Biology 4 Volume Set Macmillan Science Library Biology Vol 4 Pr Z pdf
b i o l o g y
E D I T O R I A L B O A R D
Editor in Chief
Richard Robinson [email protected]
Tucson, Arizona
Advisory Editors
Peter Bruns, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Rex Chisholm, Northwestern University Medical School Mark A. Davis, Department of Biology, Macalester College Thomas A. Frost, Trout Lake Station, University of Wisconsin Kenneth S. Saladin, Department of Biology, Georgia College and State
University
Editorial Reviewer
Ricki Lewis, State University of New York at Albany
Students from the following schools participated as consultants:
Pocatello High School, Pocatello, Idaho Eric Rude, Teacher
Swiftwater High School, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania Howard Piltz, Teacher
Douglas Middle School, Box Elder, South Dakota Kelly Lane, Teacher
Medford Area Middle School, Medford, Wisconsin Jeanine Staab, Teacher
E D I T O R I A L A N D P R O D U C T I O N S T A F F Linda Hubbard, Editorial Director Diane Sawinski, Christine Slovey, Senior Editors Shawn Beall, Bernard Grunow, Michelle Harper, Kate Millson, Carol
Nagel, Contributing Editors Kristin May, Nicole Watkins, Editorial Interns Michelle DiMercurio, Senior Art Director Rhonda Williams, Buyer Robyn V. Young, Senior Image Editor Julie Juengling, Lori Hines, Permissions Assistants Deanna Raso, Photo Researcher
Macmillan Reference USA
Elly Dickason, Publisher Hélène G. Potter, Editor in Chief Ray Abruzzi, Editor b i o l o g y
V O L U M E
4 P r – Z C u m u l a t i v e I n d e x
Richard Robinson, Editor in Chief
Copyright © 2002 by Macmillan Reference USA
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the Publisher.
Macmillan Reference USA Gale Group 300 Park Avenue South 27500 Drake Rd. New York, NY 10010 Farmington Hills, 48331-3535 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Library of Congress Catalog-in-Publication Data Biology / Richard Robinson, editor in chief.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-86551-6 (set: hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-86-5552-4 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865556-7 (vol. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865554-0 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-02-865555-9 (vol. 4)
1. Biology. I. Robinson, Richard, 1956– QH07.2.B556 2001
570-dc21 2001040211 For Your Reference
The following section provides information that is applicable to a num- ber of articles in this reference work. Included are a metric measurement and conversion table, geologic timescale, diagrams of an animal cell and a plant cell, illustration of the structure of DNA nucleotides, detail of DNA nucleotides pairing up across the double helix, and a comparison of the mol- ecular structure of DNA and RNA.
Temperature Conversion Definitions ˚F ˚C Kilo = 1000
100 Hecto = 100 210 Deka = 10 200 Deci = 0.10 (1/10)
90 190 Centi = 0.01 (1/100) 180 Milli = 0.001 (1/1000)
80 Micro = 0.000001 (1/1,000,000) 170 Nano = 0.000000001 (1/1,000,000,000) 160
70 150 140
60 130 Conversions
50 120 To convert Into Multiply by 110
40 100 Acres Hectares 0.4047
90 Centimeters Inches 0.3937
30 Feet Meters 0.3048
80 Gallons Liters 3.7853
70
20 Grams Ounces 0.0353
60 Grams Pounds 0.0022
50
10 Hectares Acres 2.4710 Inches Centimeters 2.5400
40 Kilograms Pounds 2.2046
30 Kilometers Miles 0.6214
20 Liters Gallons] 0.2642 ⫺10
10 Meters Feet 3.2808 Miles Kilometers 1.6093 ⫺20 Ounces Grams 28.3495
⫺10 Pounds Kilograms 0.4536 ˚F ˚C Pounds Grams 453.59
100˚C ⫽ water boils 0˚C ⫽ water freezes
STARTED (millions of years ago)
66.4
Middle Early Carboniferous
Middle Early Late Early Late Middle Early Late
Late Middle Early Late Early Late Early Late
Early Late Middle Early
Oligocene Eocene Paleocene Late
Holocene Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene
97.5 144 163 187 208 230 240 245 258 286 320 360 374 387 408 421 438 458 478 505 523 540 570 4500
57.8
GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE ERA PERIOD EPOCH Cambrian
36.6
23.7
5.3
1.6
0.01
Precambrian time: 4500–570 millions of years ago Devonian
Neogene Paleogene Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Pennsylvanian
Tertiary Cenozoic: 66.4 millions of years ago–present time Mesozoic: 245–66.4 millions of years ago Paleozoic: 570–245 millions of years ago Quaternary
Mississippian Ordovician Silurian Permian A TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL Stalk Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Basal body Cilium Rootlet Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome Ribosomes Mitochondrion Rough endoplasmic
Centrioles reticulum Chromosome Vacuole
Nucleus Nucleolus Nuclear membrane Plasma membrane
Lysosome A TYPICAL PLANT CELL
Chloroplast Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Chromosome
Nucleolus Nucleus Nuclear membrane Ribosomes
Vacuole Cell wall Plasma membrane Mitochondrion
Leucoplast
- – CH
- – CH
- – O P O O
- – O P O O
O O OH H
2 C C N C N C N N C H H H O O OH H
- – CH
- – CH
- – O P O O
- – O P O O
2 O C C N C N C N N C H H H H NH
O C C N C N C O H
3 C H H O O OH H
2 H H NH
2 C C N C N C O O OH H
2 H H O H H Adenine Purine-containing nucleotides
Guanine Pyrimidine-containing nucleotides Thymine
Cytosine Nitrogenous base Phosphate
Sugar Components of a nucleotide STRUCTURE OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES H H
H H H H H H O H H H H CH 2 H O – O P O O – N N N
O H O CH 3 O – O P O O
H
H
N N N N H H O H3 ' d ir ect io n
3' 5'
DNA NUCLEOTIDES PAIR UP ACROSS THE DOUBLE HELIX
Sugar-phosphate backbone of complementary DNA strand
Sugar-phosphate backbone of one DNA strand
Nitrogenous bases of the
two DNA strands connected
by hydrogen bonds
5' 3'
3 ' d ir ect io n
5 ' to
5'
5 ' to
3' end H H H H 2 C O O P O O – O
Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) 5' end 3'
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
H H N N 5' end Thymine (T) Adenine (A)
H H 5'
N N N O N N H
H
H 3' endN N H N N N H O H H H H CH 2 H N N N O N H
H
H O H H H H H 2 C O – O P O O – HH N H O H H H H CH 2 H N N N O O CH 3 O – O P O O
H
H
H O H H H H H 2 C O O P O O – HH H H H CH 2 H N N N O H N H O – O P O O
H
H
O N N N H H O H H H H H 2 C O O P O O – HH 3' O
H H
HH HOCH
H OH
Deoxyribose
O
H H OH
H HOCH
2 OH
H OH
Ribose
O C C N C N C O H
H H H
Thymine
O C C N C N C O H H H H
Uracil DNA RNA A T C G G C T A
A C G U COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA V O L U M E 1
P REFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii L
68 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96 Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95 Botanist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93 Bony Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IST OF C ONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
91 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 Behavior Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63 Biochemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70 Bioinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leclerc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
71 Biological Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76 Biology of Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77 Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80 Bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80 Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84 Blood Clotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86 Blood Sugar Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97 Bryophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Buffon, Count (Georges-Louis
Table of Contents
A Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89 Body Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Adrenal Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Aging, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Agronomist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Alcohol and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 Alternation of Generations . . . . . . . . . . . .
22 Amino Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24 Amniote Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 Amphibian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Anabolic Steroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Anatomy of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31 Animalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34 Annelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 Antibodies in Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37 Antibody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39 Antisense Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41 Arachnid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C
59 Behavior, Genetic Basis of . . . . . . . . . . . .
53 Bacterial Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table of Contents
52 Bacterial Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 Bacterial Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47 B Bacterial Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46 Autoimmune Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C4 and CAM Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Cambrian Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Cardiovascular Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Carson, Rachel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Cartilaginous Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Cell Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
43 Arthropod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58 Beer-making, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Cell Motility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Cell Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Chemoreception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Chloroplast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Chordata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Chromosome Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chromosome, Eukaryotic . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Circulatory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Clinical Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Clone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Cnidarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Coffee, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 College Professor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Conifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Control of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . 170 Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Convergent Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Coral Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Creationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Crick, Francis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Crocodilians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Crustacean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Cyanobacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
DNA Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 DNA Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Doctor, Family Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Doctor, Specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Drug Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Dubos, René . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 P HOTO AND
I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
V O L U M E 2
E Echinoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Ecological Research, Long-Term . . . . . . .
3 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
69 Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68 Extreme Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64 Extracellular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 Exocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55 Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52 Evolution of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44 Evolution, Evidence for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41 Eudicots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40 Eubacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38 Ethnobotany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37 Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 Epithelium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Epidemiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Darwin, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 De Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore . . . . . . . 199 Dentist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Differentiation in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
25 Entomologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22 Endoplasmic Reticulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18 Endocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Emergency Medical Technician . . . . . . . .
10 Electrophoresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Ecology, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Environmental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D
F Feeding Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . .
77 Fetal Development, Human . . . . . . . . . . .
G
21 Table of Contents
20 Lakes and Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18 L Laboratory Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Krebs Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 K Kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Ingenhousz, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
V O L U M E 3
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
93 Forensic DNA Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81 Field Studies in Animal Behavior . . . . . . .
85 Field Studies in Plant Ecology . . . . . . . . .
87 Fire Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91 Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94 Forest, Boreal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
97 Forest, Temperate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99 Forest, Tropical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Forester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fungal Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Gene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Gene Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Genetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Genetic Control of Development . . . . . 131 Genetic Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Genetic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Genome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Glycolysis and Fermentation . . . . . . . . . 148 Golgi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Gray, Asa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium . . . . . . . . 164 Harvey, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Health and Safety Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Heart and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Herbal Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Herbivory and Plant Defenses . . . . . . . . 178 High School Biology Teacher . . . . . . . . 180 History of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 History of Biology: Biochemistry . . . . . . 182 History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 History of Biology: Inheritance . . . . . . . 189 History of Evolutionary Thought . . . . . 192 History of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 History of Plant Physiology . . . . . . . . . . 198 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Hormones, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Horticulturist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Genome Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Human Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Human Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Hybridization, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Hypothalamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 P HOTO AND
I Imaging in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N
O
91 Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 Membrane Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70 Membrane Sructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73 Membrane Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76 Mendel, Gregor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80 Meristems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81 Metabolism, Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84 Metabolism, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87 Microbiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90 Microscopist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93 Mitochondrion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92 Mimicry, Camouflage, and Warning Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 Medical/Science Illustrator . . . . . . . . . . . .
94 Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98 Model Organisms: Cell Biology and Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Model Organisms: Physiology and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Mollusk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Monocots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Monotreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Mycorrhizae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Nematode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Neurologic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Nitrogen Fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Nonspecific Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Nuclear Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Nucleolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Nurse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nurse Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nutritionist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Ocean Ecosystems: Hard Bottoms . . . . . 150 Ocean Ecosystems: Open Ocean . . . . . . 151 Ocean Ecosystems: Soft Bottoms . . . . . . 153 Oncogenes and Cancer Cells . . . . . . . . . 154 Organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Organelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Organic Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Origin of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Osmoregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Paleontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Parasitic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Pasteur, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Pauling, Linus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Pedigrees and Modes of Inheritance . . . 186 Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . 189 Peroxisomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table of Contents
65 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64 Medical Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Landscape Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 Linkage and Gene Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .
24 Leakey Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 Leeuwenhoek, Antony von . . . . . . . . . . . .
30 Lichen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31 Life Cycle, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32 Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34 Life, What Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37 Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38 Limnologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 Linnaeus, Carolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62 McClintock, Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50 Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50 Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52 Lysosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54 M Male Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 Mammal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59 Marine Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 Marsupial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62 Mating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
Pharmaceutical Sales Representative . . . 192 Pharmacologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Pheromone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Photoperiodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Physical Therapist and Occupational
81 Science Writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62 Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63 Retrovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 Reverse Transcriptase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68 Rhythms of Plant Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69 Ribosome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71 Rivers and Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73 RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75 RNA Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78 S Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83 Secondary Metabolites in Plants . . . . . . .
52 Reproductive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .
84 Seed Germination and Dormancy . . . . . .
86 Seedless Vascular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88 Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89 Senescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91 Separation and Purification of Biomolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93 Sex Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94 Sex Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98 Sexual Reproduction, Evolution of . . . . 101 Sexual Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . 106 Shoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Signaling and Signal Transduction . . . . 112 Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Slime Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Table of Contents
60 Reptile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47 Reproduction in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Therapist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Physician Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Physiological Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Pituitary Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Plant Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Plant Pathogens and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Plant Pathologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Plasma Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Platyhelminthes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Poisonous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Poisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Pollination and Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . 227 Pollution and Bioremediation . . . . . . . . 228 Polymerase Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . 232 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Porifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Porter, Keith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 P HOTO AND
F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
38 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38 Recombinant DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 R Radiation Hybrid Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .
33 Public Health Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31 Pteridophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30 Psychoactive Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Psychiatrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Psychiatric Disorders, Biology of . . . . . . .
I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
46 Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
V O L U M E 4
P Predation and Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Protein Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Prion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Primate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Protein Targeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19 Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Protozoan Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smoking and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Social Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Sociobiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Stress Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Structure Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Symbiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Synaptic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
V Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
T Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Taxonomy, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Temperature Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Theoretical Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Thyroid Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Torrey, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Touch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Transfer RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Transgenic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Translocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Transplant Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Transposon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Tropisms and Nastic Movements . . . . . 175 Tuatara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Tunicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Vacuole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 van Helmont, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vavilov, Nikolay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vesalius, Andreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Veterinarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Viral Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Vitamins and Coenzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 von Humboldt, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Water Movement in Plants . . . . . . . . . . 193 Watson, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Wildlife Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Wine-making, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Wood and Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . 201
Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Zoology Researcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 P HOTO AND
I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 C UMULATIVE
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table of Contents
T
W
Z
b i o l o g y
Predation and Defense
Predatory behavior is that which results in the killing of another animal for
P
food. Some predators, such as lions and tigers, are large and ferocious, while others can be small and benign in appearance, such as lady bugs. (Lady bugs, however, might seem ferocious to their prey, which are tiny insects called aphids.) Some predators, such as bears and crows, eat a mixed diet that in- cludes a lot of plant material as well as other animals. Other animals, such as frogs, lizards, and most species of wild cats, are more strictly carnivorous, and their diet consists almost entirely of animals.
Characteristics of Predators
Predators usually possess excellent senses to find their prey and special abil- ities to capture the prey. Predatory birds, for example, possess outstanding eyesight and often hearing, as in the case of owls. Other predators, such as many species of mammals, have a very keen sense of smell that helps them locate prey. Many predators are very fast, and use their speed to help cap- savanna open grass- ture their prey. Cheetahs, predators of the African savannas, are the world’s land with sparse trees fastest runners; falcons, predators of other bird species, are the world’s fastest fliers; and dolphins and barracudas are very fast swimmers.
Prey Defenses
Most species are potential prey for another animal at least sometime dur- ing their lives. Even lions and wolves can fall victim to other predators when they are very young. Most species possess several lines of defense against predators. Often the first line of defense is to avoid being detected by the predator. One way to do this is to minimize noise production and any vi- sual cues that the predator might use to locate the prey. Frogs and crickets usually stop singing as another creature approaches. The resulting silence makes it more difficult for the predator to find them. Other prey have evolved camouflage coloration that blends into the background making it difficult for visual predators to find them. Many moths, common prey for birds, look like the bark of trees on which they rest during the day, and snowshoe hares, the primary prey for lynx, have brown fur in the summer but white fur in the winter when their northern environment is covered with snow. Because predators often use prey movements to detect them, many prey remain as still as possible when a predator approaches. Predation and Defense
Predatory birds, such as this peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus
anatum), possess outstanding eyesight.
The prey usually has other lines of defense it can utilize if spotted. Many prey species are very fast runners, swimmers, or fliers, and they often can use their speed to escape. Even if a prey is spotted and caught, or cornered, the result is often not a foregone conclusion. Many prey successfully deter a predatory attempt by fighting back. An adult moose is usually successful at warding off an attack by a pack of wolves, even if the moose has been surrounded by the wolves. The moose is able to use its hooves as lethal weapons against the much smaller wolves, and the wolves generally give up once they realize the moose is healthy and a formidable adversary.
Some animals have morphological and behavioral adaptations that make it difficult for the predator to get the prey into their mouth. Many fish and insects have spines that prevent a predatory fish or bird from being able to eat them. Some prey, like the puffer fish, make themselves larger if threat- ened, again making it more difficult, often impossible, for the predator to ingest the prey.
Many prey have evolved to use social behavior as a predatory defense. For example, many species of fish and birds travel in groups, such as schools of fish and flocks of birds. These schools and flocks often move very quickly in a highly synchronized fashion. Scientists believe that these groups pro- vide protection for individuals in the group. Most predators have to single out and focus on a single individual in order to successfully capture a prey. However, the fast-moving and synchronized flocks and schools are believed to make it difficult for the predators to accomplish this. In some cases, a group of prey is able to successfully fight off a predatory attack, whereas an individual prey probably would not be able to do this. For example, although a baboon on its own would probably succumb to a predatory attack from a leopard, a group of males in a baboon troop can usually ward off such an attack.
Some prey are easy for predators to find, easy for predators to capture, and easy for predators to ingest. Yet they seldom fall prey to predators be- cause they employ a final line of defense: toxicity. They are poisonous. The poison dart frogs of the rain forests of Central and South America are an
Predation and Defense
Some species of fish swim in a highly synchronized fashion to defend themselves against their predators. excellent example. These are small, brightly colored frogs that are easy to find, catch, and eat. However, they are very poisonous, and most birds quickly learn to avoid them. The indigenous people of these rainforests dis- covered that these frogs contain a potent toxin and learned to extract the toxin from the frogs. They then dipped the tips of their arrows in the toxin before going out on a hunting expedition. Ironically, by using the toxin that had evolved as an antipredatory defense, the people became more effective predators.
Evolution of Predator-Prey Relationships
Because the cost of being caught and eaten by a predator is so great, the in- tensity of natural selection on prey species has been very high throughout evolution. The selection pressure on the prey is probably higher than that on the predator. If a fox fails in its attempt to catch a rabbit, it just misses lunch. However, if a rabbit fails in its attempt to escape from a fox, it loses its life. Because of the intensity of selection on prey species, the variety and effectiveness of antipredatory defenses is especially impressive. Primate
It is believed that predators and their prey have coevolved. This means that as the predators developed adaptations that enabled them to capture the prey more successfully, the selection pressure on prey intensified, re- sulting in the selection of more effective antipredator adaptations. In turn, these more effective antipredator adaptations are believed to have promoted the selection of more effective predatory adaptations. This reciprocal on- going evolutionary cycle among predators and prey is sometimes referred
S E E A L S O
to as an evolutionary arms race. Ecosystem; Feeding Strate- gies; Mimicry, Camouflage, and Warning Coloration; Poisons
Mark. A. Davis Bibliography Alcock, J. Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 6th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sin-
auer Associates, Inc., 1998.
Primate
The order Primates includes prosimians, monkeys, and apes. Primates are well studied, to a large extent because people are primates. (Humans are apes, within the superfamily Hominoidea.) There are some 240 species of primates alive today, ranging across South America, Africa, and Asia. Since nearly all primates are primarily arboreal (they live in trees), their geo- graphic distribution is largely confined to forest or woodland and to warm regions where all of the trees do not lose their leaves and fruits at the same time.