Understanding The Influence Of Development Interventions On Women Beneficiaries’ Perceptions Of Empowerment: A Case Study In South Sulawesi, Indonesia - Blog - Stock of Knowledge

UNDERSTANDING THE INFLUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
ON WOMEN BENEFICIARIES’ PERCEPTIONS OF EMPOWERMENT:
A CASE STUDY IN SOUTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA

BY

ADINDA TENRIANGKE MUCHTAR

A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies

Victoria University of Wellington
(2017)

Abstract
This thesis argues that international development interventions influence the way
women perceive empowerment. It does so by looking at aid relationships and the
relevance of development interventions. It involves a case study of Oxfam’s
Restoring Coastal Livelihoods Project (2010-2015) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Efforts to empower women have been channeled through various approaches.

However, little has been said about the practice of aid relations within projects and
how aid relations work through the ‘aid chain’ and influence women’s perceptions of
empowerment. Also, there has not been much said about how, in the intersectionality
of aid relationships, women make ‘empowerment’ their own, appropriate it,
transform it, adapt it to their stories and needs through their active engagement in
projects.
The qualitative research which involved a five-month period of ethnographic
research found that women beneficiaries perceived empowerment mostly based on
their experiences in the project. However, the degree of empowerment is relative to
the types of women’s engagement, the nature of activities, and their general
understanding of gender relations. The project has brought economic-driven gender
awareness by facilitating women’s practical and strategic needs through economic
groups. It has also brought empowerment consequences which went beyond the
economic dimension.
The research highlights the importance of personal, relational, and multidimensional
aspects of empowerment in women’s perceptions of empowerment. Efforts to
empower women seem to still rely on external intervention to facilitate the process
and to deal with existing dynamics of power relations. The findings reassert that
women’s empowerment requires enabling internal and external environments to
promote women’s awareness of, and capacity for, empowerment.

Finally, the thesis underlines that empowerment depends highly on women’s
personal experiences, awareness, agency, resources, choice, willingness, and
commitment. This research contributes to our understanding of women, aid, and
development as it highlights the multidimensional and multi-layered aspects of aid
relations and women’s empowerment.
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Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank Allah SWT, the Almighty for giving me the
precious opportunity to continue my studies through a New Zealand Aid scholarship
at Victoria University of Wellington. I also want to say “Finally, the 2013 mission is
accomplished!” to my beloved brother and colleague, Awan Poesoro, who has been
very supportive of my scholarship application. Without his endorsement, I might not
have had the opportunity to study in New Zealand.
I would also like to say my biggest thanks to the New Zealand Aid Programme for
entrusting me with the scholarship to pursue a PhD in Development Studies. I think I

was very lucky to earn such a precious opportunity given the tight competition for
PhD scholarships with other candidates given my application as a private individual
applicant.
I would also like to thank Jeffrie Geovanie, my previous employer at The Indonesian
Institute, Center for Public Policy Research (TII) for his support during my studies.
TII has been not only a working place but also a home with lovely colleagues for me
since 2005 which has made me the way I am now. My biggest thanks and
appreciation also go to my supervisors Professor John Overton and Dr Marcela
Palomino-Schalscha for their critical and honest feedback, as well as never ending
support and encouragement for me to do more.
I was fortunate to have them as my supervisors as I also learned a lot not only about
the topic of my research but also about development issues in general. From them, I
also learnt about both learning and teaching processes as I went through the thesis
journey. Both John and Marcela taught me a precious lesson, which is to be
confident and convincing with what I wanted to convey in the thesis, but also
comfortable with the way I conducted and presented the research.
Other lessons which I learned from them are that it will be easier to write once we
started the research; keep rethinking as everything will change along the way as part
of the learning process; and spare time for writing and reflecting regularly. Last but
not least, be proud of ourselves once we have achieved our targets, then motivate and

reward ourselves for the achievement before continuing the journey again.
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We also discussed my thesis more like colleagues as they said that I was the manager
of my own thesis. I could share my reflections about the research and have further
discussion about development issues in general. I have found the supervision
enlightening, encouraging, and helpful throughout my study period. Both John and
Marcela gave their comments and feedback but the rest would depend on how I
followed up on the advice. I have felt the appreciation, enthusiasm, and passion in
discussing and creating the inter-subjective nature of knowledge every time I had a
consultation with them. These experiences have brought significant changes during
my learning processes.
Furthermore, my progress in writing has also been due to the feedback from Kirsten
Reid and Dr Deborah Laurs, who are the advisors from the Student Learning Support
and Service (SLSS). Academic writing is challenging for an international student like
me. I had to adjust my writing style which was influenced by my mother tongue,
Indonesian, and my habit of writing long sentences. With advice from SLSS, I
learned a lot about academic writing in a more organised way and with clear
messages which are understandable for the examiners as well as wider readers, not
only my supervisors.

In addition, I would like to thank Beth Thomas for proofreading the thesis. I would
also like to thank Bude Nina Sudiono-Price, Gregory Street, and Mas Ananta
Gondomono for helping me to polish the final version of the thesis. My thanks also
go to staff at School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences (SGEES),
particularly Monika Hanson, Miranda Voke, Kate King, and Aleksandr Beliaev, as
well as staff at the library, especially Rohini Biradavolu and Paul Emsley for their
generous assistance throughout my study period. Thanks a lot as well to the VUW
NZAID team for the support throughout my study and to the Faculty of Graduate
Research for various useful workshops and assistance for postgraduate students.
As I revised and finalised this thesis, I would also like to thank Associate Professor
Sara Kindon, Dr Katharine McKinnon, and Dr Rebecca Elmhirst for their expertise
and insight on my research, as well as their critical feedback and constructive
comments on my thesis. I have also learned a lot through our discussions during my
oral exam on the 19th of July, particularly on the advice for publication and future
research out of this study.

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This thesis would not have been possible without the support of Oxfam GB
Indonesia for their support and trust to let me use their project of Restoring Coastal

Livelihoods (RCL) in South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia in my thesis. I want to
thank Darmawan Triwibowo, previous campaign manager of Oxfam Indonesia, for
introducing me to Oxfam to conduct the research. I also want to thank Dini
Widiastuti, Director of Economic Justice, Antarini Arna, Director of Gender Justice,
and Vierna Emily, former evaluator at Oxfam GB Indonesia Office.
From Oxfam Eastern Indonesia Office in Makassar, I want to thank Jaya Tulha,
Acting Project Manager of the RCL Project and Livelihoods Advisor and Tua
Hasiholan Hutabarat, Project Manager of the project who had been very supportive
during my fieldwork in South Sulawesi. Thanks a lot for involving me in the project
evaluation and introducing me to related beneficiaries and stakeholders of the
project.
My research process was made smoother by the assistance I received from Siswan
Tiro, Director of Perkumpulan Katalis - a local non-governmental organisation based
in Makassar City, which focuses on capacity and quality of public services in
Indonesia - who helped me to obtain research permission and transportation to and
from the research area. I also learned a lot about Bugis-Makassar culture as I
engaged in interesting discussions with him during the field trip. I would also like to
thank Anis Kurniawan who helped me to collect data on the context of the research
area.
Moreover, I cannot thank my father’s family enough for their care and hospitality

during my stay in Makassar. Thanks to Puang Tasa, my late aunt who just passed
away last July. This thesis is also dedicated to her, a special woman who was like my
own mother. Thanks also to Puang Baji and Puang Bau for having me at their homes
and spoiling me a lot with their signature dishes. I also want to thank my dearest
cousin Vany for letting me use her car and accompanying and caring for me during
my stay in Makassar. I am so lucky and grateful to have such a loving family during
a challenging and interesting time in Makassar.
Conducting ethnographic research brought me a new family and a new hometown.
South Sulawesi is my father’s hometown, especially Sinjai and Bone from his
parents’ sides. After my fieldwork, now I have my own hometown, Pangkajene
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Kepulauan (Pangkep) where I stayed at Sitti Rahmah’s home. She is also already like
a mother to me. I also have Muhammad Arif as my host father there along with
Khaerunnisya and Raihan who have become other siblings for me in Pangkep. I also
realised that I have created another bond during the research and I am glad that I still
maintain good communication with the family who have treated me just like their
daughter.
I still have a long list of acknowledgements and appreciation especially to those who
have contributed to this thesis, whom I could not mention individually. I want to

thank all my research participants for sharing their stories and voices with me. They
have meant so much to this thesis as their contribution has enriched the content of the
thesis through their ideas, experiences, networks, and references. I also realised that I
was not only studying them, I also learned from them, especially about the meaning
of empowerment and the impact of development aid, not only in promoting women’s
empowerment but also in transforming gender (power) relations and in creating
resilience within the coastal community.
I learned particularly from women beneficiaries that empowerment is personal and
relational, but it is also private as empowerment depends on the individual choice of
each woman to be empowered. I also learned various effects of development
intervention although it was conducted initially with the economic approach as
women became aware of their rights and capacity, including their participation in
public spheres. Women beneficiaries also showed me the meaningful aspect of social
capital and the bond they created after their engagement in the RCL Project. Women
beneficiaries have capitalised the benefits of the project not only in economic terms
(profits, financial, and business expansion logics) but also in social and political
aspects as their social solidarity and political participation increased.
Women beneficiaries gave me the impression that collective empowerment should
start from individual awareness and empowerment before working together with the
wider society to bring a positive change in development to the people. As a woman, I

am also proud of knowing that women beneficiaries were the local champions of the
village who could inspire other women and society, in general, to be aware of their
capacity and local resources and to participate in development in meaningful ways
by partnering with the local government.

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I also would like to thank the Head of Pitussunggu Village (Nurhayati), Head of
Pitue Village (Amrullah), and the people of both villages for welcoming and having
me as part of their community. I learned that living in the coastal area could be very
challenging but with solidarity and caring amongst the people, life could be easy as
people help each other.
Other thanks also go to my research participants from the National Government
(State Secretariat and Ministry of Social Affairs); the local government in Pangkep
District (Development Planning and Sea and Fishery Technical Unit); local NGOs
(Marine Conservation Foundation); LBH APIK Makassar; and Muhammadiyah
University Makassar. I also want to thank my friend Zusanna Gosal at BaKti for
allowing me to use resources and borrow books from the library.
The long and winding research journey has been quite challenging and exciting as a
PhD journey is not only about a research journey as life itself is colourful. I am so

grateful to have a supporting and loving family, especially my siblings. To Nuttie,
Bipi, Boki and wife, Anggi, thanks a lot for precious and endless care during this
unbelievable journey.
To my lovely nieces (Ila and Una) and nephews (Ahmad, Randi, Athar, and
Azzamir). I also want to thank Tintje, our household assistant who has been like my
own sister all this time. To my father, Muchtar Ali and the Big Family of Matahari,
for never ending prayers and support. And also to the big family of Soemarti and
Mangoentenoyo from my late mother’s (Sri Milly) side for keeping in touch even
through the Whatsapp group.
There are many people in my life who have been there with me all this time. Their
support is very meaningful to me. To Dr Endah Setyaningsih and Dr Anik Wulyani
particularly for being here, there and everywhere during my PhD journey. To Dr
Fenty Siregar and Neng Sila for helping me with technical aspects of this thesis. To
Mbak Anie and Gregory Street for being such a lovely, generous and kind family for
me towards the end of my journey. To the Baskulu Family for the on and off but
strong bond we have formed.
To my best friends, Yulce, Gang of Four (Desea, Yanto, and Zulu), Duvel, Steny,
Tya, Melski, Mame my Twin, Mbak Dani, Cecep, Jeng Endangus, and Dekyu who
are always all ears. These are the people who do bother to ask how I am doing even
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when we are apart from each other. To TII colleagues and the Hoorah Team for
making the office fun as we always have things to talk about and food to eat. To my
colleagues at SuaraKebebasan.org who have been cooperative and credible in
working together to promote freedom in Indonesia between the middle of the Middle
Earth and Jakarta.
I think I have to end my acknowledgements here as it is already over four pages, but
a PhD journey should indeed end up as a novel of its own reflective journey. With
that, I want to give myself a reward by saying, “I did it!”.
Of course, being a PhD is not the end of the journey as I still have many dreams to
achieve and life to continue ahead, and for sure many valuable things to contribute
back home to Indonesia and Indonesians, particularly with women, empowerment,
aid, and development. Let’s make the best out of it as knowledge is meaningless if it
only stays nicely at the library and understood by few people.

Wellington, 19 September 2017

Adinda Tenriangke Muchtar
PhD in Development Studies
300313069
Victoria University of Wellington
New Zealand

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Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. xii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...........................................................................xvii
List of Diagrams.................................................................................................................... xx
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xxi
List of Tables........................................................................................................................xxii
List of Vignettes ................................................................................................................ xxiii
Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1.

Background .................................................................................................................. 1

1.2. Post-development and Postcolonial Feminist Perspectives to Approach
the Study ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 On the Practice of International Aid ............................................................................ 10
. . On Development, Aid, and Women s Empowerment ............................................. 11
1.2.3 On the Intersectionality of Aid Relationships .......................................................... 13

1.3. Research Questions .................................................................................................... 15
1.4. Scope of Research ........................................................................................................ 15
1.5. Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2. Literature Review .......................................................................................... 19
2.1.

Introduction............................................................................................................... 19

2.2.

International Aid...................................................................................................... 20

2.2.1 The History of International Aid ................................................................................... 21
2.2.2 Critiques of Aid Relations ................................................................................................ 23
2.2.3 Changes in the Practices of International Aid .......................................................... 26
Ownership ................................................................................................................................................... 26
Participation ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Partnership.................................................................................................................................................. 31
2.2.4 Remaining Challenges of International Aid .............................................................. 33

2.3.

Women, Aid, Development ................................................................................... 34

. . Changing Paradigms in International Aid and Women s Empowerment....... 35
Changing International Contexts Promoted Inclusion of Women’s Issues in the
International Development Agenda .................................................................................................. 36
From WID to GAD Approach ................................................................................................................ 39
xii

The Need for Greater Concern Regarding the Practice of Aid Relations and the
Dynamics of International Aid ............................................................................................................ 41
2.3.2 Interconnections between Actors in the Aid System ............................................ 43
The Social Actor Approach.................................................................................................................... 44
Understanding Empowerment with Intersectionality Theory .............................................. 46

2.4.

Empowerment of Women through Development Aid ................................ 52

2.5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 57
Chapter 3. Research Design ............................................................................................. 59
3.1.

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 59

3.2.

Epistemology ............................................................................................................ 60

3.3. Methodological Approach ........................................................................................ 64
3.3.1 Qualitative Research Design ........................................................................................... 65
3.3.2 The Ethnographic Research ............................................................................................ 67

3.4. Methods .......................................................................................................................... 69
3.4.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................. 69
Reasons for Selecting Oxfam’s RCL Project .................................................................................... 69
The Use of Case Study for The Research ......................................................................................... 70
3.4.2 Document Reviews ............................................................................................................. 71
3.4.3 Semi-structured Interviews ............................................................................................ 72
3.4.4 Participant Observation ................................................................................................... 76
Maintaining Reflexivity During the Fieldwork ............................................................................. 78
3.4.5 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 79

3.5. Ethics ............................................................................................................................... 81
3.5.1 The Importance of Ethics ................................................................................................. 81
3.5.2 Ethics and Intersectionality ............................................................................................ 82
3.5.3 The Importance of Values and Contexts ..................................................................... 83
3.5.4 Expressing Ethics in Relationships with the Research Participants ............... 84

3.6.

Reflexivity and Positionality ............................................................................... 86

3.6.1 Reflexivity on my Background and Interests in Doing the Research ............... 87
3.6.2 My Positionality: Both an Insider and an Outsider ................................................. 88
3.6.3 The Importance of Conducting Reflexive Research................................................ 91

Chapter 4. Contexts of the Research Area and the Case Study ............................ 93
4.1.

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 93

4.2.

General Profile of the Research Area ............................................................... 94

4.2.1 Geographical Condition .................................................................................................... 95
4.2.2 Demography ......................................................................................................................... 96
4.2.3 Government .......................................................................................................................... 97
4.2.4 Social and Economic Conditions .................................................................................... 98
4.2. Policy Framework for Women s Empowerment and Participation............... 100
4.2.6 Actors for Women's Empowerment at National, Provincial, and District
Levels .............................................................................................................................................. 102

4.3.

Gender in Perspectives of Bugis-Makassar Culture .................................. 103
xiii

4.4. Bridging the Context Area to the Case Study of Oxfam s RCL Project
(2010-2015) ....................................................................................................................... 106
4.5.

Overview of Oxfam RCL Project in South Sulawesi (2010-2015)......... 108

4.6.

Discussion of the Context of the Research Area and the Case Study .. 112

4.7.

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 116

Chapter 5. The Practice of Aid Relations in the RCL Project .............................. 119
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 119
5.2

Development Interventions .............................................................................. 119

5.3.

Position of Women Beneficiaries in the RCL Project Design ................. 122

5.3.1 The National Government ............................................................................................. 123
5.3.2 The Local Government .................................................................................................... 125
5.3.3 Executing Agencies........................................................................................................... 127
Oxfam GB Indonesia (Jakarta Office) ..............................................................................................128
Oxfam Eastern Indonesia Office (Makassar Office) ..................................................................130
Local Partner (Yayasan Konservasi Laut/YKL) .........................................................................132
5.3.4 The Donors (CIDA) ........................................................................................................... 134

5.4.

Discussion on Women s Position in the RCL Project s Design .............. 135

5.5.

Aid Relations .......................................................................................................... 141

5.6. Relations between Women Beneficiaries and Other Stakeholders in the
RCL Project .......................................................................................................................... 143
. . Transformation of Women Beneficiaries of the RCL Project ........................... 144
. . Women Beneficiaries Transformation and Its Trickle-Down Effects........... 145
. . Aid Relations and Women Beneficiaries Transformation ................................ 150

5.7. Women Beneficiaries and Empowerment in the RCL Project s Aid
Relations .............................................................................................................................. 153
5.8.

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 159

Chapter 6. Women s Processes of Transformation ............................................... 163
6.1.

Introduction............................................................................................................ 163

6.2.

The Stories of Women Beneficiaries Processes of Transformation .. 164

6.2.1 Story from Jamilah, a Member of an Economic Group ........................................ 164
6.2.2 A Critical Reflection of a Young Woman in Tanakeke Island........................... 167
. . Story of Sitti Rahmah, the Organic Lady ................................................................. 169
6.2.4 Syarifah, a Passionate and Enthusiastic Leader ................................................... 173

6.3. Discussion: Personal, Relational, and Multidimensional Aspects of
Empowerment ................................................................................................................... 176
6.3.1 Personal Aspect ................................................................................................................. 177
6.3.2 Relational Aspect .............................................................................................................. 179
6.3.3 Multidimensional Aspect ............................................................................................... 180
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6.3.4 Reflection of the Intertwined Aspects of Empowerment................................... 181

6.4.

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 183

Chapter . Effects of Development Intervention on Women s Perceptions of
Empowerment .................................................................................................................... 185
7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 185
. . The Influence of Development Interventions on Beneficiaries
Perceptions ......................................................................................................................... 186
. . The Impacts of Development Project on Women s Empowerment ......... 191
7.4.

Women s Perceptions of Empowerment ....................................................... 197

7.4.1. Valuing Social Assets More .......................................................................................... 198
. . . Flexible Economic Activities and Groups Management ................................... 200
7.4.3 Dependence on External Assistance ......................................................................... 200

7.5. Rethinking Aid Relations and Gender Power Relations in Promoting
and Sustaining Women s Empowerment .................................................................. 202
7.5.1. Aid Relations in Development Interventions ....................................................... 202
7.5.2. Aid Power Relations and Empowerment ............................................................... 204
. . . Development Interventions and Women s Empowerment ............................. 206
7.5.4. Momentum to Improve the Practice of Aid Relations ........................................ 208

7.6.

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 209

Chapter 8. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 211
8.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 211
8.2.

Reflection on My Research Journey ................................................................ 211

8.2.1 Starting from an Interest in the Voice of Women Beneficiaries...................... 212
8.2.2 Learning from the Research Participants during Ethnographic Research . 215
8.2.3 Learning and Practising Reflexive and Ethical Research .................................. 216

8.3. Positioning Women in Meaningful and Empowering Roles in
Development Projects ..................................................................................................... 218
. . There is a Hopeful Critique of Aid ............................................................................ 218
. . Agency is Crucial in Promoting Women s Empowerment ................................. 220
8.3.3 There is a Need for Reflexive Development Intervention ................................. 221
Using Dynamics of International Aid to Promote Effective and Relevant Aid...............222
Understanding the Context Better in Implementing Development ...................................223

8.4.

Research Contribution ........................................................................................ 225

8.4.1 The 5Cs and 4As of Empowerment ............................................................................ 225
8.4.2 Talking Back to Post-development and Postcolonial Feminist Theories .... 228

8.5.

Limitations of Study ............................................................................................. 231

8.6.

Recommendations for Future Study............................................................... 232

8.7. Final Remarks ............................................................................................................ 233
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................. 239
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Appendix 1. Information Sheet .................................................................................... 239
Appendix 2. Information Sheet (Indonesian) ......................................................... 240
Appendix 3. Informed Consent Form ......................................................................... 241
Appendix 4. Informed Consent Form (Indonesian) .............................................. 242
Appendix 5. Interview Guide ........................................................................................ 243
Appendix 6. Interview Guide (Indonesian) ............................................................. 247
Appendix 7. List of Research Participants ............................................................... 252
Appendix 8. Ethics Approval ......................................................................................... 255
Appendix 9. Introduction Letter .................................................................................. 256
Appendix 10. Introduction Letter (Indonesian) .................................................... 257
Appendix 11. Research Permission Letter in South Sulawesi Province
(Indonesian) ....................................................................................................................... 258
Appendix 12. Research Permission Letter in Pangkep District (Indonesian)
................................................................................................................................................. 259
Appendix 13. Research Permission Letter from South Sulawesi Province
Government (Indonesian) ............................................................................................. 260
Appendix 14. Research Permission Letter from Pangkep District Government
(Indonesian) ....................................................................................................................... 263
References ........................................................................................................................... 265

xvi

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
AF: Accion Fraterna
BAPPEDA: Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah (Local Development Planning
Agency)
BPPKB: Badan Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Keluarga Berencana (Agency for
Women’s Empowerment and Familly Planning)
CDS: the Country Development Strategy
CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women
CIDA: the Canadian International Development Agency
DAC: Development Assistance Committee
DFATD: Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development of Canada
GAD: Gender and Development
HDI: Human Development Index
IFES: the International Foundation for Electoral Systems
IMF: the International Monetary Fund
JPP: Jaringan Perempuan dan Politik (Women and Politics’ Network)
Komnas Perempuan: Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan terhadap Perempuan (the
National Commission on Violence against Women
KPI: Koalisi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan dan Demokrasi (Indonesian Women
Coalition for Justice and Democracy)
KPP & PA: Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak (the
Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child Protection)
LBH APIK: Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan
(Legal Assistance Institution, Indonesian Women Association for Justice)
LDC: less developed countries

MAP: Mangrove Action Project
MDGs: Millenium Development Goals
MoU: Memorandum of Understanding
Musrenbang: Musyawarah Perencanaan Pembangunan (Development Planning
Meeting)
NDI: the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs
NGOs: Non-Governmental Organisations
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Oxfam: Oxford Committee for Famine Relief
Oxfam GB: Oxford Committee for Famine Relief of Great Britain
Pangkep: Pangkajene Kepulauan (Pangkajene Islands)
P2TP2A:

Pusat

Pelayanan

Terpadu

untuk

Pemberdayaan

Perempuan

dan

Perlindungan Anak/ (Integrated Service Center for Women Empowerment and Child
Protection)
RAN PUG: Rencana Aksi Nasional untuk Pengarusutamaan Gender (the National
Action Plan for Gender Mainstreaming)
RCL: Restoring Coastal Livelihood
RD: the Rural Development Trust
SBA: strengths-based approach
SC USA: Save the Children of the United States of America
SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals
SP: Solidaritas Perempuan (Women Solidarity)
TII: The Indonesian Institute, Center for Public Policy Research
UN: the United Nations
UNDP: the United Nations Development Programme
USAID: the United States Agency for International Development
WAD: Women and Development
xviii

WB: the World Bank
WID: Women in Development
WSG: Women’s Savings Groups
YKL: Yayasan Konservasi Laut (Marine Conservation Foundation)

xix

List of Diagrams
Diagram 5.1. Actors in Oxfam’s RCL Project ………………………………………. 123
Diagram 5.2. Women’s Engagement in the RCL Project……………………………. 153

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List of Figures
Figure 4.1. Map of Indonesia .................................................................................. 94
Figure 4.2. Map of South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia ...................................... 95
Figure 4.3. Pictures of Economic Groups in Maros District and Pangkep District
.......................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 6.1. Jamilah, the Empowered Member .................................................... 165
Figure 6.2. Nurhayati, the Enthusiastic Young Woman from Tanakeke Island
.......................................................................................................................... 167
Figure 6.3. Sitti Rahmah, the ‘Organic Lady’ ..................................................... 172
Figure 6.4. Syarifah, the Passionate Leader ........................................................ 173

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List of Tables
Table 3.1. List of Research Participants……………………………………………. 75
Table 4.1. Social and Economic Indicators of Indonesia, South Sulawesi, and
Pangkep District (2015-2016)…………………………………………………... 98
Table 5.1. Concerns of the National Government on International Aid and
Development Intervention………………………………………………………124

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List of Vignettes
Vignette 6.1 A Big Leap for a Woman…………………………………………. 165
Vignette 6.2 Voice from an Enthusiastic Young Woman……………………… 168
Vignette 6.3 Voice from a Resourceful and Empowered Woman…………….. 169
Vignette 6.4 Increasing Social Solidarity through the Economic Groups……. 173

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Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Background
Since the 1990s, women’s issues have been included and promoted as one of the main
issues of concerted international efforts to tackle poverty alleviation. One of the most
prominent women’s issues is empowerment. Empowerment itself has been heavily used
in development interventions as a way to increase public awareness and promote public
participation in the policy processes (Connel, 1999; Cooke & Kothari, 2001;
Friedmann, 1992; Rowlands, 1999). It is seen to be of particular relevance for women
and others marginalized in, and by, development.
To ensure a development project’s relevance, it is important for development
interventions to consider the contexts and relevant stakeholders where the projects take
place. As argued by Marina Ottaway (2003), efforts to promote democracy through
foreign aid should be put in a comprehensive frame as part of a large and complex
picture. The practice of development aid has also led post-development and postcolonial
feminist writers to criticise the definitions and practices of development, particularly
regarding power relations between donors and recipients.
This study primarily focuses on women beneficiaries’ perceptions of empowerment and
being empowered after their involvement in a development project. My understanding
and conceptualisation of empowerment are highly influenced by the work of Jo
Rowlands (1999) who argues that empowerment should be understood by seeing it in
personal, relational, and collective dimensions. The personal dimension of
empowerment is about the ability to identify self-capacity and capability. Moreover, I
understand that the personal aspect of empowerment in this study is particularly
reflected in relation to women’s awareness, choices, confidence, and commitment for
self-actualisation, participation in and contribution to society. The relational aspect of
empowerment can be seen from the acceptance and acknowledgement of others of
women’s agency and achievement which are situated in the context of women's
relationships with others. The collective aspect of empowerment is about the ability to
transform society by moving from insight into collective action.

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My analysis and understanding of empowerment also reflect the multidimensional
aspect of empowerment as highlighted by Luttrell, et.al (2009). This aspect shows that
empowerment is not limited to economic empowerment as there are other important
dimensions of empowerment such as social, political, cultural, economic, environmental
or natural resources, health, human, as well as social and spiritual. The
multidimensional aspect also reflects that empowerment is not limited to economic
empowerment. Empowerment is also multi-layered as it connects various actors and
interests at various levels. Empowerment is highly influenced by the contexts where
women live their everyday lives as well as general awareness and understanding of
gender relations and gender equality.
Furthermore, as argued by Andrea Cornwall (2016), with regard to empowerment,
women experience various pathways of transformation processes. In relation to
pathways of empowerment, Cornwall & Edwards (2010), empowerment is understood
as a journey which involves constant negotiation and compromises with unpredictable
results due to the nature of empowerment which is conditional and contextual. In this
case, they argue that context is crucial in making sense of empowerment.
With regard to this study, the existing context where women live and embrace
experience, such as in relation to cultural norms, history, social relations, local politics,
including the contexts of aid relations and development intervention, which women
participate in, are important in influencing women’s empowerment and their
perceptions of empowerment. I also connected my analysis on women’s perceptions of
empowerment with their aid relations because this study relates international aid and
women beneficiaries’ perceptions of empowerment,. In this case, I referred to Rosaline
Eyben’s argument on the importance of understanding aid relations in relation to the
management of international aid (2006a, 2006b). I also highlighted the aspects of
women’s multiple voices, different experiences, contexts, and relationships in
approaching this research by connecting to arguments from Alsop et al., (2006) as well
as Cornwall & Edwards (2010).
In this thesis, based on the key authors mentioned above and the insights provided by
the participants during fieldwork, I developed a conceptual framework of
empowerment, the 5Cs (capacity, capability, confidence, choice, and commitment) and
the 4As (awareness, achievement, acceptance, and acknowledgement) according to my
understanding of empowerment based on the key authors above and the findings of the
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study. Through this conceptualisation of empowerment, I aimed to reflect the multiple
voices of the research participants. The 5Cs and 4As emphasise that there is no singular
concept of empowerment and that women experienced their own stories of
transformation processes according to the contexts where they lived and interacted with
others. It is based on the experiences of women both as individuals and parts of
collectives in perceiving their positions, rights, and roles in private and public spheres.
Empowerment reflects various stories of women’s journeys of transformation
depending on their roles and positions within society.
Therefore, empowerment highlights the importance of women having access to and
control over resources. Empowerment enables women to cooperate with others to
collectively tackle common agendas by promoting gender awareness and gender
equality in society. Above all, empowerment requires enabling internal and external
environments, in which opportunities are open and available for women to fulfil their
strategic and practical needs. I will elaborate further my understanding of empowerment
and existing literature on empowerment of the key authors which influenced my
conceptualisation of empowerment in the literature review chapter. The 5Cs and the
4As will also be reflected in my analysis on women’s perceptions of empowerment
throughout this thesis. I will also come back to this framework in the Conclusion
chapter and relate that to the literature and key authors, the debates in the literature, as
well as the findings of the study and potential future research out of the study.
This study looks at the aid relations between women beneficiaries and executing
agencies of the development project, the local government, their families and the wider
community. This study also looks at and analyses the relevance of the development
intervention to women. For instance, it asks whether development interventions affected
women’s lives and if so, to what extent the projects actually empowered women. The
research further investigates how development interventions influence women
beneficiaries’ perceptions of empowerment after their involvement in the project. I use
the term ‘women beneficiaries’ when I explain women’s relations, positions, and roles
in the development project. However, I often refer the term ‘women’ to refer
particularly to women in this study but not to generalise and homogenise women’s
multiple voices and stories of empowerment. I also use the term ‘women’ to avoid the
weak and passive perceptions of women in the aid chain due to the labelling of
development agencies on beneficiaries in the project.

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These concerns constituted the rationale for this research, which examined Oxfam’s
Restoring Coastal Livelihoods (RCL) Project in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. South
Sulawesi has been known as the hub for development interventions in the Eastern
region of Indonesia, due to its infrastructure and active public activism. Recalling the
fact that empowerment is culturally and socially contextualized, South Sulawesi with
four ethnic groups (Bugis, Makassar, Mandar, and Toraja) and diverse languages
provides a good context for the topic of this study. These were also my reasons to select
the RCL Project as the main case study for this research.
Furthermore, the length of the RCL Project and the specific project locations were also
interesting to look at in exploring the project’s relevance to the needs of the women and
understanding their perceptions of empowerment both individually and collectively. In
addition to the local context, development interventions also influence women’s
perceptions of empowerment. I found the combination of the influence of both
development interventions and local context on women beneficiaries’ perceptions of
empowerment as the gaps in the literature.
Existing literature on aid, women’s empowerment, and development also tend to lack
discussions on the personal and relational aspect of empowerment from the perceptions
of women beneficiaries, especially in the context of their involvement in development
projects (Eyben, 2006b; Pasteur & Scott-Villiers, 2006). Development agencies are
criticised for neglecting issues such as relationships, leisure, pleasure, love, and care in
understanding experiences of empowerment and disempowerment. They have also been
criticised for disregarding women’s own voices, analysis, experiences and solutions in
the rush for results (Cornwall & Edwards, 2010).
Furthermore, empowerment has been treated as a destination which women will reach
by going through the same pathway of development, whereas in reality, women have
their own individual or collective journeys of empowerment. However, their st