Biology 4 Volume Set Macmillan Science Library Biology Vol 3 I Po pdf

  b i o l o g y

  E D I T O R I A L B O A R D

  Editor in Chief

  Richard Robinson rrobinson@nasw.org

  Tucson, Arizona Advisory Editors

  Peter Bruns, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Rex Chisholm, Northwestern University Medical School Mark A. Davis, Department of Biology, Macalester College Thomas A. Frost, Trout Lake Station, University of Wisconsin Kenneth S. Saladin, Department of Biology, Georgia College and State

  University Editorial Reviewer

  Ricki Lewis, State University of New York at Albany

  Students from the following schools participated as consultants:

  Pocatello High School, Pocatello, Idaho Eric Rude, Teacher

  Swiftwater High School, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania Howard Piltz, Teacher

  Douglas Middle School, Box Elder, South Dakota Kelly Lane, Teacher

  Medford Area Middle School, Medford, Wisconsin Jeanine Staab, Teacher

  E D I T O R I A L A N D P R O D U C T I O N S T A F F Linda Hubbard, Editorial Director Diane Sawinski, Christine Slovey, Senior Editors Shawn Beall, Bernard Grunow, Michelle Harper, Kate Millson, Carol

  Nagel, Contributing Editors Kristin May, Nicole Watkins, Editorial Interns Michelle DiMercurio, Senior Art Director Rhonda Williams, Buyer Robyn V. Young, Senior Image Editor Julie Juengling, Lori Hines, Permissions Assistants Deanna Raso, Photo Researcher

  Macmillan Reference USA

  Elly Dickason, Publisher Hélène G. Potter, Editor in Chief Ray Abruzzi, Editor b i o l o g y

  V O L U M E

  3 I – Po Richard Robinson, Editor in Chief

  Copyright © 2002 by Macmillan Reference USA

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the Publisher.

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  Library of Congress Catalog-in-Publication Data Biology / Richard Robinson, editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

  

ISBN 0-02-86551-6 (set: hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-86-5552-4 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865556-7

(vol. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865554-0 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-02-865555-9 (vol. 4)

  1. Biology. I. Robinson, Richard, 1956– QH07.2.B556 2001 570-dc21 2001040211

  For Your Reference

  The following section provides information that is applicable to a num- ber of articles in this reference work. Included are a metric measurement and conversion table, geologic timescale, diagrams of an animal cell and a plant cell, illustration of the structure of DNA nucleotides, detail of DNA nucleotides pairing up across the double helix, and a comparison of the mol- ecular structure of DNA and RNA.

  METRIC MEASUREMENT _{Temperature Conversion Hecto = 100 Deka = 10 Deci = 0.10 (1/10) Kilo = 1000 Centi = 0.01 (1/100)} Definitions _{190 200 210 ˚F ˚C 90 100 Micro = 0.000001 (1/1,000,000) Milli = 0.001 (1/1000) Nano = 0.000000001 (1/1,000,000,000) 170} 180 _{140 130 150 160 60 70 80 To convert Into} Conversions _{120 50 Acres Hectares 0.4047 Feet Meters 0.3048 Gallons Liters 3.7853 Grams Ounces 0.0353 Centimeters Inches 0.3937} Multiply by _{110 100 70 80 90 30 20 40 Grams Pounds 0.0022 Kilograms Pounds 2.2046 Meters Feet 3.2808 Liters Gallons] 0.2642 Hectares Acres 2.4710 Kilometers Miles 0.6214 Inches Centimeters 2.5400 20 30}

  60 _{40 50 10 ⫺10 10 Pounds Grams 453.59 ˚F ˚C Pounds Kilograms 0.4536 Ounces Grams 28.3495} Miles Kilometers 1.6093 _{⫺10 ⫺20} 100˚C ⫽ water boils 0˚C ⫽ water freezes

  STARTED _{(millions of years ago)} GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE ERA PERIOD EPOCH

  57.8

  Middle Early Late Early Late Middle Early Late

  Late Middle Early Late Early Late Early Late

  Early Late Middle Early

  Oligocene Eocene Paleocene Late

  Holocene Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene

  97.5 144 163 187 208 230 240 245 258 286 320 360 374 387 408 421 438 458 478 505 523 540 570 4500

  66.4

  36.6

  Cambrian Tertiary

  23.7

  5.3

  1.6

  0.01

  Precambrian time: 4500–570 millions of years ago Devonian

  Neogene Paleogene Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Pennsylvanian

  Cenozoic: 66.4 millions of years ago–present time Mesozoic: 245–66.4 millions of years ago Paleozoic: 570–245 millions of years ago Quaternary

  Middle Early ^{Carboniferous} Mississippian Ordovician Silurian Permian

  _{Smooth endoplasmic reticulum} A TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL _{Stalk Golgi apparatus} Basal body Cilium _{Rootlet Peroxisome} Ribosomes _{endoplasmic Rough Mitochondrion Vacuole reticulum Chromosome} Centrioles _{Nucleus Nuclear membrane Plasma membrane Lysosome} Nucleolus

  A TYPICAL PLANT CELL _Chloroplast Endoplasmic reticulum _{Golgi apparatus Chromosome Nuclear membrane} Nucleolus _{Nucleus Ribosomes} Vacuole _{Plasma membrane Cell wall Leucoplast} Mitochondrion

  O _{O OH H} ^{– O P O O – CH} ₂ ^{NH C N 2 C C N C N N C H H} _H O _{O OH H} ^{– O P O O – CH} _{H 2} ^{O C C N C N C N N C H} _H ^{H NH 2 H O C C N C N C O H O 3 C H H O OH H – O P O O – CH 2 H H NH C N 2 C C N C} _{O O OH H} ^– _{O P O} ^{O –} _CH ^Adenine _{2 H H} ^{O H H Purine-containing nucleotides Guanine Pyrimidine-containing nucleotides Thymine Cytosine Nitrogenous base Phosphate Sugar Components of a nucleotide} STRUCTURE OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES H H ^{H H} H H _{H H}

  O H H H H CH ₂ H O ^– O P O O ^– N N N

  O H O CH ₃ O ^– O P O O

H

H

N N N N H H O H ^{3' end} H

  H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O H N H O ^– O

  P O O

H

H

O N N N H H O H H H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– H H N H O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O O CH ₃ O ^– O P

  O O

H

H

H O H H H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– H N N H N N N H O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O N H

H

H O H H H H H ₂ C O ^– O

  P O O ^– H N N N O N N H

H

H _{3' end}

  H H 5'

  H H N N ^{5' end Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)} Adenine (A) _{Thymine (T)}

  Guanine (G) _{Cytosine (C)} 5' end ^{3' 5 ' to 3 ' d ir ect io n 5' 5 ' to 5' 3 ' d ir ect io n 3'} _{Sugar-phosphate backbone of one DNA strand}

_{Nitrogenous bases of the}

_{two DNA strands connected}

_{by hydrogen bonds}

_{Sugar-phosphate backbone of complementary DNA strand}

  3' ^5' H

  3'

  

O

H H

H H HOCH ₂ OH H OH

_Deoxyribose

O H H OH H HOCH ₂ OH H OH _Ribose

  O C C N C N C O H ₃ C H H H _Thymine O C C N C N C O H H H H

  Uracil ^{DNA RNA A T C G G C T A A C G U} COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA V O L U M E 1

  P REFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii L

  70 Bioinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  96 Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  95 Botanist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  IST OF C ONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

  93 Bony Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Behavior Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  63 Biochemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  65 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  66 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  71 Biological Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Leclerc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

  74 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  76 Biology of Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  79 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  82 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  84 Blood Clotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  86 Blood Sugar Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  87 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  97 Bryophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Buffon, Count (Georges-Louis

  Table of Contents

A Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  3 Adrenal Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  5 Aging, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  10 Agronomist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  14 Alcohol and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  17 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  20 Alternation of Generations . . . . . . . . . . . .

  22 Amino Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  24 Amniote Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  25 Amphibian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Anabolic Steroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Anatomy of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  29 Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Animalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  34 Annelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  36 Antibodies in Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Antibody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  39 Antisense Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  41 Arachnid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Body Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C

  59 Behavior, Genetic Basis of . . . . . . . . . . . .

  53 Bacterial Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Bacterial Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  48 Bacterial Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  46 Autoimmune Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  C4 and CAM Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Cambrian Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Cardiovascular Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Carson, Rachel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Cartilaginous Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Cell Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

  43 Arthropod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  58 Beer-making, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table of Contents

  Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Cell Motility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Cell Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Chemoreception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Chloroplast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Chordata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Chromosome Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chromosome, Eukaryotic . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Circulatory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Clinical Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Clone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Cnidarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Coffee, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 College Professor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Conifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Control of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . 170 Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Convergent Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Coral Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Creationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Crick, Francis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Crocodilians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Crustacean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Cyanobacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  DNA Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 DNA Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Doctor, Family Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Doctor, Specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Drug Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Dubos, René . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 P HOTO AND

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

  V O L U M E 2

E Echinoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Ecological Research, Long-Term . . . . . . .

  3 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  72

  69 Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Extreme Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  64 Extracellular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Exocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  55 Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Evolution of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  44 Evolution, Evidence for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  43 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  41 Eudicots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  40 Eubacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Ethnobotany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  36 Epithelium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  29 Epidemiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  28 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Darwin, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 De Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore . . . . . . . 199 Dentist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Differentiation in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

  25 Entomologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  22 Endoplasmic Reticulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  18 Endocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  16 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  15 Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 Emergency Medical Technician . . . . . . . .

  10 Electrophoresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  5 Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Ecology, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Environmental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D

F Feeding Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  74 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Fetal Development, Human . . . . . . . . . . .

G

  21 Table of Contents

  20 Lakes and Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  18 L Laboratory Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  17 Krebs Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  15 Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  12 K Kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  10 Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Ingenhousz, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  V O L U M E 3

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

  93 Forensic DNA Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  81 Field Studies in Animal Behavior . . . . . . .

  85 Field Studies in Plant Ecology . . . . . . . . .

  87 Fire Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Forest, Boreal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

  97 Forest, Temperate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  99 Forest, Tropical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Forester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fungal Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

  Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Gene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Gene Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Genetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Genetic Control of Development . . . . . 131 Genetic Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Genetic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Genome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Glycolysis and Fermentation . . . . . . . . . 148 Golgi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Gray, Asa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

  Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium . . . . . . . . 164 Harvey, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Health and Safety Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Heart and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Herbal Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

  Herbivory and Plant Defenses . . . . . . . . 178 High School Biology Teacher . . . . . . . . 180 History of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 History of Biology: Biochemistry . . . . . . 182 History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell

  Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 History of Biology: Inheritance . . . . . . . 189 History of Evolutionary Thought . . . . . 192 History of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 History of Plant Physiology . . . . . . . . . . 198 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Hormones, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Horticulturist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Genome Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Human Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Human Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Hybridization, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Hypothalamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 P HOTO AND

I Imaging in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H

  Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N

O

  91 Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  70 Membrane Sructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  73 Membrane Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  76 Mendel, Gregor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Meristems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  81 Metabolism, Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  84 Metabolism, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  87 Microbiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  90 Microscopist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  93 Mitochondrion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  92 Mimicry, Camouflage, and Warning Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  65 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  98 Model Organisms: Cell Biology and Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

  Model Organisms: Physiology and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

  Mollusk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Monocots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Monotreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Mycorrhizae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

  Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Nematode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Neurologic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Nitrogen Fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Nonspecific Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Nuclear Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Nucleolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Nurse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nurse Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nutritionist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

  Ocean Ecosystems: Hard Bottoms . . . . . 150 Ocean Ecosystems: Open Ocean . . . . . . 151 Ocean Ecosystems: Soft Bottoms . . . . . . 153 Oncogenes and Cancer Cells . . . . . . . . . 154 Organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Organelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Organic Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Origin of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Osmoregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . 168

  Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Paleontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Parasitic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Pasteur, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Pauling, Linus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Pedigrees and Modes of Inheritance . . . 186 Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . 189 Peroxisomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

  Table of Contents

  66 Membrane Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  65 Medical/Science Illustrator . . . . . . . . . . . .

  23 Landscape Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Linkage and Gene Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .

  24 Leakey Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  28 Leeuwenhoek, Antony von . . . . . . . . . . . .

  30 Lichen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Life Cycle, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  32 Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  34 Life, What Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Limnologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Linnaeus, Carolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  64 Medical Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  47 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  48 Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  50 Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  50 Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Lysosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  56 Mammal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  59 Marine Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Marsupial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Mating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 McClintock, Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P

  Pharmaceutical Sales Representative . . . 192 Pharmacologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Pheromone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Photoperiodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Physical Therapist and Occupational

  81 Science Writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  63 Retrovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  66 Reverse Transcriptase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Rhythms of Plant Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  69 Ribosome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  71 Rivers and Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  73 RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  75 RNA Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  78 S Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  83 Secondary Metabolites in Plants . . . . . . .

  52 Reproductive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .

  84 Seed Germination and Dormancy . . . . . .

  86 Seedless Vascular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  88 Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Senescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Separation and Purification of Biomolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  93 Sex Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Sex Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  96 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  98 Sexual Reproduction, Evolution of . . . . 101 Sexual Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . 106 Shoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Signaling and Signal Transduction . . . . 112 Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Slime Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

  Table of Contents

  60 Reptile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  47 Reproduction in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Therapist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Physician Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Physiological Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Pituitary Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Plant Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Plant Pathogens and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Plant Pathologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Plasma Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Platyhelminthes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Poisonous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Poisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Pollination and Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . 227 Pollution and Bioremediation . . . . . . . . 228 Polymerase Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . 232 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Porifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Porter, Keith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 P HOTO AND

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  38 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Recombinant DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  36 Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  35 R Radiation Hybrid Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .

  33 Public Health Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Pteridophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  30 Psychoactive Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Psychiatrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Psychiatric Disorders, Biology of . . . . . . .

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

  46 Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

  V O L U M E 4

P Predation and Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  6 Protein Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  5 Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Prion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Primate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 Protein Targeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  19 Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  23 Protozoan Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  21 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smoking and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Social Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Sociobiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Stress Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Structure Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Symbiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Synaptic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

V Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

  T Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Taxonomy, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Temperature Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Theoretical Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Thyroid Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Torrey, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Touch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Transfer RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Transgenic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Translocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Transplant Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Transposon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Tropisms and Nastic Movements . . . . . 175 Tuatara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Tunicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

  Vacuole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 van Helmont, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vavilov, Nikolay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vesalius, Andreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Veterinarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Viral Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Vitamins and Coenzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 von Humboldt, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . 192

  Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Water Movement in Plants . . . . . . . . . . 193 Watson, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Wildlife Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Wine-making, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Wood and Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . 201

  Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Zoology Researcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 P HOTO AND

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 C UMULATIVE

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

  Table of Contents

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  b i o l o g y

  Imaging in Medicine

  As recently as in the 1970s, the diagnosis of some diseases often required

I

  exploratory surgery, opening a body cavity to “have a look around” for vis- ible disorders. The risks of infection, anesthesia, and imperfect healing weigh against exploratory surgery, but the diagnostic benefit may make the risk worth taking. In the last few decades, however, a variety of medical imag- ing techniques has made most exploratory surgery unnecessary and has greatly accelerated progress in medicine. Although the basic principles of some of these techniques have been known for much longer, they did not become clinically useful until computer technology had advanced enough to process data into clear images of the body, mostly since the 1970s.

Radiography

  Radiography, use of X rays, is the oldest imaging technique. The term “X ray” can refer either to the type of radiation used or to the photographic image produced (the radiogram). X rays were discovered in 1885, and Marie Curie (1867–1934) trained military doctors in the use of X-ray machines in World War I. X rays are relatively simple and inexpensive to make, and they are commonly used in dentistry, mammography, chest examinations, and di- agnosis of fractures. They are best used for dense structures such as bone, but hollow organs can be visualized by filling them with a radiopaque sub- stance such as barium, given by swallow or enema to X ray the stomach or colon. Angiography is the X-ray visualization of blood vessels after injec- tion with a radiopaque dye.

  Sonography

  Sonography, or ultrasound imaging, is the second oldest imaging method, and the second most widely used. An outgrowth of the sonar technology developed in World War II, it uses a handheld probe to “bombard” the body with ultrasound waves and a computer to analyze the reflected signal into an image. Sonography avoids the harmful effects of X rays and is com- monly used to examine fetuses.

  Computed Tomography (CT)

  Formerly called a CAT scan, computed tomography (CT) is a more so- phisticated use of X rays to produce more finely detailed images. The Imaging in Medicine A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of a human brain, cervical spine, and spinal marrow.

  patient is moved through a machine that emits low-intensity X rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the other side. By imaging body slices as thin as a coin, CT scans show less overlap of organs than conven- tional X rays and thus produce sharper images. CT scans are useful for iden-

  aneurysm bulging of

  tifying tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, and other

  the wall of a blood disorders. vessel

  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

  With magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a cylindrical device surrounds the body with a magnetic field three thousand to sixty thousand times as

  Imaging in Medicine

  strong as Earth’s. Hydrogen atoms align themselves with this field. The

  ion an electrically

  patient is then irradiated with radio waves. Hydrogen ions absorb this en-

  charged particle

  ergy and align in a new direction. When the radio waves are turned off, they realign to the magnetic field and emit energy at rates that vary with the type of tissue. This emitted energy is received by a detector and ana- lyzed by a computer into an image of the body’s interior. MRI can see

  cranial related to the

  through cranial and vertebral bone to visualize brain and spinal cord tis-

  cranium, or brain cavity sue in finer detail than CT.

  Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

  Positron emission tomography (PET) is used to visualize the metabolic state

  glucose simple sugar

  of a tissue. The patient receives an injection of radioactively labeled glu-

  that provides energy to cose, which emits charged particles called positrons. When a positron and animal cells and is the

  electron meet, they annihilate each other and give off gamma rays that are

  building block of cellu-

  picked up by a detector and analyzed by computer. The result is a color- lose in plants coded image that shows which tissues were using the most glucose (that is, were most metabolically active) at the time. In cardiology, a PET scan can show the location and extent of dead heart tissue. In neuroscience, it can show which parts of the brain are active from moment to moment as a per- son engages in various sensory, motor, or intellectual tasks.

  Functional MRI (fMRI) anaerobic without

  A new variation of MRI, functional MRI (fMRI) detects the anaerobic ac-

  oxygen, or not requiring

  tivity of active neurons of the brain. It can pinpoint brain activity to within

  oxygen

  1 or 2 millimeters, and is even more precise and useful than PET scans for

  neuron nerve cell

  studies of brain function. It also has the advantage of requiring no injec-

  isotopes forms of an

  tions or radioactive isotopes, and it is much quicker than a PET scan. The

  atom that differ by the

  PET and fMRI techniques not only have been valuable for clinical diagno-

  number of neutrons in

  sis but have added enormously to our knowledge of brain function, pin-

  the nucleus

  pointing abnormalities correlated with depression, schizophrenia, and attention deficit disorder. They have also provided images of the mind at work, so to speak, identifying areas involved in consciousness, memory, thought, musical perception, reading, motor control, and speech.