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DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

TO TEACH SPEAKING TO SECURITY STAFF

OF BOROBUDUR TEMPLE USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

  A Thesis Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By: Albertus Bagasworo

  041214107

  

DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

TO TEACH SPEAKING TO SECURITY STAFF

OF BOROBUDUR TEMPLE USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

  A Thesis Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By: Albertus Bagasworo

  041214107

  GOD HAS NOT PROMISED SKIES ALWAYS BLUE SUN WITHOUT RAIN JOY WITHOUT SORROW PEACE WITHOUT PAIN BUT GOD HAS PROMISED STRENGTH FOR THE DAY REST FOR THE LABOR LIGHT FOR THE WAY GRACE FOR TRAILS HELP FROM ABOVE UNFAILING SYMPATHY UNDYING LOVE (pravsworld.com) Dedicated to:

  My beloved parents My lovely brothers, Alex and Alfons Someone whom I love so much And, all of my friends

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  First of all, I would like to thank Jesus Christ and Mother Marry for Their endless blessing. I thank Them for giving me strength for the day, light for the way, and grace for the trails. I believe that I am nothing without Their Blessing.

  My greatest gratitude goes to Drs. Concilianus Laos Mbato, M.A, as my sponsor. I thank him for his guidance, criticism, advice, correction, support, patience, and encouragement in helping me write the thesis.

  I would like to thank Ir. Retno Hardiasiwi, SE. as the head of Taman

  

Wisata Candi Borobudur . I thank her for giving me permission to conduct my

  thesis at Borobudur Temple. I also thank Bulik Eny for helping me distribute the questionnaires. My gratitude also goes to Mas Agus Kemot for giving me so much information about the procedure in conducting my thesis there. I would also thank

  

Pak Ruwido for giving me so much information about all the things in Borobudur

  Temple. My special gratitude is also addressed to all of the security staff of Borobudur Temple. I thank them for the willingness to fill my questionnaires so that I can finish my thesis. They have been very kind and friendly to me.

  My deep gratitude also goes to the participants of materials evaluation; G.

  

Punto Aji, S.Pd., M.Hum., C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., and JB. Gunawan, M.A.

  I really thank them for the feedback, comments, suggestions, and critics to their everlasting love, prayers, patience, support, and guidance. I could never repay them for all they have done for me. My appreciation also goes for my lovely brothers, mas Alex and Alfons “Clucky” who are always there for me. I thank for the love, laughter, support, and prayers. My life is so colorful with their presence.

  I thank my grand parents Simbah Kakung and Putri Cokroatmojo (RIP) for their truly love, advice, guidance, and sweet memories. I also thank Simbah Kakung and Simbah Putri Siswo Sumarto for their prayers, love, and supports.

  My sincere thank also goes to my uncle, Drs. Aloysius Triwanggono,

  

M.S., and his family in Krapyak. I thank them for their prayers, support, and

  advice. I thank mas Iyong, mas Iyok, mba’ Tetty, and mas Wiwing. I really thank them for the laughter, support, craziness, and prayers. I would also express my gratitude to all Pakde and Bude in Semalen. The greatest gratitude also goes to the big family of Cokroatmojo.

  I would like to say thank you very much for Monica “Almon”. Her presence means a lot for me. I thank her for always be there for me. I thank her for the love, support, and honesty that she has given to me. I also thank her for the laughter and tears we have been through together. My sincere thank also goes to

  

Keluarga Sumpeno. I thank them for their support, kindness, and prayers. I also

  thank them for lending me some equipment to finish my thesis. I would like them to know that I really appreciate their help. have made together. I am lucky to have friends like you. My thank also goes for the girls; Silvi, Rita, Valent, Nophie, Agnez, Cempluck, Rizka, Indri, Maya,

  

Retha, and Yuni. It is nice having friends like you. I have to express my gratitude

  to all PBI 2004 students. It is very nice to know all of them. I am really happy to study together with them.

  Finally, I thank all PBI lecturers, mba’ Danik, and mba’ Tari as secretariat staff, and all the people whom I cannot mention individually. This thesis could not be finished without them. God Bless us.

  Albertus Bagasworo

  TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................... i

PAGE OF APPROVAL ................................................................................... ii

PAGE OF ACCEPTANCE.............................................................................. iii

PAGE OF DEDICATION ............................................................................... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ................................................ v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................. ix

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... xii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xiii

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................... xiv

ABSTRAK

  ......................................................................................................... xvi

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background .................................................................................................

  1 B. Problem Formulation...................................................................................

  3 C. Problem Limitation......................................................................................

  4 D. Objectives of the Study ...............................................................................

  4 E. Benefit of the Study.....................................................................................

  4 F. Definition of Terms .....................................................................................

  5 CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description...............................................................................

  8 a. Design Model .........................................................................................

  8

  

2) Teaching Speaking in Communicative Language Teaching ...........

  15 d. Cooperative Learning.............................................................................

  15

1) Background......................................................................................

  15

2) The Purpose of Cooperative Learning .............................................

  17

3) The Focus of Cooperative Learning ................................................

  17

4) The Role of the Learners .................................................................

  18

5) The Role of the Teacher ..................................................................

  19

6) The Role of Instructional Materials .................................................

  19

7) The Method of Cooperative Learning .............................................

  20 e. English for Specific Purposes ................................................................

  22

1) Background......................................................................................

  22

2) Target Needs ....................................................................................

  23

3) Learning Needs ................................................................................

  25

4) Materials Design Model of ESP ......................................................

  25 f. Adult Learners ........................................................................................

  26 B. Theoretical Framework ...............................................................................

  29 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Methods .......................................................................................

  33 B. Research Participants ..................................................................................

  34 C. Research Instruments ..................................................................................

  35 D. Data Gathering Technique ..........................................................................

  36 E. Data Analysis Technique.............................................................................

  37 F. Research Procedures ....................................................................................

  38 CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

  

2) Specifying Learning Objectives ......................................................

  48 c. Designing Materials ...............................................................................

  50

1) Listing Subject Content ..................................................................

  50

2) Selecting Teaching/Learning Activities ..........................................

  52 d. Evaluate..................................................................................................

  53

1) The Description of Participants .......................................................

  53

2) Data Presentation .............................................................................

  53 3) The Participants’ Comments and Suggestions on the Materials Design ..............................................................................................

  55 e. Revising the Materials Design ...............................................................

  57 B. Presentation of the Designed Materials.......................................................

  59 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions .................................................................................................

  61 B. Suggestions..................................................................................................

  64 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................

  66 APPENDICES Appendix A. Letter of Permissions..................................................................

  67 Appendix B. Questionnaires of Research and Information Collecting............

  70 Appendix C. Questionnaires for the Materials Evaluation ..............................

  73 Appendix D. General Description of the Designed Materials .........................

  76 Appendix E. Syllabus and Lesson Plan ...........................................................

  80 Appendix F. Presentation of the Designed Materials ...................................... 110

  LIST OF FIGURES Figure I. Kemp’s Instructional Model..............................................................

  11 Figure II. The Material Design Model of ESP.................................................

  26 Figure III. The Combination of R & D Method and Kemp’s Model...............

  32

  

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. The Central Tendency of the Participants’ Opinions......................

  38 Table 4.1. The Description of the Learners .....................................................

  42 Table 4.2. The Data of Research and Information Collecting .........................

  44 Table 4.3. The Result of the Topics Chosen ....................................................

  46 Table 4,4. The Basic Competence of the Instructional Materials ....................

  47 Table 4.5. The Indicators of Each Topic..........................................................

  48 Table 4.6. The Description of the Participants of Materials Evaluation..........

  53 Table 4.7. The Result of the Materials Evaluation ..........................................

  54

  

ABSTRACT

  Bagasworo, Albertus. 2008. Designing a Set of English Instructional Materials to

  

Teach Speaking to Security Staff of Borobudur Temple Using Cooperative

Learning. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

  Borobudur Temple is one of the most famous tourism destinations in Indonesia. Thousand foreigners come to Borobudur Temple each year. Since English is accepted as an international language, foreigners from different countries use it to communicate. In order to provide good services for foreigners, English as a means of communication needs to be mastered by all of the staff of Borobudur Temple. One of the staff that plays an important role in giving service to foreigners is security staff. The fact that some of foreigners do not use any guide service makes the role of security staff become more important. Unfortunately, almost all of the security staff of Borobudur Temple still find difficulties in communicating with foreigners. The difficulty to communicate using English becomes a major obstacle in giving a good service to the foreigners. Those are the reasons why the writer was interested to design a set of English speaking materials for the security staff of Borobudur Temple.

  The security staff of Borobudur Temple are all adults. They have some differences, such as, ages, gender, educational and economical background, etc. Sometimes, those differences raise the psychological barriers that will be an obstacle in teaching learning activity. Therefore, to reduce the barriers, the writer uses Cooperative Learning approach.

  There are two problems stated in this study. They are (1) How is a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple designed? And (2) What does the designed materials look like?

  To answer the first question, the writer combined and adapted Kemp’s Model and Research & Development Method. The steps were stated as follows: 1) Research and Information Collecting, 2) Planning (stating goals, topics, general

  

purposes, and objectives) , 3) Designing Materials (listing subject content and

selecting teaching/learning activities) , 4) Evaluating, 5) Revising.

  To answer the second question, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials which had been revised and improved based on the suggestions, comments, and feedback gathered from three lecturers of Sanata Dharma University. The final version of the speaking instructional materials for the security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning consists of designed materials were acceptable and appropriate to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple.

  Finally, it is hoped that the designed materials will be useful to help the security staff of Borobudur Temple improve their speaking skill. Thus, they will be able to communicate with foreigners in their daily work fluently and serve them well.

  

ABSTRAK

  Bagasworo, Albertus. 2008. Designing a Set of English Instructional Materials to

  

Teach Speaking to Security Staff of Borobudur Temple Using Cooperative

Learning. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Candi Borobudur merupakan salah satu tempat tujuan wisata yang ternama di Indonesia. Ribuan wisatawan asing mengunjungi Candi Borobudur setiap tahunnya. Sejak bahasa Inggris diterima sebagai bahasa internasional, wisatawan asing dari berbagai negara menggunakan bahasa Inggris untuk berkomunikasi. Untuk memberikan pelayanan yang baik bagi wisatawan asing, semua staf di Candi Borobudur harus menguasai bahasa Inggris. Salah satu staf yang berperan penting dalam melayani wisatawan asing adalah petugas keamanan. Kenyataan bahwa tidak semua wisatawan asing menggunakan jasa pemandu wisata membuat peranan petugas keamanan menjadi sangat penting. Sayangnya, hampir semua petugas keamanan di Candi Borobudur masih mengalami kesulitan dalam berkomunikasi dengan wisatawan asing. Kesulitan dalam berkomunikasi ini menjadi penghalang utama dalam memberikan pelayanan yang baik bagi wisatawan asing. Hal inilah yang menjadi alasan utama penulis tertarik untuk merancang seperangkat materi pembelajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris untuk petugas keamanan Candi Borobudur.

  Semua petugas keamanan Candi Borobudur adalah orang dewasa. Mereka berbeda satu dengan yang lainya. Beberapa perbedaan itu adalah, usia, jenis kelamin, latar belakang pendidikan dan ekonomi. Perbedaan seperti ini berpotensi menimbulkan beban mental yang akan menggangu proses belajar mengajar. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, penulis menggunakan pendekatan Cooperative Learning .

  Ada dua permasalahan yang dirumuskan dalam study ini. Kedua permasalahan tersebut yaitu (1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris bagi petugas keamanan Candi Borobudur menggunakan metode Cooperative Learning dirancang? dan (2) Seperti apakah penyajian materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris tersebut?

  Untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama, penulis melakukan lima langkah model pengembangan materi yang merupakan penggabungan antara dua model pengembangan materi yaitu Kemp dan Research and Development models. Langkah-langkahnya adalah (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2)

  

Planning (stating goals, topics, general purposes, and objectives), (3) Designing

Materials (listing subject content and selecting teaching/learning activities), (4)

Evaluating, (5) Revising.

  

Direction, (7) Describing People, (8) Thanking. Untuk masing-masing unit dibagi

  menjadi 6 aktifitas, yaitu (1) Starter, (2) Chit-Chat, (3) Language Focus, (4) Language Exercises, (5) Communicative Activities, (6) Reflection.

  Dari hasil evaluasi materi, penulis memperoleh data bahwa rata-rata nilai persetujuan adalah 3,83. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa secara umum materi pengajaran yang disusun penulis sudah baik dan dapat diterima untuk mengajar berbicara bahasa Inggris petugas keamanan Candi Borobudur.

  Akhirnya, penulis berharap bahwa materi pengajaran ini dapat berguna untuk meningkatkan keahlian berbicara petugas keamanan Candi Borobudur. Sehingga mereka mampu berkomunikasi dengan wisatawan asing dalam pekerjaan sehari-hari dan memberikan pelayanan yang baik untuk mereka.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This study intends to design a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning. This chapter presents the background of study, problem formulation, problem limitation, objective of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms. A. Background of the Study It is widely known that Indonesia has a number of tourism resorts. A

  number of foreigners come to Indonesia each year. One of the most famous tourism resorts in Indonesia is Borobudur Temple. Borobudur Temple had ever been one of the seven wonders in the world. Although recently Borobudur Temple becomes one of the world cultural heritages, there are still thousand foreigners who come to Borobudur Temple each year. Based on the observation, the foreigners have different reasons for coming to Borobudur Temple. Some of them are on vacation and some of them do some jobs.

  Since English is accepted as an international language, foreigners from different countries use it to communicate. With a big number of the foreigners that visit Borobudur Temple, it means that English is urgently needed there. In order

  2 The fact that some of foreigners do not use any guide service makes the role of security staff become more important. Besides keeping the security of the place, security staff is also becoming the source of information for the foreigners, i.e. when the foreigners are asking about direction, location, and other information that the security staff may help. It is difficult for the security staff in giving such information that the foreigners need because they cannot speak English. In this real situation, the security staff cannot speak in English well and unfortunately the foreigners also cannot speak in Indonesia. To avoid the misunderstanding between the foreigners and the security staff, the security staff should be able to speak English.

  Based on the observation and informal interview with three security staff of Borobudur Temple, the researcher found that they often find difficulties in communicating with the foreigners. Some of the difficulties are lack of vocabularies, not knowing how to pronounce certain words in English, and not knowing how to arrange the words in to a good sentence in English. Because of this reason, a set of English instructional materials is designed for the security staff of Borobudur Temple in order to help them develop their speaking skill when they are communicating with foreigners. Being able to communicate fluently, all of the security staff of Borobudur Temple will be better in giving services to foreign tourists.

  3 Temple. The idea of using Cooperative learning came from the observation that the security staff of Borobudur Temple has some differences such as ages, gender, and educational, social, and economical background.

  Cooperative Learning according to Richard and Rodgers (2001:192) is an approach that uses variety of teaching methods in which students work in small groups and help one another in learning. It makes the maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Cooperative Learning can be effective for students at all academic levels and learning styles (Slavin, 1995: 4). Through Cooperative Learning, positive interaction, face-to-face verbal interaction can be achieved. This situation will promote communication that is natural and meaningful. This approach is very useful in learning English and can be implemented in teaching speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple that come from different, ages, gender, and educational, social, and economical background.

B. Problem Formulation

  The study intends to find out the answer to the problems formulated below:

  1. How is a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning designed?

  2. What does the designed materials look like?

  4

  C. Problem Limitation

  This study is focused on designing a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning. The materials will be designed for the beginner level students. The materials will be presented for the security staff whose English proficiency is at a very low level. The course provides the beginner learners the opportunity to focus on one skill that they wish to improve. In this study, speaking skill is mostly needed by the security staff to improve. From the observation, the ages of the security staff are about 30-50 years old. Since they are considered as the adult learners and have been already work as security staff that often communicates with foreigners, English is very important for them.

  D. Objectives of the Study

  As this study is intended to find out the answers to the questions mentioned in the problem formulation above, two objectives are stated here:

  1. To design a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning.

  2. To develop a set of English speaking instructional materials.

  E. Benefits of the Study

  5

  1. English Instructors

  This study will help the English instructors who teach security staff to deliver good teaching for them. The instructional materials are designed based on the needs of security staff.

  2. Security Staff

  The security staff of Borobudur Temple has a good chance to learn and use spoken English better through communicative activities and cooperative classroom situation.

  3. Researchers

  This study hopefully will help the researchers in providing meaningful information especially for the researchers who are interested in ESP. The result of the study also can be used to help other researchers to develop good materials.

F. Definition of Terms

  To avoid any misunderstanding, some terms need clarifying. The terms will be defined as follows:

1. Instructional Materials

  Instructional materials are the materials planned or designed by the teacher for the teaching instructions (Dick and Reiser, 1989:3). The instructional

  6 are used by the teachers and students for the purpose of improving individual English performance through teaching-learning activity process.

  2. Speaking

  In this study, speaking is viewed as the manifestation of the language as usage and refers to the realization of language as used in spoken interaction (Widdowson 1989:59). By having speaking activities the learners may express their ideas, thought and feeling orally.

  3. Cooperative Learning

  According to Richard and Rodgers (2001:192), Cooperative Learning is an approach that uses variety of teaching methods in which the students work in small groups and help one another in learning. It makes the maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. This approach is very flexible and can be used to teach the students who come from different ages, academic abilities, ethnic backgrounds, races, and gender.

  4. Security Staff

  According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, security means measures taken to guarantee the safety of a country, person, and thing of value (1995: 1062). While staff means all the workers employed in a business, etc considered as a group. Security staff in this context is a group

  7

5. Borobudur Temple

  Borobudur Temple had ever been one of the seven wonders in the world. It is the biggest Buddhist building around the world that till now have been visited by million people. The name of Borobudur comes from two words, “Bara” and Budur”. “Bara” here means temple or monastery, and “Budur” comes from Bali language that means above. So, Borobudur Temple in this context means a temple that placed above.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter discusses the related theories which underlie the study. In the

  first discussion, the writer would like to present a theoretical description that consists of Design model, Research and development, Communicative Language Teaching, Cooperative Learning, English for Specific Purposes, and Teaching Adult. The second discussion is theoretical framework. It is focusing on the steps used to develop English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using Cooperative Learning.

A. Theoretical Description

  There are some points that are very important to support the designed materials in designing a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to security staff of Borobudur Temple using cooperative learning. Those points are: design model, Research and Development Method, Communicative Language Teaching, Cooperative Learning, English for Specific Purposes, and Teaching Adult.

a. Design Model 1) Kemp’s Model

  9 An instructional process is a complex process, which is composed of many parts and interrelated with one another (Kemp 1977: 6).

  This method can be applied on any educational level, elementary, secondary or college. An instructional plan is designed to supply the answer to the following three questions used as the essential elements of instructional technology (Kemp, 1977: 8). Those are: what must be learned? (Objectives), what procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? (Activities and resources), and how will we know when the required learning has taken place? (Evaluation)

  There are eight steps in designing an instructional plan according to Kemp (1977: 8).

  1. Considering goals, listing topics, and then stating the general purposes for teaching each topic. Statement of goals should recognize the changes in learners’ needs and interests as well as changes in the needs of society and its institution.

  2. Enumerating learners’ characteristics. In this step, the teacher should know the factors about the learners’ educational and socio-cultural background, learning condition, and learning technique that will influence the teaching learning process.

  10 measurable. It will help the material developer to select the learning activities for the learners.

  4. Listing the subject content that supports each objective. In this part the material developer focus on the subject content that will support each objective. The content must closely relate to the objectives and to the learners’ needs. The material developer cannot directly decide the subject content if s/he has not specified the learning objectives.

  5. Developing pre-assessment to determine the learners’ background and presenting level of knowledge about the topic. In order to know the learners’ background of learning, the teacher should have to develop pre-assessment.

  6. Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources. The material developer should know what instructional methods and instructional resources that will be the most appropriate to achieve the objectives.

  7. Coordinating support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. When, the instructor wants to carry out the implementation, it is necessary to consider support services. If it is not available, it can limit the new planned program.

  11 The following diagram illustrates the relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps.

  Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Learner Characteristics Evaluation Support Learning Services Revise Objectives Teaching / Learning Subject Activities, Content Resources Pre- Assessment

  Figure 1. Kemp’s Instructional Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

  There is a strength that can be found in Kemp’s model. The strength is in

  12

b. Research and Development Method

  Besides using Kemp model, the material developer also uses R & D (Research and Development) method. Educational research and development is a process used to develop and validate educational products (Borg and Gall, 1967: 775). There are ten major steps in R and D circle. The explanation of the steps is as follows:

  1. Research and information collecting. It includes review of literature and classroom observations.

  2. Planning, it includes defining skills, stating objectives determining course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.

  3. Designing preliminary form of product, it includes preparation of instructional materials, handbooks and evaluation devices.

  4. Preliminary field testing. Interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.

  5. Main product revision. In this step there is a revision of product as suggested by preliminary field-test results.

  6. Main field testing. It is conducted in 5 to 15 schools with 30 to 100 subjects. Quantitative data on subjects’ pre-course and post-course performance are collected.

  13

  8. Operational field testing. It is conducted in 10 to 30 schools involving 40 to 200 subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.

  9. Final product revision. It is the revision of product as suggested by operational field-test results.

  10. Dissemination and implementation. Reporting the product to professionals.

c. Communicative Language Teaching 1) Principles in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

  Larsen (2000: 125) proposed some principles of CLT. Those are:

  1. Whenever possible, authentic language (language as it is used in the real context) should be introduced.

  2. Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s intention is part of being communicatively competent.

  3. The target language is vehicle for classroom communication. It is not just the object of the study. It means the teaching-learning activities are on the process of communication rather than just mastery the language forms.

  14

  5. Learners should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.

  6. Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills.

  7. One of the teachers’ major responsibilities is to establish the situations likely to promote communication.

  8. Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among students. It gives an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning. The social context of the communicative event is also essential in giving meaning to the utterances.

  9. The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative activities and as an advisor during the activities.

  10. In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say but also how to say.

  11. Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence.

  12. Grammar and vocabulary that the learners learn follow from the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors.

  All efforts and activities in CLT serve the purpose of enabling learners to

  15 communicate (Nunan, 1989: 13). Therefore, those characteristics of CLT that focus on communicative function become the basis of the designed materials which is conducted in this study.

2) Teaching Speaking in Communicative Language Teaching

  Since speaking is included in a productive skill, it is important that in teaching-learning process, the teacher should encourage the learners to speak.

  According to Widdowson (1979: 59) speaking is viewed as the manifestation of the language usage and refers to the realization of language as used in spoken interaction. In order to have the ability in speaking English, the important thing for the teacher to do is to give the learners many opportunities to practice speaking skill.

  In CLT, the learners will have the opportunity to speak because in this approach language learning is learning to communicate. The teacher as the learning facilitator should be careful in selecting the activities to be given in speaking class so that these can promote to speak.

d. Cooperative Learning 1) Background

  16 According to Richard and Rodgers (2001: 192), cooperative learning is an approach that uses variety of teaching methods in which students work in small groups and help one another in learning. It makes the maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Cooperative Learning in this context is used to raise the achievement of all students, including those who are gifted or academically handicapped, help the teacher build positive relationship among the students, and replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools with a team- based, high-performance organizational structure.

  It has been stated before that Cooperative Learning is the extension of Communicative Language Teaching. Therefore, through Cooperative Learning students learn how to communicate effectively in the second language, rather than learn about the language (Kessler, 1992: 38). The focus is on communicative function: how to use the language in order to carry out specific intension, such as apologizing or persuading.

  Cooperative Learning approaches leads to:

  a. higher academic achievement than competitive or individualistic approaches, b. better interpersonal attitudes toward subjects being studied and the overall classroom experience, and

  c. more relationships among students (Johnson & Johnson, 1994, as cited by

  17 efforts benefit me and my efforts benefit you, recognizing that one’s performance is mutually caused by oneself and one’s colleagues (united we stand, divided we fall), empowering each other (together we can achieve anything), and feeling proud celebrating when a group member is achieving something (Johnson & Johnson, 1994: 5)

  2) The Purpose of Cooperative Learning

  According to Kindsvatter et al. (1996: 308) there are three purposes of Cooperative Learning. First, to increase the achievement though group collaboration that enables students to learn from each other. Second, to provide an alternative approach to the competitive structures of most classrooms today that often discourages the poorer students. Third, the purpose is to improve human relations in the classroom.

  3) The Focus of Cooperative Learning

  Kindsvatter et al. (1996: 308) said that the focus of Cooperative Learning is both academic and affective. Cooperative Learning is focusing on the achievement of shared goals through cooperative efforts. To accomplish the focus five basics elements should be included.

  1. Establishment of positive interdependence

  2. Promotion of face-to-face interpersonal interaction and small-group

  18

  5. Group processing of their achievement and maintenance of effective working relationship.

4) The Role of the Learner

  Richard and Rodgers (2001: 199) explain that learners, as member of a group in Cooperative Learning, must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members. In Cooperative Learning, the learners become the directors of their own learning. They can learn how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning. Students in Cooperative Learning classroom are to give and receive assistance, feedback, reinforcement, and support to each other (Kinsvatter et al, 1996: 310). Positive interdependence encourages students to see how their work benefits others and their group members’ benefit them. Students’ expectation in Cooperative Learning Classroom is the successfulness of the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1994: 6).

  Students in Cooperative Learning are encouraged to think “Positive Interdependence”, which means that the students do not think competitively and individualistically, but rather cooperatively and in terms of the group. In Cooperative Learning, students often stay together in the same groups for period of time so they can learn how to work better. The members of each group are mixed – males and females, different ethnic groups, different proficiency levels,

  19 The Role of the Teacher The teacher in Cooperative Learning must create highly structured and well-organized learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning, structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, and selecting the materials and time (Johnson et al., cited by Richard and Rogers, 2001: 199-200). In CL the teacher can learn as well as the learners. This mind-set affects the learning process and has an empowering effect on all involved. Through this kind of orientation, there will no inhibiting factors to prevent success.

  As facilitators, the teachers must monitor the functioning of the groups, intervene whenever it is necessary to teach small-group skills, provide assistance when needed, and evaluate the students and groups to know how well the group members work together (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991 as cited by Kindsvatter, 1996: 309).

  Teachers in Cooperative Learning speak less than teacher in traditional class. They provide some board questions to challenge the students’ thinking.

  They prepare students for the tasks they will carry out, they assist students with the learning tasks, and they give few commands, improving less disciplinary control (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 200)

  20 conceptual and complex the task, the greater the cooperation. As it has been said before that Cooperative Learning is the extension of Communicative Language Teaching, the materials used in Cooperative Learning should be authentic materials and related with the real context. In this case, the materials should be designed creatively.

6) The method of Cooperative Learning

  Small – group approach is the major methodology in Cooperative Learning (Kindsvatter et al., 1996: 309). Some of the Cooperative Learning methods that are frequently used, among others:

  1. Student Team – Achievement Division (STAD) In STAD, class is divided into several groups in which each of group consists of four or five members mixed in performance level, gender, and ethnicity. The teacher presents a lesson, and then students work within their teams to make sure all team members have mastered the lesson. Students in STAD are tested individually. They are given individual quizzes on the materials and they may not help one another Slavin, 1995: 5). STAD aims to motivate the students to encourage and help each other master the skills presented by the teacher. The team score in Cooperative Learning is calculated by noting result of individual students’ improvement over past performance (Lewis and Doorlag, 1991 as cited

  21 with partners, and then share with the class (Kagan, 1992 as cited by Kindsvatter et al., 1996: 309).

  3. Jigsaw In Jigsaw, each group member is given one piece of information and is responsible to teach it to the group. In Jigsaw II, students obtain their own information and share it with the group. Students then are tested individually (Kagan, 1992 as cited by Kindsvatter et al., 1996: 310).

  4. Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) In TAI, students are assigned materials at their own achievement level and are assisted by their group members in learning the materials. Group points are obtained through the improvement on individual tests (Olson and Platt, 1992 as cited by Kindsvatter et al., 1996: 310). According to Slavin (1995: 7), students enter and individualized sequence. The members of a team work on different units. Teammates check each other’s work using answer sheets and help one another with any problems.

  5. Group Investigation In Group Investigation, students work in small groups using cooperative inquiry, group discussion, and cooperative planning and projects (Sharan and

  Sharan, 1992, as cited by Slavin, 1995:11). The groups choose topics from a unit

  22 their own learning (Lewis and Doorlag, 1991 as cited by Kindsvatter et al., 1996: 310).

  6. Learning Together Learning Together is a cooperative approach in which students are organized into teams that include a cross-section of ability (Johnson & Johnson,

  1994 as cited by Byrd & Burden 1999: 102). Each team is given a task to complete and each team member works on a part of the task that is compatible with his and her own interests and abilities. The purpose is to maximize strengths of individual students to get a better overall group effect (Burden & Byrd, 1999: 102)

  Certainly, the strategy of Cooperative Learning will not be used for all the class work. Students need to experience independent work and competitive experience as well.

e. English for Specific Purposes 1) Background

  According to Hutchinson and Waters (1981:21) ESP is an approach to language teaching, which aims to meet the needs of particular learners. Based on this understanding the teaching learning activities given to the learners should