writer in designing the materials. The stages refer to the stages of how to develop a

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language program in which there is a stage to develop syllabus. Since there is no stage to develop materials clearly presented in Yalden’s model, the research needs materials development theory to support this model which is presented in the next discussion.

The stages in a language program development proposed by Yalden (1987: 88-89) are as follows:

a. Needs survey

This step is aimed to collect information from the target learners which will be used as a consideration for describing the learning purposes. Needs survey can be carried out by distributing questionnaires and/or interviewing. b. Description of purpose

Having conducted the needs survey, the writer’s task is to describe the purpose of learning. Learning purposes will underlie the development of syllabus and the content of designed materials.

c. Selection/development of syllabus type

This stage is the stage to produce a syllabus. According to Yalden (1987:85), a syllabus is a stage at which specified content of language course is organized. In developing a syllabus, the writer should consider the needs of learners so that it can meet the learners’ goal. Thus, here, the writer perceives that a syllabus is a guideline to develop a set of English teaching learning materials aimed for Biology teachers.

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d. Production of a proto-syllabus

This stage is a step in which the content of syllabus is specified. It may include general notions and specific topics, communicative functions, discourse and rhetorical skills, variety of language, role-sets, and communicative events, as well as grammar and lexis.

e. Production of a pedagogical syllabus

At this stage, the writer specifies words and phrases which are suitable to support the language functions and the topics.

f. Development and implementation of classroom procedures

Teaching techniques and other elements, such as learning activities and time allocations, are determined to be implemented in the classroom. The writer perceives that it is sort of an outline of the syllabus realization in the classroom.

g. Evaluation

This stage is to evaluate the content of syllabus as well as the designed materials. It is also to measure the suitability of the designed materials with the learners.

h. Recycling stage

Recycling stage is the follow-up stage of evaluation. This stage is essential to make the model flexible and dynamic. It is conducted after getting feedback from evaluation stage. The recycling stage provides feedback to the previous stages which need revision in order to meet the goals set. Nevertheless, it does not shift the described purpose.

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The stages can be summarized in Figure 2.1. Needs survey Description of purpose Selection/ development of syllabus type Production of pedagogical syllabus Production

of a proto-syllabus Development and implementation of classroom procedures Evalu -ation

Fig. 2.1 Instructional Design by Yalden (1987:88)

To complete the third stage, which is selection of syllabus type, the writer elaborates some syllabuses to be selected the appropriate one. Furthermore, Yalden (1987:94) states that “the description of purpose will not automatically yield a description of syllabus type”. Therefore, the writer should decide the syllabus type which is going to be used as a guideline in developing materials. Nunan (1988:27) states that there are two major types of syllabus; product-oriented syllabuses and process-product-oriented syllabuses. Product syllabuses are syllabuses which focus on the learners’ achievement. The syllabuses are:

a. Grammatical syllabus, which focuses on grammatical rules.

b. Functional-notional syllabus, which focuses on language functions and language notions/meaning.

c. Analytic syllabus, in which linguistic matters are learned under related situations, discussion topics, subject matters, etc.

Process-oriented syllabuses (Nunan, 1988:40-60) view that the learners’ achievement depends on the learning process. Therefore, the syllabuses focus on how the learners learn. The syllabuses are presented on the following page.

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a. Procedural syllabus, in which learning tasks and activities should represent the use of language rather than language exercises.

b. Task-based syllabus, in which the selection of tasks and activities is considering the subject matter, the goal, and the context.

c. Content syllabus, in which the language learning can be developed through a subject matter.

d. Natural approach, in which the central point of this syllabus is comprehension.

From the elaborations of some syllabuses above, the writer would like to choose the content-based syllabus which is properly applied in a course of English for Specific Purposes like in the research for it establishes the language learning within subject matter. Since it views language learning can be established within a specific subject area, the language knowledge and other knowledge are developed simultaneously. Therefore, the writer perceives that the learning would be efficient for the learners (Biology teachers) can obtain both knowledge of language and knowledge of Biological matters employed as supporting information to carry out their bilingual classes. Hence, for Biology teachers, the topics of learning should be in Biological area (e.g. health, diseases, global warming, etc.).

2. Materials Development

As stated previously, Yalden’s model needs materials development theory in order the writer is capable to develop the materials. Consequently, in this part,

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the writer discusses a model for developing materials. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:107) state that “a material model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity and variety.” According to Moore as cited by Robinson (1991:61), “procedural guide to producing a unit … is not to provide a recipe for materials production but to set out some of the procedures which team preparation helped to make explicit.” Therefore, Hutchinson and Waters present a model which can be an outline in designing materials. Nonetheless, as stated by Moore, it does not mean that the designed materials cannot be modified.

The Hutchinson and Waters’ model consists of four elements (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:108-109). The elements are:

a. Input

Input is given for the learners to recall the learners’ background knowledge or existing information related to the content of material. Input is essential to introduce the content. It may be by reading a text, listening to an audio cassette, answering questions, etc.

b. Content focus

Here, the writer focuses the materials on the specific skill which is to be taught (listening, speaking, reading, or writing). The learning will be more effective when the content is related to daily lives.

c. Language focus

In language focus, learners are given opportunity to study language by identifying words (nouns, verbs, adverbs, etc.), analyzing parts of a text, etc.

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d. Task

Task is a necessary part of every learning activity. Task makes learners practice and use their knowledge both of language and content. It is also employed to measure learners’ understanding.

The four elements proposed by Hutchinson and Waters are utilized as a basis to develop the learning activities in the materials. As they function as a basis, the writer may modify and/or complete it with other learning activities models such as types of reading activity proposed by Wallace and five stages of teaching reading suggested by Cushenbery which both of them are discussed under theory of reading in this chapter. Thus, the learning activities of the materials should offer those four elements elaborated above.

In developing materials, the writer does materials adaptation as well. Materials adaptation is used to make the materials suitable for specific learners, teachers or situations (Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004:11). To adapt the materials, Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004:15-16) present the techniques for materials adaptation which are divided into three main categories in terms of quantity: Plus (+), Minus (-), or Zero (0). The categories are described below.

a. Plus Category

Table 2.1 Techniques and Examples of Plus Category in Materials Adaptation (Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004:16)

Techniques Examples

Addition Teachers may add different texts and/or activities.

Expansion Teachers may expand texts and activities by increasing the length, difficulty, depth, etc.

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b. Minus Category

Table 2.2 Techniques and Examples of Minus Category in Materials Adaptation (Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004:16)

Techniques Examples

Deletion Teachers may delete some texts and/or activities altogether. Subtraction Teachers may decrease the number of sentences in a text or

part of an activity.

Reduction Teachers may reduce texts and activities by decreasing the length, difficulty, depth, etc.

c. Zero Category

Table 2.3 Techniques and Examples of Zero Category in Materials Adaptation (Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004:16)

Techniques Examples

Modification Teachers may make changes to instructions. Replacement Teachers may swap one activity with another.

Reorganization Teachers may change the position of texts and illustrations.

Resequencing Teachers may change the sequence of the activities.

Conversion Teachers may change the genre of a text (from narrative to poem), or move the content from one medium to another (e.g. from print to a web page).

To make the materials suitable for the learners, the writer does some of Tomlinson and Masuhara’s techniques. The techniques which are going to be carried out to make some changes in the materials include addition (Plus Category), reduction (Minus Category), and reorganization (Zero Category). Here, addition is accomplished to add some learning activities. Reduction is to

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reduce the length, the difficulty, and the depth of reading texts. Meanwhile, reorganization is done to change the position and illustrations of the texts.

3. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

The research, “Designing a Set of English Reading Materials for Biology Teachers”, is closely relating to ESP since it is intended for the specific learners which are Biology teachers. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16) state that ESP can be classified based on the general nature of the learners’ purpose (English for Academic Purposes/EAP and English for Occupational Purposes/EOP) and the learners’ specialism (English for Science and Technology/EST, English for Business and Economics/EBE, and English for Social Sciences/ESS).

Based on the learners’ purpose, the research can be categorized as EAP because the designed materials are going to be used for educational development. Nonetheless, since the research is for the learners who are willing to maintain their profession’s demand, it can also be categorized as EOP. Based on the learners’ specialism, the research is classified into EST for it is dealing with Biology field. Therefore, the research is under ESP theory.

Additionally, in Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach, Strevens as cited by Johns and Dudley-Evans (2006:3) states that there are four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics that define English language teaching to be considered as ESP. The four absolute characteristics are presented on the following page.

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a. The English language teaching is designed to meet learners’ specific needs. In the research, the designed materials are designed based on the specification of Biology teachers’ needs.

b. The content of English language teaching only relates to a particular discipline, occupation, and activity. In this case, the research relates to Biology and Biology teachers as the learners.

c. The English language teaching centers on language that is appropriate to support those two previous characteristics.

d. The ESP language teaching differs from ‘General English’ language teaching. It is shown in methodology.

The two variable characteristics are:

a. ESP may be focused only on one skill. In the research, the designed materials are focused on reading skill, and

b. Methodology used in ESP may not only use provided teaching methodologies. Teacher may create or combine them.

a. ESP Methodology

In developing a set of materials which is under ESP umbrella, the writer needs to concern ESP methodology. It is important for the writer to understand the methodology used in ESP. As stated in the absolute characteristic of ESP, ESP methodology differs from methodology used in General Purpose English (Johns and Dudley-Evans, 2006:3). Moreover, according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19), “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to

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content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning”. Since it aims to meet the needs of particular learners, the learning methodology and the content of the designed materials are based on the areas of the particular study.

Furthermore, according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:128-130), there are several basic principles of language learning which underlie language learning methodology. First principle which underlies the designed materials of the research is that the second language learning is a developmental process. It means the product of learning depends on the learning process. The writer notices that the good-ordered process of learning refers to the well-developed learning activities. Yet, the learners’ background knowledge also determines the result of learning for it helps in the process of understanding. Learners who have enough knowledge of learning content will be at ease in the learning process, and the result of learning will be optimal. Thus, activating learners’ background knowledge is an essential pre-activity (e.g. by predicting, answering questions).

Second principle is that the language learning is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge. Language as a means of communication has a role to convey information. It means that language will be meaningful when it is used in the real situation/context. Therefore, the language learning should unite the linguistic matters and the context so that the learning will be valuable for the learners. It means that the designed materials should bring information or new knowledge for the learners beside linguistic knowledge. In the research, the context refers to the subject specialism that is Biological context.

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Third principle is that the learning is an emotional experience. This principle considers that the learners are human beings. Every human being is always influenced emotionally. Hence, the designed materials should be developed interestingly so that it can motivate the learners to learn. One way is by varying the learning activities (e.g. having discussion, playing games, doing crosswords, etc.)

In addition to the materials development, Robinson (1991:54) states that “a key concept within the communicative approach, and one felt to be particularly relevant for ESP, is that of authenticity.” Authenticity, here, refers to the use of authentic materials which is “the use of print, audio, video and pictorial material originally produced for a purpose other than the teaching of language” (Robinson, 1991:54). Kennedy and Bolitho (1991:48), in accordance with authenticity, state that “the crucial element is that it aims to convey information and ideas rather than the use of language.” Since the research is to develop a set of reading materials, the writer utilizes authentic texts in her designed materials. The use of authentic texts is caused of the use of simplified texts (texts which are aimed to the language learning) in classroom will be different with the texts which are faced in real world (Kennedy and Bolitho, 1991:48).

b. Needs Analysis

To determine the content of the designed materials, we need to have needs analysis. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 53) said that “any course should be based on an analysis of learner’s need”, even if it is for General English. Johns and

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Dudley-Evans (2006: 122) also state that “needs analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a very focused course.” Thus, needs analysis is an important step before establishing the designed materials.

To avoid misunderstanding of what is meant by needs, Robinson (1991:7-8) states that there are some definitions of needs. The definitions are presented below.

1) Needs refers to the learning objectives or what the learners have to be able to do at the end of language course.

2) Needs is the demand of what the learners to be able to do from the language course.

3) Needs means the learning process or what the learners need to do in acquiring language.

4) Needs refers to the personal wants or what the learners’ purposes in taking the language course.

5) Needs is as learners’ lacks or what the learners do not know or cannot do in English.

In addition, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 54) state that basically there are two kinds of needs. Those are target needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in the target situation) and learning needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order to learn). To help gathering such information, Hutchinson and Waters provide a framework of information to an analysis of target needs. The framework contains a list of questions about the reason why the language is needed, in what way the language will be used, of what the content areas be, about who will use the

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language, about the situation where and when the language will be used (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 59-60).

The target situation analysis can determine the destination. It can guide the writer by giving general direction but it is not reliable indicator of what is needed or useful in the ESP learning situation. Therefore, from the starting point that is analysis of target needs, the writer needs to have learning needs which covers the conditions of the learning situation, the learners’ knowledge, skills and strategies, and the learners’ motivation. In order to analyze the learning needs, Hutchinson and Waters outline a framework which also consists of some questions. They are about the reason why the learners are taking the course, about how the learners learn, about the available resources, about the specification of the learners, about the situation where and when the course will take place (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 62-63).

4. Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

One of the four absolute characteristics which differentiate ESP to General English Purpose is shown by language teaching methodology. Some important principles of the methodology have been discussed in the ESP Methodology. One of approaches in language teaching which is going to be implemented by the writer to develop a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers is CBI.

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a. Objectives of CBI

As stated in Content-Based Second Language Instruction (Brinton, 1989: 2) that “…content-based instruction as the integration of particular content with language-teaching aims”, its aim is not only for developing second language skills but also maintaining the learners’ knowledge of a particular subject at once. Moreover, Brinton (1989: 2) clearly states that “The focus for students is on acquiring information via the second language and, in the process, developing their academic language skills.” Larsen-Freeman (2000:137) also states that “the special contribution of content-based instruction is that it integrates the learning of language with the learning of some other content, often academic subject matter.” Thus, knowledge of language and knowledge of subject matter which is Biology in the research are developed simultaneously.

b. Characteristics of CBI

Since the purpose of CBI is to integrate the content of a particular subject area and the second language teaching, Brinton (1989: 5) states that the teaching learning activities will be in the scope of the subject area and the second language as a means of communication. Accordingly, there are three teaching models of CBI presented in Content-Based Second Language Instruction (Brinton, 1989: 14). Those three models are as follows:

1) Theme-Based Language Instruction/Topic-Based Language Instruction The model is constructed around topics or themes. In accordance with the research, there is one main topic (e.g. Biology) which is specified into some

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specific topics (e.g. reproduction, global warming, etc.). It means that the language mastery is developed within the topics. Nevertheless, the model focuses the learning on the language mastery. Thus, the language elements (e.g. vocabulary, grammar) are selected from the texts under the topics. 2) Sheltered Content Instruction

Unlike the theme-based language instruction, this model focuses the learning on the content mastery. Thus, here, language is seemingly functioned only as a medium. It happens in an immersion class in which students study subject matter (e.g. Mathematics, Science, etc.) in second language.

3) Adjunct Language Instruction

This model is not only developing the language mastery but also the content mastery. Therefore, it is difficult to be implemented in low level of language proficiency.

From the three teaching models above, theme-based instruction model is considered appropriate to be implemented to the research since the model focuses on the language learning, in which the language learning is the objective of the research. This model brings about three advantages (Brinton, 1989:31) which are:

1) presenting different skills in one topical context (e.g. reading and writing, listening and speaking),

2) stimulating the interest of the varied learners (e.g. learners who have different level of proficiency, learners who come from different background of education), and

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3) giving access in the second language which is relevant to the learners (e.g. the use of authentic texts which are appropriate for the learners).

According to Mohan as cited by Khranke (1987:72), “Content-based instruction does not guarantee successful communicative ability, especially productive ability unless extensive productive activities are included as part of the overall instructional experience.” Consequently, there should be enough portion of learning activities in the designed materials which are expected to meet the learning goal. Furthermore, there are three cores activities and a supplementary activity in the theme-based instruction model suggested by Brinton (1989:31-32). Those activities are presented below:

1) activating the learners’ background knowledge and presenting vocabularies relating to the topic

2) leading main activities (reading, listening, etc.) to a discussion or other learning tasks

3) making summarization of what being learnt

4) working on vocabulary, relevant grammar items, more main activities (supplementary activities)

In accordance with the syllabus choosing, topic syllabus is recommended to be used in this teaching model. Richards and Rodgers (2003:216) state that the teaching model “refers to a language course in which the syllabus is organized around themes or topics.…” Thus, the writer selects themes or topics or content syllabus to be established in the research. This supports the selection of syllabus in the previous discussion.

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c. Principles of CBI

According to Brinton (1989:3-4), there are five considerations in integrating language teaching and the content of specific area. The principles are:

1) It is believed that language forms and functions which are presented systematically will be suitable with the learners.

2) To make language learning more effective, any other informational materials which are relevant and interesting are needed to establish learners’ motivation.

3) Prior knowledge and experience of the learners are very essential to be recalled before they continue to the next step of learning.

4) Language should be learned in context so that it can be meaningful. Subsequently, the focus is on the language use instead of the language usage.

5) Language is easier to be acquired in context.

d. The Role of Learners and Teachers

In CBI, learners (Biology teachers) are expected to be independent learners. It means learners are active to seek out their own learning ways in order to gain knowledge. Learners also take part in selection of topics and activities. While, the teachers (course instructors) have role as the learners’ needs analysts. The teachers also select and adapt authentic materials, plan lesson materials to keep in context, and create learner-centered classrooms.

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5. Reading

a. The Nature of Reading

According to Wallace (1992:3), “reading is an awareness of the way in which we use language”. We use language for some purposes and the language we use will be meaningful if it is used in context. Reading activity, as well as language, is depending on the purposes. Wallace states (1992:6-7) that there are three reasons why people do reading. In other words, there are three kinds of reading purpose. Those are reading for survival, reading for learning, and reading for pleasure. The purpose of reading is very important for it has something to do with learners’ motivation. Regarding with the importance, Wallace also states that “…effective reading means a flexible and appropriate response to the material in hand, and this is always guided by the reader’s purpose…”

Meanwhile, Nunan (1989:33) states that “reading is an interactive process between what a reader already knows about a given topic or subject and what the writer writes”. Here, he highlights a relationship between readers’ background knowledge and the text. Background knowledge of the learners determines the success of comprehending a text. Moreover, Nunan also discovered that background knowledge is a more important factor in reading than grammatical complexity.

Thus, the writer makes a conclusion that reading is an activity of processing what the writer writes with aid of the readers’ background knowledge and awareness of language use to get the writer’s message and it always accompanies with the readers’ purpose.

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b. Reading in the Content Area

It is important to concern about reading in the content area since the research deals with Biology. Like other general reading, reading in the content area is expected to result in readers’ comprehension. According to Cushenbery (1985: 9-10), there are four basic levels of comprehension skills which are needed to be emphasized in reading. Those are:

1) Literal reading level

The level requires readers to remember details, note main ideas, follow direction, and discover cause and effect relationships stated in text.

2) Interpretive level

In this level, readers are expected to discover the author’s purpose, detect moods, draw conclusion, find main ideas, and find cause and effect relationship if they are not directly stated in text.

3) Critical reading level

At the third level, readers are expected to determine if a statement is a fact or opinion and make an assessment of the accuracy of text.

4) Creative reading level

This level demands reader to solve problems, make value judgments, and draw conclusion from what is read.

Beside those comprehension levels that learners need to develop in reading, reading is a process. Therefore, the following principles will help the learners to obtain the product of reading that is comprehension (Cushenbery, 1985: 58-61). The principles are described on the following page.

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1) Comprehension can be gained through various kinds of reading skill such as reading for finding main idea, summarizing, reading for details, etc.

2) Kinds of instruction should represent reading skill to be mastered.

3) Learners know their purpose of reading and learning tasks should develop various kinds of comprehension skill.

4) Reading materials should be well-selected so that they will be at the learners’ level. If reading materials are at lower or higher level, the learners will not challenge to read them.

5) Teacher should follow the five-step approach in teaching reading in the content area. The approach is to activate background knowledge, to establish reading purpose, and to develop reading skill. Those five stages are as follows:

a) Readiness Stage

In this step, learners’ background knowledge relating to the topic is activated. It can be conducted by asking questions, giving hints, etc. b) Question or Purpose Stage

Reading purpose should be established based on four basic levels of comprehension which are literal, interpretive, critical, and creative. c) Silent Reading Stage

Having completed with question or purpose stage, learners are to read silently other reading texts which are suitable with their level of proficiency.

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d) Discussion Stage

The discussion should take place soon after silent reading stage. This stage makes use the skills obtained in the second stage.

e) Culminating Activity Stage

Learners are encouraged to see the relationship which exists between the topic discussed and previous discussion topics, for example by making summary, by giving opinion, etc.

6) Since comprehension is the product of reading, tasks which need comprehension skill should be developed and be given intensively.

7) Reading techniques are needed to establish comprehension effectively.

c. Types of Reading Activity

Generally, there are three main types of reading activity which may be used by the writer in developing her reading materials. The types are pre-reading activities, while-reading activities, and post-reading activities. Brief explanations of those three types are presented below (Wallace, 1992:114-122).

1) Pre-reading activities

Pre-reading activities can be conducted in three ways. The first one is learners provide their own questions, statements, or hypothesis. This is aimed at motivating learners to further reading, activating learners’ background knowledge, and presenting particular discourse will be dealing with. Second one is by giving cross-cultural pre-reading tasks. This kind of task invites learners to compare the characteristics of their own culture and

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the target culture. The third one is by giving pre-reading tasks which challenge conventional outcomes. Such tasks will encourage learners to discuss and draw some opinions in accordance with the content of reading materials.

2) While-reading activities

While-reading activities include offering learners alternative readings of a text, identifying parallel discourses, and analyzing linguistic choices. Offering learners alternative readings of a text means learners are offered more than one way of reading a text. It will be dealing with reading techniques. Next, a text may have more than one discourse. Therefore, it will be interesting to compare those discourses in parallel way for it helps learners to get mental image and understanding. Identifying parallel discourse will not be completely successful without knowing linguistic choices made by the writer. The linguistic choices determine the discourses which unfold in text. To understand linguistic choices written in text, readers should analyze them to avoid misinterpretation.

3) Post-reading activities

After while-reading activities, post-reading activities should be conducted to achieve a purpose that is heightening readers’ awareness of the topic being learnt. The activities may be giving tasks that follow the reading or providing other texts which have the same topic but different discourse.

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d. Reading Techniques

Learners are encouraged to employ reading techniques in order to have effective and efficient reading which requires certain kinds of comprehension skill. The techniques are offering a range of reading activities instead of requiring the learners to master them. According to Cushenbery (1985: 87-91), there are four general reading techniques:

1) Detailed Reading

This technique requires readers to “examine each word and try to remember minute facts in order to solve a problem or conduct an experiment” (Cushenbery, 1985: 87). It is usually used when the learners are assigned to make summary; to remember a sequence of events; to read maps, graphs, or charts; to locate and comprehend important details; and to compare or evaluate the relevancy of the materials.

2) Average Rate

This requires readers to pay attention to key words and important phrases, the nature of subtopics presented, and the summary or topic sentences written at the beginning or end of the texts. The technique is used to grasp the significance of the writer’s point of view which is written on the texts, to find the answer to a specific questions, etc.

3) Skimming

Skimming is “the quick type of reading that is done to get the general gist of the material” (Cushenbery, 1985: 88). It involves fast reading since it is only intended to get the essence of the text. This technique does not consume

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much time and energy. Hill believes that “it is valuable in study situations as a preliminary or pre-organizational first reading or as a review after more thorough study has been made” (Cushenbery, 1985: 90).

4) Scanning

This technique is much faster than skimming. The purpose of scanning is to focus on particular numbers, words, or phrases in text. It should be used only when to answer questions which demand information explicitly stated in text.

5. Biology Subject at SMAN 3 Yogyakarta

Biology is the science of life that is a branch of knowledge which deals with living matter, as it is distinct from non-living matter. Johnson et al. state in a book entitled Biology: an Introduction (1984: xxvi) that Biology is a natural science. In this case, the word “science” implies a means for obtaining knowledge. Biology as one of branches of Science is being taught at school to provide learning experiences to understand the nature of life and the living process. Thus, a Biology teacher is not only as a source of information but also a facilitator to help the students to develop the competence such as to think analytically to solve problems dealing with Biology.

Considering their roles as bilingual teachers and learners in the research, the writer notices that Biology teachers need to develop their knowledge in subject matter by obtaining more up-to-date information. The up-to-date information can be obtained easily from literary works, such as books, magazines,

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newspapers, online articles, journals, etc. As a result, reading skill is necessary for them to comprehend the texts especially those which are written in English for English is neither the mother tongue nor the lingua franca among those Biology teachers. As a matter of fact, Biology teachers at SMAN 3 Yogyakarta must handle bilingual classes in the school. The teaching tasks in which English becomes a means of communication in class encourage the Biology teachers to study English. One of their tasks is to develop Biology materials in English. It requires the Biology teachers to modify and/or make summarization from available Biology books in English as well. To complete the task, English reading skill is necessary for them to be mastered. Although the school conducts English course periodically, it seems that the English learning is not effective for their further duties as Biology teachers. Therefore, the language learning should be specified.

In order to make the language learning in the research effective for Biology teachers, the writer focuses the materials on reading. Furthermore, she also considers the topics stated in KTSP of senior high school in selecting the topics of the designed materials. The scope of Biology which is stated in KTSP includes:

a. The nature of Biology, biological diversity and living things categorization, relationship among ecosystem components, material and energy changing, and the human role in ecosystem balance.

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b. Cellular organization, tissue structure, structure and function of organs in plants; animals and humans, and the application of Biology in science context, environment, technology and society.

c. Process which happens in plants, metabolism process, heredity, evolution, biotechnology, and the implication to science, environment, technology, and society.

B. Theoretical Framework

In the research, the writer adapts Yalden’s instructional design (1987:88). The model is used to provide a framework for designing English reading materials for Biology teachers. Additionally, the writer considers some related theories which support in developing the materials. Those are principles of language learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:128-130), principles of language teaching (Brinton, 1989:31-32), principles of obtaining comprehension (Cushenbery, 1985:58-61), materials design model (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:108-109), materials adaptation (Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004:16), framework of target needs and learning needs (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:59-63), learning activities in theme-based teaching model (Brinton, 1989:31-32), reading activities (Wallace, 1992:114-122), and reading techniques (Cushenberry, 1985:87-91). The steps to design a set of English reading materials for Biology teachers which are adapted from Yalden’s model are described on the following page.

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Already, people have increased the amount of CO2, the chief global warming pollutant, in the atmosphere to 31 percent above pre-industrial levels. There is more CO2 in the atmosphere now than at any time in the last 650,000 years. Studies of the Earth’s climate history show that even small changes in CO2 levels generally have come with significant shifts in the global average temperature.

Scientists expect that, in the absence of effective policies to reduce greenhouse gas pollution, the global average temperature will increase another 2.0 degrees Fahrenheit to 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit by 2100.

Even if the temperature change is at the small end of the predictions, the alterations to the climate are expected to be serious: more intense storms, more pronounced droughts, coastal areas more severely eroded by rising seas. At the high end of the predictions, the world could face abrupt, catastrophic and irreversible consequences.

Scientists are no longer debating the basic facts of climate change. In February 2007, the thousands of scientific experts collectively known as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that there is greater than 90 percent likelihood that people are causing global warming. (IPCC, 2007)

These latest findings amplify what other highly respected science organizations say:

In a joint statement with 10 other National Academies of Science, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences said:

"The scientific understanding of climate change is now sufficiently clear to justify nations taking prompt action. It is vital that all nations identify cost-effective steps that they can take now, to contribute to substantial and long-term reduction in net global greenhouse gas emissions."—Joint Statement of Science Academies: Global Response to Climate Change, 2005

The American Geophysical Union, a respected organization comprising over 41,000 Earth and space scientists, wrote in its position on climate change that "natural influences cannot explain the rapid increase in global near-surface temperatures observed during the second half of the 20th century.”

Source: http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?contentid=6452

2. Write the answers of these following questions in a group of three!

1. What is/are the function/s of greenhouse gases?

2. How was the state of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere before industrial

revolution?

3. What happened to the greenhouse gases in the mid-1700s? Explain!

4. “So, in fact one degree is significant…” (par. 5)

Why is one degree significant? What does it mean?

5. What do the studies of climate history show?

6. What will happen if the condition of the greenhouse which was started in the

mid-1700s continues?

7. What does IPCC stand for? What does it say relating to global warming?

8. What are the latest findings related to the climate change?

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9. What is the main idea of the last paragraph?

10. What is the purpose of the text?

3. Challenge yourself!

Answer the following question!

In your opinion, what should human beings do concerning with global

warming?

4. Fill in the following crosswords! Discuss your results with your friends’!

Across:

1. main

2. mass

5. habitable

(antonym)

11. decompose

Down:

1. get

2. important

3. produce

4. add (antonym)

6. gradual (antonym)

5 6

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Grammar Battle

.

1. Pay attention to these sentences below.

People started emitting large amounts of greenhouse gases.

S V

O

The above sentence is called simple past tense sentence. Simple past tense is used when we

talk about event in the past and past habit. The rule is:

The difference between simple present tense and simple past tense is lying on verbs used in

sentences.

S + V2 + …

See the examples below!

¾

I

study

everyday.

simple

present

tense

She

studied

last night.

simple past tense

¾

We

go

to Parangtritis beach.

simple present tense

They

went

to the cinema last night.

simple past tense

¾

I

am

able to do the homework.

simple present tense

He

was

able to do break-dance.

Simple past tense

2. Underline simple past tense sentences in text entitled “The Greenhouse

Effect”!

3. Find five simple present tense sentences in the text and change them

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Completing Mission

.

1. Read another kind of reading passage below!

Save Energy and Money at Home

The energy we use at home accounts for about a fifth of U.S. global warming pollution. That means making smart choices at home matters.

Heating and cooling

This is a top home energy user, with the average household producing about four tons of heat-trapping pollution a year. It is heavily influenced by weather. For example, a relatively cold 1996 led to an increase in heat-trapping emissions compared to the previous year. But the next year, a warmer winter helped emissions dip bit. Warmer summers increase greenhouse gas pollution, too, from heavy air conditioning use. Despite the relative warm or coolness of the season, the U.S. emits a harmful amount of global warming pollution.

Even as the weather varies, your choices can help spew less global warming pollution.

In summer, keep shades drawn to keep the cool in.

In winter, open shades to let the sunlight to help warm rooms.

In winter, keep your thermostat cooler at night or when the house is empty. Install a programmable thermostat to heat and cool rooms only when necessary. Plant trees around your house to cut cooling costs in summer.

Insulate your walls and ceilings.

Install a light-colored or reflective roof. Appliances

After heating, refrigerators and freezers are generally the home's next two big energy eaters. Other appliances follow closely. Together, these items account for nearly eight tons of heat-trapping emissions per household per year.

Upgrade to Energy Star products. Not all appliances are equal. Whether you're in the market for a new fridge, toaster or air conditioner, look for Energy Star choices, which offer the best energy savings.

Size counts. When in the market for an appliance, make sure you buy what suits your needs. Items too large or too small waste electricity and your money.

Unplug. Your electric meter is often adding up kilowatt hours when you don’t think you’re using an appliance. Unplug toasters and cell phone and other chargers when they’re not in use. Don't use air fresheners that have to be plugged in.

Use power strips. Cable boxes and video game boxes, and to a lesser extent TVs and VCRs, use almost as much energy when they're off as when they're on. Make it easy to turn them all the way off—plug them into a power strip and turn off the whole strip.

Lighting

Lighting accounts for about 21 percent of commercial energy consumption and about 12 percent of home energy consumption. In terms of heat-trapping pollution, that means the lights in the average household produce just over a ton of carbon dioxide each year. Here are a few steps to lower those numbers.

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Use energy-efficient lights. Changing just one 75-watt bulb to a compact fluorescent light cuts roughly 1,300 pounds of global warming pollution. They also last up to 15 times as long and save you money. Turn off lights. A good chunk of lighting expenses is from rooms that stay unnecessarily lit.

Use natural light. Open shades and use sunlight to help light rooms.

Install motion-sensors so that lights automatically turn on when someone is in the room and turn off when empty.

Green Energy

Does your electric company sell energy from renewable sources, like wind and solar? More than forty states in the U.S. now offer cleaner energy. Other energy efficient choices for your home

Use the energy saver cycle on your dishwasher and only run it when full. Wash clothes in warm or cold water, not hot.

Turn down your water heater to 120°Fahrenheit. Clean or replace the air filter on your air conditioner. Install low-flow shower heads to use less hot water. Caulk and weatherstrip around doors and windows. Ask your utility company for a free home energy audit. Choose food thoughtfully

Raising meat contributes more global warming emissions than raising crops. Cutting back on meat even once a week can make a difference.

Source: http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?contentID=6559