Mass Society and Democracy
CORBIS 1870–1914
Mass Society and Democracy The Big Ideas .
,
World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 5 video,
“The Industrial Movement,” chronicles the impact of the development and advancements of the Second Industrial Revolution.
1876
Alexander Graham Bell
Transmitter and invents the receiver used for
telephone
first telephone call 1835 1845 1855 1865 1875
1848 1861 1871 The Communist First Civil War British unions Manifesto is battle fought in gain legal
published United States recognition
Karl Marx 290 290
The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train by Claude Monet, 1877 This painting illustrates Monet’s fascination with light as it is reflected and absorbed by the sky, clouds, windows, and trains.
World War I recruitment poster 1888 1905
HISTORY
Eastman A revolution in 1914 creates the Russia produces World War I Kodak camera limited reforms begins
1885 1895 1905 1915 1925
Daimler-Stahlradwagen, 1889
1889 1901
Daimler and Marconi sends Maybach build radio waves gasoline- across the powered car Atlantic
291 291 ave you ever asked a friend to tell you what happened in an episode of a TV show? You were asking for a summary of the most important H parts, not a description of every detail. Good readers summarize as they read. To do this, they use a few words of their own to capture the main ideas. Summarizing is useful for taking notes. It also helps you predict what will come next in the story.
When should you pause to summarize what you’ve been reading? Often, the end of a long paragraph or the end of a section is a good place to stop and summarize.
Read the following excerpt from the chapter.
At the top of European society stood a wealthy elite. This group made up only 5 percent of the population but controlled between 30 and 40 percent of the wealth. . . . The middle classes SUMMARIZING consisted of a variety of groups. Below the upper middle class . . . was a group that included TIP lawyers [and] doctors. . . . The Second Industrial Try summarizing the most
Revolution produced a new group. These were important points on paper and the white-collar workers who were seen as fitting in your mind. Then talk to other in between the lower middle class and lower students to find out how they classes . . . includ[ing] . . . bookkeepers . . . and summarized a specific section. secretaries. . . . Below the middle classes were the working classes, who made up almost 80 percent of Europe’s population. In eastern Europe, the working classes were often landholding peasants, farm laborers, and sharecroppers. . . .
As you read the chapter, pause to summarize, especially when you feel there is a lot of information. If a paragraph or section is challenging, make a chart to show the most important facts or conclusions. This technique will help your mental ability to summarize.
292
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy
Historical Interpretation: Standard HI 1 Students show the connections, causal and otherwise, between particular historical events and larger social, economic, and political trends and developments. istorians examine trends in politics, economics, and social life so that they can draw larger conclusions about a certain time period. If they can see that
H the same kinds of things are happening in the political world—for example, political rallies for a certain cause—they would be alerted to a trend.
In the late 1800s, political institutions in some Western European countries were moving toward greater democracy. More and more people were pressing for the vote. In Great Britain, even women were campaigning for the vote. (In other Euro- pean nations, France and Italy, for example, women did not achieve the vote until the 1940s.) Examine this excerpt from a speech by the British suffragist Emmeline Pankhurst in 1908 to see the connections being made between voting rights and representative governments:
“[The vote] is a symbol of freedom, a symbol of citizenship, a symbol of liberty. It is a safeguard of all those liberties which it symbolizes. And in these later days it has come to be regarded more than anything else as an instrument, something with which you can get a great many more things than our forefathers who fought for the vote ever realised as possible to get with it. . . .”
At this point in history, women did not have the right to vote. Based on her speech, why did Pankhurst think suffrage was so important? How representative is a government in which not everyone is able to vote?
Discuss with another student what Pankhurst meant when she said that the vote was “an instrument.” Do you think that voters have always thought of the vote in this way? Why or why not?
293
Steeplechase swimming pool at Coney Island, New York, c. 1919 The New Leisure
Why It Matters
y the second half of the nineteenth century, new work
B
patterns had established the concept of the weekend
A new leisure was one part of the
as a distinct time of recreation and fun. New forms of trans- mass society that emerged in the
late nineteenth century. The devel-
portation—railroads and streetcars—enabled workers to
opment of this new mass society
make brief trips to amusement parks. Coney Island was only
helped improve the lives of the
eight miles from central New York City; Blackpool, in Eng-
lower classes, who benefited from land, was a short train ride from nearby industrial towns. extended voting rights, a better
With their Ferris wheels and other daring rides that threw
standard of living, and public educa-
young men and women together, amusement parks offered
tion. In addition, the European
a whole new world of entertainment. Before leaving, people
nation-states now fostered national purchased picture postcards to remember the day’s fun. loyalty and created mass armies.
Thanks to the railroad, seaside resorts—once visited only
Political democracy grew as the
by the wealthy—became accessible to more people for week-
right to vote was extended to all
end visits. One upper-class seaside resort regular expressed adult males. his disgust with the new “day-trippers”:
History and You In 1850, a per-
“They swarm upon the beach, wandering about with
son born in the West could expect apparently no other aim than to get a mouthful of fresh air. to live about 40 years. By 1910, life
You may see them in groups of three or four—the husband,
expectancy had increased to 54
a pale man, dressed in black coat, carries the baby; the wife,
years. Using a recent almanac, com-
equally pale and thin, decked out in her best, labors after with
pare the life expectancy rates of a basket of food. And then there is generally another child . . . people in the United States, United
wandering behind.”
Kingdom, and Russia today with the
Businessmen in resorts like Blackpool, however, welcomed rates in 1910. Create a bar graph with the data you find. the crowds of new visitors and built for them boardwalks laden with food, drink, and entertainment.
294
- In Western Europe, the introduction of
- Industrialization gave some a higher
1879 Thomas Edison invents the lightbulb
the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement.
10.3.5: Understand the connections among natural
resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy.
10.3.6: Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a domi-
nant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Social- ism, and Communism.
Electricity Steel Internal- combustion engine
Resources Products
1889 The Second International socialist association forms
1903 Wright brothers make first flight
1875 Creation of German Social Democratic Party
migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution.
1848 Marx and Engels publish
The Communist Manifesto ✦
1845 ✦
1855 ✦
1865 ✦
1875 ✦
1885 ✦
1895 ✦
1905 295
10.3.4: Trace the evolution of work and labor, including
10.3.3: Describe the growth of population, rural to urban
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity Preview of Events
Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi, Karl Marx
Guide to Reading
Section PreviewIndustrialization led to dramatic increases in productivity as well as to new political theories and social movements.
electricity, chemicals, and petroleum triggered the Second Industrial Revolu- tion, and a world economy began to develop. (p. 296)
standard of living, but struggling work- ers turned to trade unions or socialism to improve their lives. (p. 298)
Content Vocabulary
assembly line, mass production, proletariat, dictatorship, revisionist
Academic Vocabulary
generator, transform, emerge
People to Identify
Places to Locate
changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pas- teur, Thomas Edison).
the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Austria-Hungary
Reading Objectives
1. Define the Second Industrial Revolution.
2. List Karl Marx’s main ideas.
Reading Strategy
Cause and Effect As you read, complete a diagram like the one below showing the relationship between certain resources and the products that resulted from their use.
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.3: Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Rev-
olution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.
10.3.2: Examine how scientific and technological
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy
The Second Industrial Revolution In Western Europe, the introduction of electric- ity, chemicals, and petroleum triggered the Second Indus- trial Revolution, and a world economy began to develop.
Reading Connection Does your life come to a halt when the power goes out? Read to learn what happened when elec- tricity first became a part of everyday life.
In the late nineteenth century, the belief in progress was so strong in the West that it was almost a religion. Europeans and Americans had been con- verted by the stunning bounty of products of the Sec- ond Industrial Revolution. In the first Industrial Revolution, textiles, coal, iron, and railroads were major elements. In the Second Industrial Revolution, steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum were the keys to making economies even more productive.
New Products One major industrial change between 1870 and 1914 was the substitution of steel for iron. New methods for shaping steel made it use- ful in building lighter and faster machines and engines, as well as railways, ships, and weapons. In 1860, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium produced 125,000 tons (112,500 t) of steel. By 1913, the total was an astounding 32 million tons (29 million t).
Electricity was a major new form of energy. It could be easily converted into other forms of energy, such as heat, light, and motion, and could be sent over long distances by means of wires. In the 1870s, the first practical generators of electrical current were devel- oped. By 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal- fired, steam-driven generating plants enabled homes and factories alike to draw upon a reliable, versatile, clean, and convenient source of power.
Electricity gave birth to a series of inventions. The creation of the lightbulb by Thomas Edison in the United States and Joseph Swan in Great Britain opened homes and cities to electric lights. A revolu- tion in communications began when Alexander
Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across
the Atlantic in 1901.
By 1900, streetcars and subways powered by elec- tricity had appeared in major European cities. Elec- tricity transformed the factory as well. Conveyor belts, cranes, and manufacturing machines could all be powered by electricity. With electric lights, facto- ries could operate 24 hours a day.
The development of the internal-combustion engine, fired by oil or gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation. This engine gave rise to ocean liners and warships with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first powered flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North Car- olina. In 1908, Henry Ford produced his first Model T.
296
striking discoveries, wireless telegraphy, on Decem- ber 12, 1901. The scientist and inventor described it in these words:
“ Shortly before mid-day I placed the single ear- phone to my ear and started listening. . . . I was at last on the point of putting . . . my beliefs to test.
The answer came at 12:30 when I heard, faintly but distinctly, pip-pip-pip. I handed the phone to Kemp: ‘Can you hear anything?’ I asked. ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘the letter S’—he could hear it. . . . The electric waves sent out into space from Britain had traversed the Atlantic—the distance, enormous as it seemed then, of 1,700 miles—It was an epoch in history. I now felt for the first time absolutely certain the day would come when mankind would be able to send mes- sages without wires . . . between the farthermost ends of the earth.
” Edison in 1915 with his portable searchlight
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy Guglielmo Marconi made one of the era’s most
20°W 10°W 0° N Industrialization of Europe by 1914 NORWAY 10°E 20°E FINLAND W E SWEDEN St. Petersburg S Stockholm
North Sea DENMARK Moscow Atlantic UNITED 50 ea °N KINGDOM S ic
Ocean t RUSSIA al
B Industrial concentration: NETH.
Area Warsaw London
City BELG. Berlin Industry: GERMANY Breslau
Chemicals Electricity D n Paris S iep e r R
Engineering e R Nuremberg ine R D a nu be
.
. Oil production . Steel FRANCE Vienna SWITZ.Limoges AUSTRIA- HUNGARY St. Etienne 40 E Toulouse °N b r o Belgrade Black Sea R . Marseille
ITALY
BALKANSMadrid Corsica Barcelona Lisbon PORTUGAL SPAIN Rome Sardinia Constantinople I sla n ds Naples Bal e a ric Salerno GREECE
Med ite r Sicily ran e
an
S
500 miles ea 500 kilometersSteel, electricity, and chemicals were some of the products Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection of the Second Industrial Revolution.
1. Interpreting Maps Locate places with the heaviest concentration of industry. What geographic factors pro- moted industry in these areas?
In the cities, the first department stores began to
2. Applying Geography Skills Use the information pro- sell a new range of products made possible by the vided in this map to create a chart that shows the types of
steel and electrical industries—clocks, bicycles, elec- industry in each country. tric lights, and typewriters, for example. Glass tech- nology also inspired stores to create eye-catching window displays of the latest fashions.
The Model T was very affordable and kicked off the
Not everyone benefited from the Second Industrial era when many people owned cars. Revolution. By 1900, Europe was divided into two eco-
New Patterns Industrial production grew at a rapid nomic zones. Great Britain, Belgium, France, the pace because the demand, or market, for goods was Netherlands, Germany, the western part of the Austro- a mass market. Many more Europeans could afford Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy made up an to buy products. Their wages increased after about advanced industrialized core. These nations had a high 1870. At the same time, manufactured goods were standard of living and advanced transportation. becoming cheaper: both production and transporta- In the rest of Europe—southern Italy, Spain, tion were more efficient. One of the biggest reasons Portugal, the Balkans, Russia, and most of Austria- for more efficient production was the assembly line, Hungary —the economy was still largely agricul- a new manufacturing method pioneered by Henry tural. These countries provided food and raw Ford in 1913. The assembly line allowed a much more materials for the industrial countries, and their peo- efficient mass production of goods. ples often had a much lower standard of living.
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy 297
Toward a World Economy The period of the Sec- Organizing the Working Class
ond Industrial Revolution marked a major step toward a true world economy. Transportation by
Industrialization gave some a higher standard steamship and railroad contributed to this advance. of living, but struggling workers turned to trade unions or
A European living in 1900 had the benefit of products socialism to improve their lives. from faraway places—beef and wool from Argentina and Australia, coffee from Brazil, iron ore from Alge-
Reading Connection Do you hear news stories about ria, and sugar from Java in Indonesia. life in a communist country such as China or Cuba? Read to Another part of the world economy was financial. learn about the first socialist movements in Europe.
European money was invested in other foreign enter- prises that would produce a profit—railroads, mines,
The transition to an industrialized society was very
electric power plants, and banks. Of course, foreign
hard on workers. It disrupted their lives and forced
countries also provided markets for the manufac-
them to move to crowded slums. They had to give up
tured goods of Europe. With its capital, industries,
occupations they knew and liked, and work long
and military might, Europe dominated the world
hours at mind-numbing tasks. Eventually this trans- economy by the beginning of the twentieth century. formation gave workers a higher standard of living.
Reading Check
Explaining What parts of Europe still This was not true at first, however, and for many had an agricultural economy in the early twentieth century? workers, improved conditions took many decades.
Distributor The Automobile
any new forms of transportation were created in the Industrial Revolu-
Cylinder
tion, but none affected more people on a daily basis than the automo-
M
bile. It was the invention of the internal-combustion engine that made the automobile possible.
Piston
A German engineer, Gottlieb Daimler, invented a light, portable internal- combustion engine in 1885. In 1889, Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach pro- duced an automobile powered by a gasoline engine that reached a speed of 10 miles [16 km] per hour. In 1926, Daimler and Karl Benz, another German, merged to form Daimler-Benz, an automotive company that would later manufacture the Mercedes-Benz.
Internal-combustion engine
Early cars were handmade and expensive. Only several hundred were sold between 1893 and 1901. Their slow speed, 14 miles [22.5 km] per hour, was a problem, too. Early models were not able to climb steep hills.
An American, Henry Ford, revolutionized the car industry in 1908 by using an assembly line to mass-produce his Model T. Before, it had taken a group of workers 12 hours to build a single car. Now, the same number of workers could build a car in an hour and a half. By cutting production costs, Ford lowered the price of the automobile. A Model T cost $850 in 1908 but only $360 by 1916. By 1916, Ford’s factories were producing 735,000 cars a year. By 1925, Ford’s Model T cars would make
1914 Ford Model T up half of the automobiles in the world.
Analyzing Why were early cars expensive? Ford Model U, 2003
298
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy
299
In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and his friend and coauthor Friedrich Engels denounced the new industrial economy and predicted that it would be defeated. A workers’ revolution was bound to occur.
Marx predicted that the struggle between the two groups would finally lead to revolution. The prole- tariat would violently overthrow the bourgeoisie. AP/Wide W o rld Photos
proletariat ( PROH •luh•TEH•ree•uht) as a way of referring to the working class.
the middle class, but Marx popularized the term
bourgeoisie was well known as a way of referring to
Around him, Marx believed he saw a society that was “more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.” The term
Marx believed that the oppressor and oppressed have “stood in constant opposition to one another” through all history. After the Industrial Revolution occurred, the oppressors were the capitalists with the capital, or money, to invest. They owned the land and the raw material; thus, they had total power over production. In Marx’s view, the oppressed were the workers who owned nothing and who depended for their very survival on the capitalists.
When the revolution came, it would destroy capital- ism. Material wealth could then be distributed equally among all workers.
influential theorists of the century. His socialist the- ory first came to light when The Communist Manifesto was published during the Revolution of 1848, just when workers were demonstrating in the streets.
place around the world. Mexican workers poured into the streets of Mexico City to denounce the North Amer- ican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Workers believed it had caused a decline in their wages. In Seoul, Korean workers hurled rocks at police to protest government corruption in South Korea. In Berlin and Leipzig, union workers marched to protest high unemployment in Ger- many. In Beijing, people filled Tiananmen Square to praise workers at the beginning of a three-day vacation. In Japan, two million workers attended rallies across the country. Fifteen thousand workers marched in the streets of San Salvador to demand that the government pass laws to benefit the workers of El Salvador.
Marx’s Theory Karl Marx was one of the most
Other reformers were more radical or even revolu- tionary. They wanted to abolish the capitalist system entirely and to create a socialist system. To achieve this goal, they supported socialist parties. Socialist parties emerged after 1870, but their theory for a new society came largely from Karl Marx. Marx was a socialist, and one form of Marxist socialism was eventually called communism (see Chapter 8).
Reformers of this era believed that industrial cap- italism was heartless and brutal. They wanted a new kind of society. Some reformers were moderates. They were willing to work within the system for gradual changes like fewer hours, better benefits, and safe working conditions. Often they used trade unions to achieve these practical goals.
Using outside sources, research what occurred last May 1. Were May Day celebrations held, and if so, where? Is May 1 still an international labor day?
Moscow, May 1, 1997
䊴 May Day rally near St. Basil’s cathedral in
In 1889, leaders of various socialist parties formed the Second International, a loose association of national groups. Its first action was to declare May 1 as May Day, an international labor day to be marked by strikes and mass labor demonstrations. Although the Second Inter- national no longer exists, workers around the world still observe May Day.
Why did these marches and demonstrations occur around the world on May 1? In the nineteenth century, the rise of socialist parties in Europe led to a movement to form an international organization. The purpose of this organization was to strengthen the position of socialist parties against international capitalism.
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy May Day On May 1, 1997, parades and demonstrations took
Then a dictatorship of the proletariat would be formed to abolish capitalism and create a socialist economy. (A dictatorship is a government in which a person or small group has absolute power.) After this dictatorship abolished economic differences among classes, a classless society would come about. The state itself, which had been a tool of the bourgeoisie, would wither away.
Critical Thinking
CA 10WA2.3b
8. Expository Writing After Marconi’s first transmission across radio waves, he said, “I now felt for the first time absolutely certain the day would come when mankind would be able to send messages without wires. . . .” Write a paragraph about this prophecy.
Industrial Revolution
First Industrial Revolution Second
CA HI 3
7. Compare the photos of the two Ford vehicles on page 298. Do you think that style and practicality weighed equally with car buyers in the 1920s as it does today? Why or why not?
Analyzing Visuals
6. Compare and Contrast Use a Venn diagram like the one below to compare and contrast the first and second Indus- trial Revolutions.
5. Contextualizing What is the relationship between the large number of technical innovations made during this period and the grow- ing need for labor reforms and unions?
4. Explain how Marx’s ideas came to directly affect society.
Socialist Parties People inspired by Marx and by
Reviewing Big Ideas
3. Places Locate: the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Austria-Hungary.
2. People Identify: Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi, Karl Marx.
1. Vocabulary Define: generator, trans- form, assembly line, mass production, emerge, proletariat, dictatorship, revisionist.
Reading Check 300
Summarizing How would you sum- marize Marx’s theory as stated in The Communist Manifesto?
The right to strike was another important part of the trade union movement. In a strike, a union calls on its members to stop work in order to pressure employers to meet their demands for higher wages or improved factory safety. At first, laws were passed that made strikes illegal under any circumstances. In Great Britain, in 1870, unions won the right to strike. By 1914, there were almost four million workers in British trade unions. In the rest of Europe, trade unions had varying degrees of success in helping workers achieve a better life.
focused on the trade union, or labor union. To improve their conditions, workers organized in a union. Then the union had to get the employer to rec- ognize its right to represent workers in collective bar- gaining, negotiations with employers over wages and hours.
Trade Unions Another movement for workers
In 1889, the Second International was founded, but socialist parties continued to disagree over pre- cise goals and tactics. So-called pure Marxists thought that only a violent revolution could defeat capitalism. Other Marxists, revisionists, rejected the idea of violent revolution. They argued that workers could achieve socialism through the parliamentary system. If more and more workers won the right to vote, they said, the laws could be changed and work- ers would have better lives. In other words, socialism would be achieved gradually and by working through the system, not through violent revolution.
Socialist parties emerged in other European states, too. As early as 1862, the First International was founded to promote socialist goals. It died out quickly because its members could not agree on tactics.
In the German parliament, SPD representatives lobbied for laws to improve working conditions. In 1912, four million Germans voted for SPD candidates. It had become the largest party in Germany. Because the German constitution gave greater power to the upper house and the German emperor, the SPD was not able to bring about the kind of changes it wanted.
the goals of socialism began to form political parties to change society. The most important was the Ger- man Social Democratic Party (SPD), founded in 1875. The SPD advocated a Marxist revolution. Bismarck, the German prime minister, outlawed the SPD in 1878, but the party grew and in 1890 it was legalized.
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy Checking for Understanding
- Attitudes toward women changed as
• As a result of industrialization, the levels
- As workers migrated to cities, local
- European society settled into three
1903 Women’s Social and Political Union established
migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution.
10.3.4: Trace the evolution of work and labor, including
the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement.
10.3.5: Understand the connections among natural
resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy.
10.3.6: Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a domi-
nant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Social- ism, and Communism.
1870 British wives gain greater property rights
1881 First publication of London’s Evening News
changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison).
1885 10,000 people watch British Soccer Cup finals
✦ 1870
✦ 1875
✦ 1880
✦
1885
✦ 1890
✦ 1895
✦ 1900
10.3.3: Describe the growth of population, rural to urban
10.3.2: Examine how scientific and technological
The Emergence of Mass Society Preview of Events
Academic Vocabulary
Guide to Reading
Section PreviewThe Second Industrial Revolution led to more leisure for all classes, and women began to expand their education and career opportunities.
governments had to solve urgent public health problems, and their solutions allowed cities to grow even more. (p. 302)
broad social classes—upper, middle, and lower—but many subgroups existed within the three classes. (p. 304)
they moved into white-collar jobs, received more education, and began agitating for the vote. (p. 306)
of education rose, and people’s lives were more clearly divided into periods of work and leisure. (p. 308)
Content Vocabulary
feminism, literacy
innovation, objective
olution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.
People to Identify
Florence Nightingale, Emmeline Pankhurst
Reading Objectives
1. Identify the main characteristics of the European middle class in the nine- teenth century.
2. List the major changes in women’s social status between 1870 and 1914.
Reading Strategy
Summarizing Information As you read, complete a graphic organizer summariz- ing social class divisions.
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.3: Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Rev-
CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy 301 Social Classes Working Middle Wealthy
The New Urban Environment As workers migrated to cities, local govern- The government’s failure to provide clean water ments had to solve urgent public health problems, and was satirized in Punch, the famous humor magazine, their solutions allowed cities to grow even more. in 1849. It was enough to make any Londoner think twice before drinking the next glass of water.
Reading Connection Have you heard adults in your community talk about landfill problems? Read to learn about This is the water that JOHN drinks. government solutions to similar problems in the late 1800s. “ This is the Thames with its cento* of stink,
By the end of the nineteenth century, the new That supplies the water that JOHN drinks. industrial world had led to the emergence of a mass These are the fish that float in the inky society in which the condition of the majority—the stream of the Thames with its cento of stink, lower classes—was demanding some sort of govern- That supplies the water that JOHN drinks. mental attention. The lower classes were concen- trated in cities where, as voters, they became a
This is the sewer from cesspool and sink, political force. That feeds the fish that float in the inky Governments that used to be concerned only with stream of the Thames with its cento of stink, the interests of the wealthier members of society now That supplies the water that JOHN drinks. had to consider how to appeal to the masses. Hous-
” ing was one area of great concern—crowded quarters could easily spread disease. An even bigger threat to
- Usually refers to a poetic blend of parts of literary works; here
health was public sanitation. From the 1850s on, this used sarcastically to refer to the mucky waters of the Thames River. was an urgent mutual concern in many big cities.
European Population Growth and Relocation, 1820–1900 60°N NORWAY
Atlantic SWEDEN a Stockholm e 1820
Ocean N S W E Edinburgh North ic Sea a DENMARK B lt 50 S Dublin Copenhagen
In 1820, a small percentage UNITED °N KINGDOM RUSSIAN of Europeans lived in cities.
Birmingham EMPIRE Amsterdam London NETH.
Berlin Inhabitants per
1. Interpreting Maps Rhine R. GERMAN Warsaw square mile:
Portsmouth CONFEDERATION
Where was the heaviest
Brussels Fewer than 20 Frankfurt
concentration of Euro-
20–50
Seine R.
Krak´ow Paris Praguepeans per square mile in Loir e 50–100 . R Strasbourg
Munich More than 100
1820? FRANCE Vienna Z¨urich SWITZ. Budapest
2. Applying Geography Bordeaux AUSTRIAN Geneva
Milan Venice EMPIRE Skills Create a database P o R.
that lists each country or Eb
Genoa Marseille R. ro D ube
40°N an Black R Florence
empire shown on the . ITALY Sea
Madrid Lisbon Corsica
map. Using the legend,
Barcelona 10°W PORTUGAL SPAIN Rome
estimate the inhabitants
Naples
per square mile for each Sardinia country. Which European 0° 10°E Palermo country had the fewest 500 miles Sicily inhabitants per square mile? 500 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Mediterranean Sea 20°E 30°E Crete
302
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 500 kilometers 500 miles N S E W 20°E 10°E 0° 40°N 60°N 10°W
1. Interpreting Maps
Explaining Why did cities grow so quickly in the nineteenth century?
The treatment of sewage was improved by build- ing mammoth underground pipes that carried raw sewage far from the city for disposal. The city of Frankfurt, Germany, began its program for sewers with a lengthy public campaign featuring the slogan “from the toilet to the river in half an hour.”
Clean water and an effective sewage system were critical to public health. The need for fresh water was met by dams and reservoirs to store water and by the aqueducts and tunnels to carry it from the country- side to urban homes. By the 1860s, many more peo- ple could take regular hot baths, too, because gas heaters, and later electric heaters, were invented.
Reformers blamed some problems on the lack of restraints on builders. City governments responded by creating boards of health to improve housing. Medical officers and building inspectors inspected dwellings for health hazards. Cities began requiring running water and internal drainage systems for new buildings.
Cholera, which is caused by a contaminated water supply, was the most deadly disease—a person might die in a matter of a few days. Cholera epidemics rav- aged many European cities in the 1830s and 1840s.
Improvements had come only after reformers in the 1840s began urging local governments to do some- thing about the filthy conditions that caused disease.
Cities also grew quickly after the 1850s because municipal governments had made innovations in public health and sanitation. Thus many more people could survive living close together.
Cities grew quickly because vast numbers of peo- ple from rural areas migrated to them. In the coun- tryside, they no longer had jobs, and in many countries, the land had never been theirs. In cities, they found work in factories and, later, in new white- collar jobs.
The population figures tell the story. In the early 1850s, urban dwellers made up about 40 percent of the English population, 15 percent of the French, 10 percent of the population in Prussia (the largest of the German states), and 5 percent in Russia. By 1890, urban dwellers had increased to about 60 percent in England, 25 percent in France, 30 percent in Prussia, and 10 percent in Russia. In heavily industrialized nations, cities grew tremendously. Between 1800 and 1900, for example, the population of London grew from 960,000 to 6,500,000.
1900 303
tionship between the increased urban popula- tions shown here and the areas of industrial concentration shown on the map on page 297.
2. Applying Geography Skills Analyze the rela-
Which country has the greater population density: Spain or Italy?
Two population changes occurred in Europe from 1820 to 1900: the overall population increased, and it shifted from rural to urban areas.
30°E 50 °N North Sea Mediterranean Sea B a lt ic S e a
Inhabitants per square mile:
20–50 50–100 More than 100
London Prague Portsmouth Fewer than 20
Krak´ow Warsaw Copenhagen Stockholm
Munich Berlin
Vienna
BudapestBrussels Amsterdam Strasbourg Frankfurt
Naples Palermo Z¨urich Paris
Genoa Milan Venice Florence Rome
Barcelona Marseille Bordeaux Geneva
Edinburgh Birmingham Lisbon Madrid
Po R. SPAIN FRANCE ITALY SWITZ. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE GERMAN EMPIRE BELG. NETH. UNITED KINGDOM DENMARK SWEDEN NORWAY RUSSIAN EMPIRE Sardinia Sicily Crete Corsica PORTUGAL Dublin
Eb ro R . Loi re R. Seine R. Rhine R. D an ube R.
Atlantic Ocean Black Sea
Reading Check
The sumptuous lifestyle of the upper middle class featured formal dress for meals of multiple courses prepared by a kitchen staff.
40 percent of the wealth. During the nineteenth cen-
Social Structure of Mass Society
tury, the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants—the wealthy upper middle class—had
European society settled into three broad
joined with the landed aristocracy to form this new
social classes—upper, middle, and lower—but many
elite. Members of the elite, whether aristocratic or subgroups existed within the three classes. upper middle class in background, became leaders in
Do you think of yourself as Reading Connection the government and military. belonging to the large American middle class? Read to learn Marriage also served to unite the two groups. about how your great-grandparents might have viewed them-
Daughters of business tycoons gained aristocratic selves in an earlier time. titles, and aristocratic heirs in financial difficulties gained new sources of cash. For example, when
After 1871, most people enjoyed an improved wealthy American Consuelo Vanderbilt married the standard of living. Their meals more often included British Duke of Marlborough, the new duchess
meat, their clothes were more often “store-bought,” brought approximately $10 million to the match.
and they might even have a little money left overThe Middle Classes
The middle classes consisted
from their pay. Even so, poverty remained a serious
of a variety of groups. Below the upper middle class, problem. which formed part of the new elite, was a group that
Several classes can be identified in European soci-
included lawyers, doctors, members of the civil serv-
ety at this time. A very small number were very rich,
ice, business managers, engineers, architects,
many more were very poor, and substantial numbers
accountants, and chemists. They made up a solid and belonged to different middle-class groups. comfortable middle-class group. Beneath them was a
The New Elite At the top of European society stood lower middle class. The lower middle class primarily a wealthy elite. This group made up only 5 percent consisted of small shopkeepers, traders, and prosper- of the population but controlled between 30 and ous farmers.
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CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy
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