A set of English speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul community-based rehabilitation using cooperative learning.

(1)

vii ABSTRACT

Juniarsa, Lukas. 2010. A Set of English Speaking Instructional Materials for the Staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation Using Cooperative Learning Theory. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

This research focuses on designing a set of speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using cooperative learning theory. It considers that the staff members need to master the English skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Among those skills, speaking is the most commonly language used to communicate (Randolp, 1985:3). The staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation tends to be able to speak English since they are accustomed to communicate with some foreign people who support the fund. Realizing that the staff has different English background knowledge, cooperative learning is suitable used as teaching-learning activity. The problem comes from the insufficient speaking materials for the learners. To respond the problem, a research was conducted. The research was intended to design a set of speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using cooperative learning theory.

The research discusses two problems. Those problems are (1) How is a set of speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using cooperative learning theory designed? (2) What does a set of speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using cooperative learning theory look like?

To answer those two questions, the writer employed Research and Development Method which consisted of ten steps. In the study, the writer only employed the first five steps of R & D Method. Those steps were (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) product evaluation, and (5) main product revision.

To answer the first question, the writer applied nine stages of instructional design model, which were adapted from Kemp’s, Yalden’s and Dick and Carey’s models. The stages were (1) holding needs analysis, (2) identifying learners’ characteristic, (3) identifying goal, topics, and general purposes, (4) identifying learning objectives, (5) selecting syllabus, (6) selecting teaching learning activities, (7) listing subject content, (8) designing materials, and (9) conducting evaluation. To answer the second question, the writer presented the instructional design materials using Cooperative Learning for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation. The materials consist of nine units. Each unit consists of four sections, namely warming-up, conversation, language focus, and what have you learnt?

The materials evaluation results showed that the mean ranged from 3.4 to 4. It shows that the designed materials are good and acceptable to be used for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation.

Finally, the writer hopes that the materials will be beneficial for both the learners (staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation) and their English instructors of the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation’s speaking ability.

(2)

viii ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini menekankan pada pembuatan seperangkat materi berbicara untuk staf CBR Bantul menggunakan teori cooperative learning. Teori ini digunakan dengan mempertimbangkan bahwa para staf menginginkan dapat menguasai keterampilan berbahasa inggris; yaitu ketrampilan mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. Diantara semua keterampilan tersebut, berbicara adalah ketrampilan yang paling umum digunakan untuk berkomunikasi (Randopl, 1985:3). Para staff CBR Bantul diharapkan mampu berkomunikasi menggunakan bahasa inggris karena ada kenyataan bahwa pihak kantor terbiasa menjalin relasi dengan donatur dari luar negeri. Menyadari bahwa para staff CBR Bantul mempunyai dasar kemampuan berbahasa inggris yang berbeda, pendekatan mbelajar mengajar menggunakan cooperative learning itu sesuia untuk digunakan. Namun, masalah yang sekiranya dapat mengganggu adalah kurangnya materi berbicara yang dapat menunjang proses belajar. Oleh karena itu, sebuah penelitian dilaksanakan untuk menanggapi masalah tersebut yang bertujuan untuk merancang materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk staf CBR Bantul menggunakan teori cooperative learning.

Terdapat dua masalah yang dibahas dalam penelitian ini. Masalah-masalah tersebut adalah (1) bagaimana materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk staf CBR Bantul menggunakan teori cooperative learning dirancang dan (2) bagaimana materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk staf CBR Bantul menggunakan teori cooperative learning disajikan.

Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, penulis mengimplementasikan Research and Development Method yang terdiri dari sepuluh langkah. Namun dalam penelitian ini, penulis hanya mengimplementasikan lima langkah pertama dari R&D Method. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) product evaluation, dan (5) main product revision.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis menerapkan delapan langkah dari model pembuatan materi yang diadaptasi dari model Kemp, Yalden, dan Dick dan Carey. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) melakukan survei kebutuhan, (2) mempelajari karakter murid, (3) menentukan tujuan, topik, dan tujuan umum, (4) merumuskan indikator, (5) menyeleksi silabus pembelajaran, (6) menyeleksi aktivitas pembelajaran, (7) merancang isi materi, (8) mendesain materi, dan (9) mengevaluasi rancangan materi. Sedangkan untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis menyajikan materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk staf CBR Bantul menggunakan teori cooperative learning yang terdiri dari sembilan unit. Masing-masing unit tediri dari empat bagian, yaitu warming-up, conversation, language focus, dan what have you learnt?

Dari hasil evaluasi rancangan materi didapatkan nilai rata-rata yang berkisar antara 3,4 – 4. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa rancangan materi pembelajaran

(3)

tersebut cukup bagus dan bisa diterima serta digunakan bagi para staf CBR Bantul.

Akhir kata, penulis mengharapkan materi pembelajaran ini bermanfaat bagi bagi para staf CBR Bantul dan pengajarnya untuk meningkatkan kemampuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara mereka.

(4)

A SET OF ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE STAFF OF BANTUL COMMUNITY-BASED

REHABILITATION USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Lukas Juniarsa Student Number: 031214014

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(5)

A SET OF ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE STAFF OF BANTUL COMMUNITY-BASED

REHABILITATION USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Lukas Juniarsa Student Number: 031214014

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(6)

(7)

(8)

Throughout our life, even if trials lead us to question

ourselves,

to discover our limits, that irreplaceable gift remains.

You can have confidence in yourself.”

(Fr. Roger)

I dedicate this thesis to

Jesus Christ,

my beloved father, mother, brother and sister,

my lovely girl friend,

and all my friends who always love and support me.

(9)

(10)

vi 4

(11)

vii ABSTRACT

(12)

viii ABSTRAK

Dari hasil evaluasi rancangan materi didapatkan nilai rata-rata yang berkisar antara 3,4 – 4. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa rancangan materi pembelajaran

(13)

tersebut cukup bagus dan bisa diterima serta digunakan bagi para staf CBR Bantul.

Akhir kata, penulis mengharapkan materi pembelajaran ini bermanfaat bagi bagi para staf CBR Bantul dan pengajarnya untuk meningkatkan kemampuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara mereka.

(14)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I would like to thank to my beloved Almighty Lord Jesus Christ for His enormous blessing, guidance, love, and salvation during the accomplishment of this thesis. Thank you for always living in my heart whoever I am, in my happiness and sadness. With out Your guidance I cannot finish this thesis and to obtain my

“Sarjana Pendidikan”.

I would like to address my deep gratitude to Drs. Y.B. Gunawan, M. A., my major sponsor for his patience, support, encouragement, and willing to guide me in finishing this thesis. Thank you for giving the biggest contribution to my thesis through your comments, corrections, and suggestions.

I would like to thank to all PBI lecturers, especially Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. and Ch. Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. for their willingness to be my respondents. Furthermore, I thank them all for teaching and giving me useful knowledge so that I can be a better person. Besides, I thank the secretariat staff, mbak Tari and mbak Dani for helping and giving information that I need for my study.

I would also like to Lembaga Bahasa’s English Instructors, especially Mbak Are, Mbak Novie, and Mbak Uci for their cooperation on giving me suggestions and evaluation for my English materials design.

I would also like to address my deep gratitude to A. J. Angga Yanuar, the Field Coordinator of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation, for the permission to conduct my survey in his office. I sincerely thank the staff members of Bantul

(15)

Community-Based Rehabilitation for their willingness to work on my questionnaire and interview for my need survey.

My deepest gratefulness goes to my beloved family, my father Gabriel Rameli,

my mother Celecia Suryani, my brother Emmanuel Adi Cahyanto, and my sister

Kristina Candraningsih. I would like to thank them for their support and encouragement for me to finish this thesis. Sincerely, I express my specials thank to my girl friend, Iyaz, for her love, care, support, and for being my sharing partner.

I would like to thank Fr. P. Noegroho Agoeng S. W., Pr for his support to finish my thesis. He always supports me though making songs and recording songs in

KOMSOS’s studio.

My gratitude is extended to all my friends in PBI ’03 especially Nila, Petra, Dian (for correcting the grammar), Dame, Timur, Ayu, Titin, Layung, Wiwied, and all my classmates class A and other people that I could not mention one by one that helped me during my study. I thank them for their information, data, support, advice, encouragement, and spirit of joy to finish this thesis. May God bless them always.

The last, for all Bebekers….Kebo, Triman, Leak, Tessi, Kenthi, Jempol, Koki, Bangun, Jii, Paijo, Giman, Putri, who else? Thank you so much….

(16)

xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

PAGE OF DEDICATION ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ABSTRAK ... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xii

LIST OF TABLES ... xvi

LIST OF FIGURES ... xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES... xviii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ... 1

B. Problem Identification ... 4

C. Problem Formulation ... 5

D. Problem Limitation ... 5

E. Research Objectives ... 5

F. Research Benefit ... 6

(17)

xiii

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical description ... 10

1. Cooperative Learning ... 10

a. Theory of Learning ... 11

b. The Characteristic of Cooperative Learning ... 12

c. Cooperative Learning’s Activities ... 13

d. The Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning’s Class ... 15

e. The Learners’ Role in Cooperative Learning’s Class ... 17

2. The Principles of Learning Speaking ... 18

a. Background ... 19

b. Theory of Learning ... 21

c. The Characteristic of Communicative Language Teaching 22 3. English for Specific Purpose ... 23

4. Syllabus ... 26

5. Materials Design ... 27

6. Instructional Design ... 28

a. Definition ... 29

b. Instructional Design Models ... 29

1) Kemp’s Models ... 30

2) Yalden’s Models ... 31

3) Dick and Carey’s Models ... 33

(18)

xiv CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method ... 38

B. Research Setting ... 43

C. Subject ... 43

D. Research Instruments ... 44

E. Data Gathering Techniques ... 46

E. Data Analysis ... 47

F. Research Procedures ... 50

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS A. The Steps in Designing Instructional Speaking Materials for Bantul CBR ... 52

1. Holding Needs analysis ... 52

2. Identifying Learners’ Characteristic ... 60

3. Identifying Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ... 60

4. Identifying the Learning Objectives ... 62

5. Selecting the Syllabus ... 63

6. Selecting the Teaching and Learning Activities ... 64

7. Listing Subject Contents ... 66

8. Designing Materials ... 67

9. Conducting Evaluation ... 68

(19)

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusion ... 76 B. Suggestions ... 78

(20)

xvi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Example of Respondents’ Evaluation on the Speaking Instructional

Materials ... 50

Table 4.1 The Data Description of Staff Bantul CBR ... 53

Table 4.2 The Obtained Data of Needs Analysis ... 59

Table 4.3 Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ... 61

Table 4.4 The Objectives/Indicators of the Course ... 63

Table 4.5 The List of Subject Contents ... 68

(21)

xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Factor Affecting ESP Course Design ………. ... 24

Figure 2.2 Kemp’s Design Model ... 31

Figure 2.3 Yalden’s Design Model ……….. ... 32

Figure 2.4 Dick and Carey’s Design Model ………... 33

Figure 2.5 The Writer’s Instructional Design Model ... 37

(22)

xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ... 83 Appendix B: Surat Keterangan ... 85 Appendix C: Questionnaire for the Staff of Bantul CBR ... 87 Appendix D: Interview Guideline and the Results ... 98 Appendix E: Questionnaire for English Instructors and Lecturers ... 104 Appendix F: Syllabus ... 123 Appendix G: The Designed Materials ... 138

(23)

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter is divided into seven parts. In this chapter, the writer discusses Research Background, Problem Identification, Problem Formulation, Problem Limitation, Research Objectives, Research Benefits, and Definition of Terms.

A. Research Background

English is an international language which is widely used in all around the world. The role of English in this world is as a means of communication in both spoken and written skills. English is also considered as the first foreign language in Indonesia to improve science, technology, art and culture to maintain the relationship with other countries (Depdikbud, 2004). Considering the importance of English, people are required to be able to communicate using English.

Bantul CBR is a kind of strategy in developing people/society for rehabilitation, having the equal chance and integrity among those who are physically diffable (different ability) because of the May 27th, 2006 earthquake. The staff members of Bantul CBR consist of some people, who work in an office of Indonesian Charity of Semarang Archdiocese, supported by Germany Charity. Fr. Noegroho Agoeng Sriwidodo, Pr., the Coordinator of Indonesian Charity of Semarang Archdiocese said that:

Indonesian Charity (Karina) is a Non Government Organization that gives fund to Indonesians who need help. Karina helps the victims of May 27th, 2006‘s earthquake. Karina also becomes the mediator to distribute another fund

(24)

from other International Charity. Karina of Semarang Archdiocese (Karina KAS) is the subdivision of Karina which was found on June 2006 in answering the earthquake disaster in Yogyakarta on May 27th, 2006. Karina KAS, through the various donated aids, keeps the spirit of care and compassion towards the real humanity situation in the church and society, and also the real effort of raising human‘s dignity, fight for the justice, peace, and the unity of creation. The organizational structure of Karina KAS is divided into 3 sub divisions; those are Emergency & Reconstruction Division, Social Assistance Division, and Development Division. While Germany Charity is an International Non Government Organization that makes a relationship to Karina KAS to give and support the victims of May 27th, 2006‘s earthquake especially in giving healthy support to the diffable people.

They take care in developing diffable people by involving their family, healthy service center, education center, skill service and suitable social service center. In fact, their understanding of English is different to each other. This is because their background knowledge is also different. But, they need English to communicate even though it is not used as daily language since Bantul CBR has a relation with Germany Charity.

The writer has an experience of teaching English in Bantul CBR since the field coordinator of Bantul CBR asked him to realize the general English course program. A set of English material was designed and implemented to this course but, at the end of the course the goals were not obtained yet because of insufficient materials could not reveals the need of English communication ability. These materials were truly for general course. Besides, the staff members of Bantul CBR need English for specific purpose. So, the writer wants to design a set of English Instructional material for the staff members of Bantul CBR based on the needs.

(25)

The staff members of Bantul CBR want to develop their English ability. Realizing the fact that they have different English background knowledge, Cooperative Learning method is the solution. It is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with learners of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Implementing cooperative learning, the teacher should make the learners work in groups or teams. Each member of a group or team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, it creates an atmosphere of achievement. The learners work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.

According to the writer‘s overviews of the way the learners learn, the four skills (speaking, reading, listening and writing) to be mastered are not merely achieved well by the traditional method the teachers usually used. One skill which develops well is ‗speaking‘ because they think that speaking is the most commonly language used to communicate (Randolp, 1985:3). In general, the learners are able to speak English although there are still make some grammatical mistakes.

The staff of Bantul CBR informally tends to be able to speak English since they are accustomed to communicate with some foreign people who support the fund such as by Germany Charity. Every coordination meeting is attended by some representatives of Germany Charity. The ability of communicate using English is also needed when they have presentations. So they surely need English for communication. Besides, they also need to learn and develop the other skills.

(26)

Why speaking? As we know that English is an international language, it is the world‘s most commonly used language (Randolph, 1985:3). It means that English has been considered as an international language that is used in scientific and modern technology, trade and political exchange. Because of this reason, many people especially in Indonesia are motivated to learn English because they are aware that communication among nations is urgently needed. In other words, the need for English is increasing. Perhaps, it is one of the reasons why speaking is considered the most effective way to communicate to other people.

Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members are able to gain from each other's efforts, recognize that all group members share a common fate, know that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team members feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. Some research has shown that cooperative learning techniques promote student‘s learning and academic achievement, increase student‘s retention, enhance student‘s satisfaction with their learning experience, help students to develop skills in oral communication and social skills, promote student‘s self-esteem, and help to promote positive race relations (David and Roger Johnson, 2001).

B. Problem Identification

In the teaching learning process, especially in learning speaking, learners have difficulties to understand and comprehend speaking materials if they are not motivated to learn the materials or to join the learning process. The learners‘ motivation to learn is influenced by the elements in teaching learning process;

(27)

they are; teachers, learners, materials, method and media. Here the writer will focus on the use of the Cooperative Learning theory in teaching learning process. If the learners are interested in the cooperative activities provided, they will focus more on the learning process because they feel comfortable to learn. In addition, the learners who focus on the learning process will gain benefits of learning.

C. Problem Formulation

Based on the illustration given on the background of the problem, the writer formulated the problems as:

1. How is a set of English speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using Cooperative Learning designed? 2. What does the design of a set of English speaking instructional materials for

the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using Cooperative Learning look like?

D. Problem Limitation

Considering that the learners need English to communicate, this research is limited to a set of English instructional materials to teach speaking to the staff of Bantul CBR. The design itself is based on Cooperative Learning and these materials are designed based on the learners‘ needs.

E. Research Objectives

This research was conducted to answer the above questions. Therefore, the objectives of this research are:

(28)

1. To find out how a set of English speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using Cooperative Learning is designed.

2. To find out what English speaking instructional materials for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation using Cooperative Learning looks like.

F. Research Benefits

Hopefully, this research will give some beneficial contributions to some parties who are closely related to this research. The benefits of the research are for:

1. The teachers

This research will be beneficial for the teachers in that they are given a different overview in conducting the teaching learning process where the teachers find pleasure in discovering the students‘ uniqueness.

2. The learners

Since the design is based on the Cooperative Learning, the students become the center of research. They are appreciated as individuals who are uniquely different from others and can build an interaction to others cooperatively.

3. Further study

The design will be opened for constructive criticism. Therefore, further researches are needed to conduct. Those are also needed to employ this design to other levels of education.

(29)

G. Definition of Terms

There are some terms used in the title that need to be defined to avoid misinterpretation since there are many available definitions. Here are the descriptions of each term of the title to avoid misinterpretation:

1. Design

According to Houle (1978:230), design of education is defined as a develop plan to guide educational activity in a situation. Then, design is same as creating a new set of materials that fits the learning objectives and specifics area of particular learners (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994:106).

In this research, the writer uses the definition of the term ‗design‘ as a general arrangement of planning. The plan here existed as design, is made for teaching and learning process in the classroom and is used to organize or to control the class. It is related to the instructional given by the teacher to the students. The instruction helps the students to achieve their learning objectives. 2. Speaking

Widdowson (1979:59) said that speaking is the manifestation of language and refer to the realization of language as use in spoken interaction as talking. The language is used to communicate and here the interaction happens when the speaker sends his/her messages by using aural medium, they are mouth, lips, tongue and other oral cavities and the listener receives the messages.

In this research, the writer uses the definition term ‗speaking‘ as a productive skill to be mastered in learning English in order the learners are able to use English as daily communication.

(30)

3. Instructional Materials

Before defining instructional material, it is best to know first what instructional design is. Instructional design is a systematic process for designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating (Dick & Reiser, 1989) we can define that instructional material is the material that is developed using the design.

Other definition is stated by Romizowwski (1981:4) that instructional means a goal directed teaching process, which is more or less pre-planned. The important thing is that ―a predetermined goal‖ has been made before the teaching takes place. It does not matter who establishes the goal, whether the students himself or the other goal agents, such as the teacher or syllabus. The important thing in instructional materials is that the pre-learning work to enable the learner passes any routes he proposes to take, to check his progress and to enable another to retrace his steps.

In this research, instructional materials mean a set of units, which is used by both the teacher and students as the focus of discussion in the teaching learning process so that the students are able to achieve the goals, which have been directed.

4. Speaking Instructional Materials

Refers to the explanation above, that speaking is a productive skill to be mastered in daily communication and instructional materials are a set of unit materials used in teaching learning activities to achieve the goals, so it means that speaking instructional materials mean a set of unit teaching learning materials for speaking activities to achieve the goals which have been directed.

(31)

In this research, the writer will use speaking instructional materials for teaching English by developing learners‘ speaking skill in order to be able to use English in daily communicative.

5. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning (David and Roger Johnson, 2001) is a relationship in a group of students that requires positive interdependence (a sense of sink or swim together), individual accountability (each of us has to contribute and learn), interpersonal skills (communication, trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution), face-to-face promotive interaction, and processing (reflecting on how well the team is functioning and how to function even better).

In this research, the Cooperative Learning will be used for the bases theory in which the teaching-learning activities will apply. The activities of each unit will be set as a group interaction to make the learners easy to use English in communication.

6. The staffs of Bantul CBR

According to A. J. Angga Yanuar R, the Field Coordinator of Bantul CBR (Community-Based Rehabilitation), CBR is a kind of strategy in developing people or society for rehabilitation, having the equal chance and integrity among those who are physically diffable (different ability) because of the May 27th, 2006‘s earth quake. The staffs are some people, who work in an office of Indonesian Charity of Semarang Archdiocese supported by Germany Charity and take care in developing diffable people by involving their family, healthy service center, education center, skill service and suitable social service center.

(32)

10 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. Theoretical Description describes some related literatures that are needed to design the materials. Besides, the Theoretical Framework summaries the previous selection and illustrates the steps to be taken in designing the instructional materials. It puts the concept of Theoretical Description as the base to formulate process in designing materials based on the Cooperative Learning approach for the staff members of Bantul CBR.

A. Theoretical Description

There are six topics presented in this section. There are the detail explanations about Cooperative Learning, the Principle of Teaching Speaking, English for Specific Purpose (ESP), Syllabus, Material Design and Instructional Design Models.

1. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning is a variety of teaching methods in which the learners work in groups in order to help one another learn the topic content. This statement is supported by Robert E Slavin (1994:2), who wrote:

In cooperative learning, the learners are expected to help each other, discuss and argue with each other, asses each other‘s current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other understanding. Cooperative learning can be used effectively to teach every type

(33)

of content from math to reading, to writing, to speaking from basic skills to complex problem solving.

Increasingly, cooperative learning can be used as the teacher‘s main way of organizing classroom for instruction. It can be used in order to increase the learners‘ achievement as well as such other outcomes as improvement of inter -group relation, and to help the learners to think, solve problem, integrate, and apply knowledge and skills when practicing spoken English.

Cooperative learning is also an approach in teaching that makes use of cooperative activity in pairs or small groups of learners (Richard and Rodgers, 2001:192). As a consequence, it can create pro-academics norm, which have important effects on the learners‘ achievement.

a. Theory of Learning

According to Johnson (1981:16) and Slavin (1993:16), there are two theories which support the appropriate of cooperative learning as an effective method in building communicative competence. The theories are divided into two major categories; motivational and cognitive theory.

1) Motivational theory

Cooperative learning creates a communicative situation in which the only way group members can attain their own personal goals. In order to gain their individual goal, each group members must help their group mates in order to achieve the successfulness. As a consequence the cooperative goals can create good motivation among the learners. This motivation has important effects on the learners‘ achievement.

(34)

2) Cognitive theory

It gives influence to the learners‘ cognitive and changing to the learners‘ motivation to do the academic work. Cognitive theory emphasizes the effects of working together. There are two cognitive theories, as follows:

a) Developmental Theory

Interaction among the learners in learning speaking increases the learners‘ mastery to the material. Vygotsky (2000:47) describes the influence of cooperative learning in building communicative competence as,

Cooperative can help the learners to learn from one another, so that cognitive conflict will arise, inadequate reasoning will be exposed and higher quality understanding will emerge.

b) Cognitive Elaboration Theory

The learners who receive elaborated explanation from others will learn more than those who work alone. The learners who gained the lesson through cooperative activities are those who provide elaborated explanation to other (Nooren Webb, 1985).

b. The Characteristic of Cooperative Learning

Slavin (1994:12) states that there are six principle‘s characteristics of cooperative learning. Those characteristics will be as follows:

1) Group Goals

Most of cooperative learning methods use some form of group goals. These may be certificates or other recognition given to groups that meet a preset criterion.

(35)

2) Individual Accountability

This account can be achieved in two ways; (1) is to have group scores be the sum or average of individual quiz scores or other assignments, as in the Student Team Learning models and (2) is task specialization, whereby each student is given a unique responsibility for part of the group task. Each student in a group has responsibility to take part in doing a task for the group to achieve academic objectives together.

3) Equal Opportunities for Success

A unique characteristic of cooperative learning is the use of scoring methods that ensures all the learners an equal opportunity to contribute to their groups. 4) Team Competition

Competition is used between groups as a mean of motivating the learners to cooperate within groups.

5) Task Specialization

Task specialization is the assignment of a unique sub task to each group members.

6) Adaptation to Individual Needs

Most Cooperative Learning methods use group paced instruction, but two— TAI (Team Accelerated Instruction) and CIRC (Cooperative Integrated Reading ad Composition)—adapt instruction to students‘ individual needs.

c. Cooperative Learning’s Activities

According to Robert E. Slavin (1994: 5), there are six activities in cooperative learning as follows:

(36)

1) Student Team-Achievement Division (STAD)

STAD is to motivate the learners, encourage and help each other to master the skills presented by the teacher. In STAD, learners are designed to four member learning teams that are mixed (Slavin, 1994:5). Teacher presents a lesson and learners work within their teams to make sure that all of team members have mastered the lesson. Most of the activities involve discussing problems together, comparing the answers and correcting any misconceptions if their team mates make mistake. Then, all of the learners take individual quizzes on the material, at which time they may not help one another.

2) Information Gaps

Information gap is an activity, that one learner has information of the other lacks. It is a useful activity since each learner is hoped to use the target language in sharing the information.

3) Team Games Tournaments (TGT)

TGT uses the same teacher presentations and teamwork as in STAD, but replaces the quizzes with weekly tournaments, in which the learners play academic games with member of the team to contribute points to their team scores. The team mates help each other to prepare the games by researching worksheets and explaining problems each other, but the learners are playing the game their team mates cannot help them, ensuring individual accountability. 4) Jigsaw

Jigsaw is the multidirectional information gap‘s activity. The members are set to be pair or group who has information to be informed to other. This activity

(37)

promotes a great deal of negotiation between the learners in order to find out the meaning of the information.

5) Learning Together

Learning together encourages the learners to work in four or five member heterogeneous on assignment sheets.

6) Conversation

Conversation is known as a formal language learned immediately through the useful form, which the learners are able to practice to they neighbor in turn, and applied in real situation outside the formal class. It means to provide the first introduction of structure to be drilled (Astuti, 2005:41). Through the conversation, the learners can learn how to speak to their friends directly.

In conclusion, most of the principles of Cooperative Learning become the principles to determine teaching learning activities. The writer believes that each learner has their own needs in learning English. So, the writer will give opportunity to all learners to obtain what they needs from learning English by providing materials that are really needed.

d. The Teacher’ Roles in Cooperative Learning’s Class

Teachers have some significant roles to promote the students in learning. They are as sources of learning for the learners. However, they are not merely the centre of teaching learning activities but having roles in Cooperative Learning. 1) The Teacher as Inquirer

According to River (1987) as cited by Mc. Donell (1992: 164), the teacher must inquire the following questions about the learners: what the age of the

(38)

learner is, what the language proficiency level is, what previous learning experiences, interests, abilities, and needs are. By knowing such questions, the teacher can manage his class based on the circumstances and condition that he really knows. From the description above, both of teacher and learners have same responsibility in responding the circumstances and condition during the teaching learning process.

2) The Teacher as Creator

According to Johnson et al. (1984) as cited by Mc. Donell (1992: 165), the teacher‘s duty as creator lies on creating the social climate, setting goals, planning and structuring the task, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning the students to groups and roles, and selecting materials and time. Teachers create and prepare many things to make teaching learning process in the classroom are really ready and conducive especially for the learners.

3) The Teacher as Observer

Mc. Donell (1992: 167) states, ―Observation is the basis of decision making about learners progress.‖ The teacher can observe and monitor many aspects of his learners, so that the teacher knows the progress of his learners in learning during learning process. Beside that, the teacher can know the strengths and weaknesses of the learners, how success his teaching strategies, and so on.

4) The Teacher as Facilitator

The teachers as facilitator means that teachers should facilitate, encourage, and support the learners to learn actively. The teacher roles as a facilitator in Cooperative classroom can be done by giving suggestion to the groups, encourage

(39)

and support teams to solve teams‘ problems, giving feedback, giving available sources, observing the students‘ work. Hence, it is the learners who learn and it is the teacher‘s duty to help them learning (Mc. Donell, 1992: 167).

5) The Teacher as Agent of Change

In a classroom, teachers have responsible to control teaching learning process. The teachers also have rights to change the classroom when the process of teaching learning such as the activities and strategies in the classroom are far from the objectives because of circumstances and condition change. Donell (1992: 167) stated ―when teachers allow the classroom to become a place of inquiry, where questions are explored in meaningful context and teachers and students collaborate to seek answers, then teachers have a redefined role as teacher-writer.‖

In Cooperative Learning, the teacher is not the only one person who takes control all the teaching learning process absolutely. However, the teacher has rights to change the strategies and activities used in the classroom when the situation changes. The teacher also has responsibility to create objectives and materials in order to achieve the academic goals. It means that teacher roles both in the classroom and in the outside of classroom are needed. Nevertheless, the teacher is not the center person in the classroom. Conversely, the learners are as the center of learning in the teaching learning process.

e. The Learners’ Roles in the Cooperative Classroom

According to Richard and Rodgers (2001: 199), the primary role of the learner is as a member of group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members. Each learner must cooperate with other group members to

(40)

achieve the goals of group work. As a member of a group, each member has the responsibility to encourage other group members in learning and to learn from them. Learners are also directors of their own learning. They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, which is viewed as a compilation of lifelong learning skills. Therefore, learning is something that requires students‘ direct and active involvement and participation.

As a member of a group, a learner has to be active both in a group and in a classroom. There is a kind of giving and receiving cycle among the learners. Through the learners‘ interaction in the group, they are able to give and receive suggestion, advice, support, and help each other in order to achieve the group goals. Furthermore, through this role, the learners are challenged to improve their affective and social sense in the group learning activities.

Briefly, cooperative learning is an approach in teaching that makes use of cooperative activity. It helps both teacher and learners in teaching learning activities. Teacher just encourages the learners to get the learning condition through the materials given, while learners make their self be active through working in pairs/group, discussion, and also learning together.

2. The Principles of Teaching Speaking

Speaking is the manifestation of language and refers to the realization of language as use in spoken interaction as talking (Widdowson, 1979:59). The language is used to communicate and here the interaction happens when the speaker sends his/her messages by using aural medium, they are mouth, lips, tongue and other oral cavities and the listener receives the messages. So, speaking

(41)

is the part of Communicative Language Teaching since it focuses on the communicative competence of language teaching.

a. Background

Being able to communicate is the main target of teaching speaking. Some writers observed that the learners could produce sentences accurately in a lesson, but could not use them appropriately when communicating outside of the classroom. Other writers said that being able to communicate required more than mastering linguistic structures. Learners may know the rules of linguistic usage, but be unable to use the language (Diane L, 2000:121). It is clear that being able to communicate requires more than linguistic competence; it also needs communicative competence. In brief, it can be said that to be able to communicate, learners need to be taught about communicative language. Communicative Language Teaching is firstly proposed by Christoper Candlin and Henry Widdowson that say it needs to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mastery of structures.

Focusing to the language teaching on communicative proficiency relates to the Principle of Communicative Language Learning and Teaching (Brown, 1994:245). It offers five characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching which also becomes principle of teaching speaking, those are:

1) Classroom goals are focused on all components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical and linguistic competence.

2) Language techniques are designed to engage the learners in pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purpose. Organizational

(42)

language forms are not central focuses but rather aspects of language that enable the learners to accomplish those purposes.

3) Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communication techniques. At times, fluency may have to take on more important than accuracy in order to keep the learners meaningfully engaged in language use.

4) In communicative classroom, the learners ultimately have to use the target language, productively and receptively.

5) It can be easy observed that teacher does not try to be the central figure in the classroom and the only provider feedback. Most of the speaking activities are carried out in groups, so it is obvious that other learners provide the target amount of feedback.

From those principles above, Brown also stated the aims of Communicative Language Teaching as follows:

1) Building communicative competence in language teaching.

2) Developing the procedures of the teaching four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication.

According to Littlewood, Communicative Language Teaching can be achieved by using a procedure in which the learners work in pairs or groups employing available languages resources in problem solving tasks (1981:1). By learning in groups, the learners are supposed to be active to discuss, ask question, state their ideas and be cooperative in solving the problems they face. It gives opportunity to both teacher and learners to learn each other. Furthermore, the

(43)

opportunity give them experience in learning since experience is the best way for learning something.

b. Theory of Learning

There are three principles that underlying the learning concept of Communicative Language Teaching (Canale and Swain, 1980:29-30), which are as follows:

1) Communication Principles

The activities must involve a real communication in order to promote language learning (Richards and Rodger, 1986:72). If there are less communicative activities in textbook, the teacher should be creative in creating speaking activities, which can build communicative competence.

2) Task Principle

The activities that carry out meaningful task can promote language learning (Richards and Rodger, 1986:72). The teacher can develop the tasks into meaningful speaking activities from many tasks listed in the textbook in order to promote the process of language learning in the classroom.

3) Meaningfulness Principle

This principle means that the language which is meaningful to the learners support the learning process (Richards and Rodger, 1986:72). It puts meaning in the paramount position that holds an important role in the success of learners‘ language learning. Learning activities are consequently selected according to how they will engage the learner in meaningful and authentic use rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns.

(44)

c. The Characteristic of Communicative Language Teaching

Speaking activities becomes important in creating learners‘ ability in Communicative Language Teaching, even in expressing themselves, so, the writer selects the suitable communicative activities for the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation. The activities should be based on the characteristics of successful speaking activities (Brown and G. Yale, 1983), as follows:

1) Learners talk a lot

Learners are always given opportunity to practice speaking during the teaching learning activity inside the classroom.

2) Participation is even

All learners must get the chance to speak so that there are no minority talkative participants who dominate the classroom discussion.

3) Motivation high

Learners are eager to speak because they are interested in contributing to achieve task objectives.

4) Language is an acceptable level

Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easy comprehensible to each other and an acceptable level of language accuracy.

In this research, the writer conclude that the relationship between principles of teaching speaking and cooperative learning theory is to get the teaching learning activities in balance. It means the purpose of teaching speaking is communication competence. To achieve this competence, cooperative learning is

(45)

suitable for teaching speaking. It is because the activities in cooperative learning are related to those teaching speaking needs many practices with other.

3. English for Specific Purpose (ESP)

English for Specific Purpose is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners‘ reason for learning (Tom Hutchinson, 1987:19).

Designing a course is basically a matter of asking questions in order to provide a reasonable basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus design and materials design. Hutchinson and Waters say, ―a very wide range of questions: general and specific, theoretical and practical are needed in order to make course design‖ (1987:21). These questions will be answered in the form of data of need analysis. The writer needs to know:

a. Why does the learner need to learn? b. Who is going to involved in the process? c. What do the learners need to learn? d. What potential does the learning provide? e. What level of proficiency must be achieved? f. What topic areas will need to be covered? g. What learning theory will underline the course? h. What kind of methodology will be employed? i. How will the learning be achieved?

(46)

What language Syllabus ESP Motho- How learning description course dology theories

Nature of

Particular

target and learning situation

How? Why? What? Who?

Need analysis

Figure 2.1. : Factors Affecting ESP Course Design (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:22)

The writer investigates these basic questions more thoroughly by classifying them into three main headings: language descriptions, theories of learning, and need analysis.

a. Language Description

It is important to understand the main feature of each language description in order to consider how they can be used in appropriately in ESP course.

b. Theories of Learning

The starting point for language teaching should be an understanding of how the learners learn. Theories of learning are conditioned by the way in which the mind observes, organizes, and store information.

(47)

c. Need Analysis

Need analysis should be obtained first as a direction of teaching learning process. It is used to clarify what the learners have to do in learning English. The writer uses questionnaires and informal interviews in order to investigate the need analysis. The clarification of need analysis can be seen as follows:

1) Target Needs

Target Needs are what the learners need to do in the target situation. The target needs contains three aspects:

a) Necessities

Necessities are the type of need which is determined by the demand of the target situation is what the learners have to know the function of effectiveness the target language.

b) Lacks

It is important to know the learners have already learnt in order to see what the learners‘ lack.

c) Wants

The materials designer has to support the target needs with the learners‘ view of their needs. The learners are asked to tell what they want about the subject.

2) Learning Needs

Learning Needs are what the learners need to do in order to learn. It is a kind of the specific content of target needs. Hutchingson and Waters (1987:55) specify the learning needs into how the learners learn.

(48)

In conclusion, ESP is an approach in designing a set of materials. It helps the writer to get the learners‘ needs, lacks, and wants so that the materials designed are suitable to what the learners need.

4. Syllabus

A syllabus is a document, which says what will or should be learnt (Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters, 1987:80). The main purpose of a syllabus is to break down the mass of knowledge to be learnt into manageable units which has to be based on certain criteria. Below some contents of syllabus in ESP course especially for the staff of Bantul CBR:

a. Topic Syllabus

1) How was the Presentation Today? 2) Can I Help You?

3) Who‘s Speaking? b. Functional Syllabus

1) Giving information about directing how to reach some places 2) Giving description of people and place

3) Giving opinion c. Skill Syllabus 1) Reading 2) Speaking 3) Writing 4) Listening

(49)

d. Situational Syllabus

1) The conversation of giving information 2) The conversation of helping people

Cooperative Learning does not use any particular syllabus, since the activities from a wide variety of curriculum orientations can be taught via Cooperative Learning (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 195). Cooperative Learning emphasizes on the teaching learning activities that are group work and interaction of the learners in a cooperative manner. Cooperative Learning is flexible in using syllabus since the principles and characteristics of Cooperative Learning can be applied in the materials design. It means that the writer has large opportunity to develop the materials using the syllabus used later. The writer possibly will add some parts of the syllabus to be combined with some parts of other syllabus.

5. Material Design

A material design provides a stimulus for learning. The writer needs to design good materials to teach, even encourage the learners to learn. It covers interesting texts, enjoyable activities to engage the learners‘ thinking capacities, content which can be coped with both the teacher and the learners, many opportunities for the learners to use their knowledge and skills, and the truly reflect of what the learner think and feel about the process of learning. Hence, the instructional materials consist of five elements:

a. Input

The input can be a text, dialogue, video recording, diagram, or any piece of communication data. It should provide a stimulus material for activities, new

(50)

language item, correct model of language use, topic, and opportunities for the learners to use their information processing skills and their knowledge both of the language and subject matter.

b. Content Focus

It concerns with the meaning of language as a means of conveying information and felling about something. Non-linguistic content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom.

c. Language Focus

The aim of the course is to enable the learners to use the target language. The learners should have enough of language necessary knowledge. In language focus, the learners have a chance to take language to pieces, research how it work and practice putting it back together again.

d. Task

The materials should be designed to lead forward a communicative task in which the learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through each unit.

e. Reflection

Reflection is just to measure how far the learners understand the material of each unit. It is done in the last of every meeting.

6. Instructional Design

In this case, the writer discusses about the definition of Instructional Design and its models.

(51)

a. Definition

According to Dick and Reiser, instructional design is a systematic process of designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction (1989: 14). It is such a process for selecting and arranging the instructional materials by which the students are helped to learn more effectively and efficiently than in the normal way or situation.

The instructional material design is a part of an instructional program design, which is a beginning of an instructional process. Dick and Reiser (1989: 67 – 72) state that the instructional material design is carried out in order to set the content of instruction. Instructional program design itself involves designing instructional materials and selecting method and media. It is known that an instructional material design is based on the learning goal and objectives. As the consequence, designing the instructional is also based on the instructional goal and objectives.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1994: 164), material design is one of the most characteristic features of English for specific purpose in practice. Designing materials for instruction is not the same as choosing and using existing textbooks or other materials. Instead, it is the same as creating a new set of materials, which fit the learning objectives, and specific subject area of particular learners.

b. Instructional Design Models

There are some instructional models used in the research. The brief explanation of the theory will be elaborated in the following.

(52)

1) Kemp’s Model

In designing the instructional material, Kemp has offered the eight elements (1977: 6 – 100). The eight elements are as follows:

Step 1 Considering the topics and stating the general purpose for teaching each topic.

Step 2 Identifying the characteristic of the learners for who he instructional material is to be designed.

Step 3 Finding the learning objectives to be achieved. Step 4 Listing the subject content to support each objective.

Step 5 Developing the pre-assessment to know the students‘ background and

present levels of knowledge about the topics. Step 6 Selecting teaching-learning activities and instructional resources that will

determine the subject content so that the students will accomplish the subject.

Step 7 Conducting such support services as budget personnel, facilities, and equipment and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.

Step 8 Evaluating the student‘s mastery of the subject. Findings are to be revised or evaluated.

Kemp offers a flexible model on the process of designing the instructional system. The writer applies this model because the eight elements above are independent upon each other. Although they are independent elements, they have close relationship to one another and the decision relating to one may affect other. The figure of Kemp‘s Instructional Design Model can be seen on the next page.

(53)

2) Yalden’s Model

Yalden considers seven stages in designing materials. The seven stages will be elaborated in this following explanation. The short explanation will be given for each step.

Step 1 Needs Survey

Needs survey is done to identify as much as possible of the learners‘ needs in the designing of the program in order to establish acceptable objectives.

Step 2 Description of Purpose

Description of purpose will be done if the needs survey is completed or at least well under way, in order to clarify the purpose of the language program.

Figure 2.2. Kemp’s Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

Goal, Topics, and

General Purposes

Teaching Learning Activities resources Support Services

Learner Characteristic

Learning Objectives

Subject Content

Pre assessment Evaluation

(54)

Step 3 Selection of Development of Syllabus Type

There is no single model of syllabus design that is universally agreed upon. A modification of existing structural syllabuses to a completely learner-centered approach is one of the solutions.

Step 4 Production of Proto Syllabus

This stage gives information of the description of the content that the syllabus will have. However, in order to gain the description of the syllabus content, the writer should work to select the most effective syllabus.

Step 5 Production of Pedagogical Syllabus

This stage describes the pedagogical syllabus, which is providing a chosen repertoire of words and phrases based on the function and the topics.

Step 6 Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedure

In the sixth step, there will be exercises type and teaching techniques, prepares the lesson plan, and weekly schedules.

Step 7 Evaluation

The evaluation has two broad aspects; those are the students in the program and the teaching as well as the over-all design. Then, this is labeled as the recycling stage because the whole cycle can be begun again at this point.

The stages are presented as follow:

Needs survey Description of purpose Selection/ development of syllabus type Production of a proto-syllabus

Production of a

pedagogical syllabus Development and implement-ation of classroom procedures Evaluation

(55)

3) Dick and Carey’s Model

According to Dick and Carey, the instructional model stressing on the identification of the learners‘ need to learn and the collection of data from the learners to revise the instructional. Dick and Carey‘s instructional model has different steps. It consists of several components that can be included in the plan.

All of the steps or components then work together into an instructional plan. The step of making instructional material design according to Dick and Reiser is described as follows:

Select/review texts

Set Write Develop Develop Choose

goal object. test instruct. instruct

activities media

Implement instruction Analyze students‘

Characteristics

Revise Instruction

Figure 2.4. Dick and Carey’s Instructional Design Model (1979:9)

Step 1 Setting an instructional goals

Step 2 Determine the objectives for each goal to know the learners‘ characteristic

Step 3 Developing test items for each objective Step 4 Developing instructional activities

(56)

Step 5 Choosing instructional media Step 6 Implementing the instructional Step 7 Revising instruction and evaluation

B. Theoretical Framework

The three models of instructional design above are almost similar each other. However, each model has certain steps that are excluded by the other models. Therefore, the writer picked up the suitable steps from both models to be used as the writer design‘s model. The design‘s models that became the framework of this research are described in nine steps as follows:

Step 1 Holding Need Analysis

Need analysis provides important information about the materials to be learnt. It also helps the materials‘ designer to formulate the learning objectives. For this step, the writer conducting needs survey by distributing questionnaires to the staff of Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation and also interviewing some of them to obtain some information about what is needed, what is wanted and what is not available. In other words, this stage is to find information about lacks, necessities, and wants. The gathered information are the basis for selecting topics, materials, and appropriate goals.

Step 2 Identifying Learners characteristic

After conducting needs survey, the writer classifies the characteristics of the learners to know their English‘s ability. In other words, the writer determines what level of learners the materials should be.

(57)

Step 3 Identifying Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

The goals may be derived from needs survey. The topics are sequenced according to a logical order–from simple level to complex. The general purposes will specify into specific objectives in every topic. Since this research is based on Cooperative Learning, then the goals of Cooperative Learning is to achieve the goals of learning together with the teammates through cooperation way among the teammates.

Step 4 Identifying the Learning Objectives

The objective of learning must be written as the hold of guidance of teaching learning activity. It is as the indicator of the students‘ learning achievement. So, the writer has to state the objective of each meeting. The objectives of Cooperative learning are to foster cooperation rather than competition, to develop critical thinking skills, and to develop communicative competence through socially structured instruction activities. Since Cooperative Learning has social roles, the students must develop their affective sense in the group interaction among all members of the group.

Step 5 Selecting the Syllabus

After identifying the goals, topics, general purposes, and objectives, the next step is selecting the syllabus type as the guidance of designing materials. It is for break down the materials to be learnt.

Step 6 Selecting Teaching Learning Activities

The teaching learning activities hold the important role in order to motivate the learners to be enjoyed and fun and to encourage the learners to be active in

(1)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

59

Using

can

and

be able to

a)Tom is strong. He can lift that heavy box.

b)I can play the piano. I‟ve taken lessons for many years.

c)You can see fish at the aquarium. d)That racecar can go very fast.

Can

usually expresses the idea that something is possible because certain characteristics or conditions exist.

In (a), it is possible for Tom to lift that box because he is strong.

In (b), it is possible for me to play piano because I have acquired that ability.

In (c), it is possible to see fish at an aquarium because an aquarium has fish. In (d), it is possible for that car to go fast because of its special characteristic.

e) Dogs can bark, but they

cannot/can’t talk.

Negative form: cannot or can’t. (Also possible, but not as common: can not, written as two words.)

Compare:

f) I can walk to school. It‟s not far. g) I may walk to school. Or I may take

the bus.

In (f), I can walk to school because certain conditions exist.

In (g), I am less than 50% certain that I walk to school.

Compare:

h) I am not quite ready to go, but you can leave if you‟re hungry. I‟ll meet you later.

i) When you finish the test, you may leave.

Can is also used to give permission. In giving permission, can is usually used in informal situations, as in (h); may is usually used in formal situation as in (i).

Compare:

j) Tom can lift that box.

k) Uncommon: Tom is able to lift that box.

l) Ann will be able to lift that box. Bob may be able to lift that box. Sari should be able to lift that box. Jimmy used to be able to lift that box.

The used of be able to in the simple present (am/is/are able to) is uncommon (but possible).

Be able to is more commonly used in combination with other auxiliaries, as in (l)

(2)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

60

Past Ability: Could

a) When I was younger, I could run fast. (Probable meaning: I used to be able to run fast, but now I can‟t run fast).

In affirmative sentence about past ability, could usually means “used to be able to”. The used of could usually indicated the ability in the past but does not exist now.

b) Budi has started an exercise program. He was able to run two miles yesterday without stopping or slowing down.

If the speaker is talking about an ability to perform an act at one particular time in the past, was/were able to can be used in affirmative sentences but not could. Could is not appropriate in (b).

- Did you read the news about the mountain climbers?

c) INCORRECT: They could reach the top of the mountain yesterday. d) CORRECT:

They were able to reach the top yesterday.

They managed to reach the top yesterday.

They reached the top yesterday.

Note: that (c) is incorrect. Instead of could, the speaker needs to used were able to, managed to, or the simple past.

e) They couldn’t reach/ weren’t able to reach the top yesterday.

f) Mike couldn’t run/ wasn’t able to run five miles yesterday.

In negative sentence, there is no differentiates between using could and was/were able to.

(3)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

61

Making Suggestions: Could

- What should we do tomorrow?

a) Why don‟t we go on a picnic? b) We could go on a picnic.

Could can be used to make suggestions. (b) is similar to (a) in meaning; i.e., the speaker is suggesting a picnic.

- I am having trouble in math class.

c) You should talk to your teacher.

- I am having trouble in math class.

d) You could talk to your teacher. Or you could ask Ann to help you with your math lessons. Or I could try to help you.

Should gives definite advice. In (c), the speaker is saying; “ I believe it is important for you to do this. This is what I

recommended.”

Could offers suggestions or possibilities. In (d), the speaker saying: “ I have some possible suggestions for you. It is possible to do this. Or it is possible to do that.”

- I failed my math class.

e) You should have talked to your teacher and gotten some help from her during the term.

- I failed my math class.

f) You could have talked to your teacher. Or you could have asked Ann to help you with your math lessons. Or I could have tried to help you.

Should have gives „hindsight advice‟**. In

(e), the speaker is saying: “it was

important for you to talk to the teacher, but you didn‟t do it. You made a mistake.”

Could haveoffers „hindsight

possibilities”**. In (f), the speaker is saying: “You had the change to do this or that. It was possible for this or that to happen. You missed some good opportunities.”

**”Hindsight’ refers to looking at something after it happens.

Note:

Could

is also always followed by V1 (infinitive)

(4)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

62

Describing People

-

In describing people, it needs to concern at the adjectives because adjectives

usually explain the appearance of people.

For example:

a. He is

handsome.

b. She is

funny.

c. Carole is

attractive.

d. His skin is

bright.

e. Her nose is

flat.

The words handsome, funny, and

attractive are adjectives. It describes the

physical appearance. So the pattern is

always:

Subject + be + adjective

-

Sometimes to describe people‟s appearances, it also uses the word

“

have/has

” because those words indicate what can be seen physically by

other people.

For example:

a. Danny has rounds eyes.

b. Charlie has dark skin.

c. She has long hair.

d. Lucy and Rahma have appointed

nose.

The words “

has/have

” indicate that the

subject of those sentences can be seen

having round eyes (a), dark skin (b), long

hair (c), and appointed nose (d). So the

pattern can be:

Subject + have/has + adjective

-

To describe people‟s appearance, it needs to mention his/her dressing at the

exactly time. So it uses the word “

wear/wears/is wearing/are wearing

”.

For example:

a. Debby is wearing black sweater.

b. Glen always wears blue jean and

white T-shirt.

c. Tamara likes to wear glasses.

d. Mr. and Mrs. John

are wearing

batik uniform on Monday.

The

word

“

wear/is

wearing/are

wearing/wears

” explain that the subject

at that time can be seen dressing black

sweater (a), blue jean and white T-shirt

(b), glasses (c), and batik uniform (d). So

the pattern can be:

Subject + (am/is/are) wear (s/ing) +

dress

(5)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

63

Describing Place/Position

-

To describe a place/ building, it needs to know position.

Next to

X

Beside

X

Between

X

In front of

X

Behind

X

In

X

On

At

Under

X

Above

Across to

X

All of those are

called

“

preposition

”

Preposition is always followed by noun(s).

For example:

a.

The picture is

next to

the door.

b.

Duta Minang Restaurant is beside the Post Office.

c.

Field office‟s room is between toilet and Secretary‟s room.

d.

The General Hospital is in front of CBR‟s office.

e.

Regent office is behind Police Station.

f.

Look! The ballpoint is in the bottle.

g.

Boby is lying on bed.

h.

The students are at camping field.

i.

The picture is under the clock.

j.

There is a plane flying above our tent.

k.

The school is across to the football field.

(6)

English Speaking Materials for Bantul Community-Based Rehabilitation

64

Sentence Pattern

Pattern

Function

Adverb

of Time

Example

Present Future Tense

S + will/shall + V1 To express something that happen in the future

Next week, tomorrow , next month, next year

1. I will buy a car next year. 2. We are going

to have presentation tomorrow. 3. I am going to

practice singing next week.

4. He is going to swim

tomorrow. S + am/is/are +

going to + V1

Present Tense

S + V (s / es) To express thing in general (general truth) or things that happen repeatedly (habitual)

1.I make the proposal 2.She washes

her clothes. 3.Father reads

newspaper. 4.We work

together. Present

Continu ous Tense

S + am/is/are + V(ing)

To express something that is happening at or around the time of speaking

1.I am eating cake. 2.Rina is

sleeping. 3.They are

swimming. Past

Tense

S + V2 To express something began and ended at

particular time in the past Yesterday , last week, last year, last month

1.He found money yesterday. 2.Tono was

absent. 3.I did it alone.