E Participation and Environmental Protection Are Local Governments Really Committed (pages 87–98)

E-Participation and Environmental Protection: Are Local

Governments Really Committed?

88 Public Administration Review • January | February 2014

active in sustainable development (such as Eurocites and ICLEI) have also joined this initiative.

Th e Aalborg Commitments were adopted in 2004 as a follow-up to the Aalborg Charter. Th e commitments envisage “cities and towns that are inclusive, prosperous, creative and sustainable, and that provide a good quality of life for all citizens and enable their participation in all aspects of urban life.” Signatories voluntarily agree to (1) produce a review of their city within 12 months; (2) set individual environmental targets, in consultation with stakeholders, within

24 months; and (3) monitor progress in delivering the targets and regularly report to their citizens.

Th ere are 10 Aalborg Commitments, and they understand sustainability in a very broad sense. Th ey have a strong focus on environmental protection and highlight the importance of citizen

participation, 2 although they do not specify the mechanisms or tools that should be adopted and leave much leeway to the municipal governments to decide how to put the commitments into practice. As shown by Portney (2013), sustainability is a multidimensional concept, and not all cities have the same environmental problems, but, in any case, signatories are expected to promote both citizen participation and environmental protection.

The Role of E-Participation in Environmental Protection and Determining Factors E-Participation and Environmental Protection

Citizen engagement is considered to have positive inﬂ uences on citizen trust in government (Cooper, Bryer, and Meek 2006; Yang 2005), governmental legitimacy (Fung 2006) and governmental responsiveness (Buček and Smith 2000; Yang and Holzer 2006). All of this positive rhetoric has led to a reemergence of ideas and values of community, localism, and citizen participation in academic and political discourse (Reddel 2002; Summerville, Adkins, and Kendall 2008). However, the literature acknowledges that authentic public participation is rarely found (Cornwall 2008; Taylor 2007, Yang and Callahan 2007) and that a big gap remains between the rhetoric on participation that is present in political discourses, legal texts, and policy documents and the real-life implementation of participatory processes (Burby 2003; Rauschmayer, Van den Hove, and Koetz 2009; Yetano, Royo, and Acerete 2010).

A precondition for the success of sustainable development and environmental protection is that these initiatives are acknowledged and attain visibility in the eyes of citizens and local stakehold-

ers (Núñez, Alessi, and Egenhofer 2010). However, local governments are often unable to foster widespread interest and engagement in climate-related issues (Anguelovski and Carmin 2011). E-participation can help give the necessary visibility to environmental protection initiatives and promote the engagement and cooperation of citizens and other key stakeholders. In fact, the potential of the Internet to enhance civic participa-

tion has been highlighted since the very beginnings of the Internet (Kakabadse, Kakabadse, and Kouzmin 2003; Mahrer and Krimmer 2005). According to the United Nations (2012, 108), e-government can play a key role in supporting sustainable development

evaluate and benchmark their environmental e-participation oﬀ erings. Second, it allows legislators and environmental associations to understand the motivations that lead to the disclosure of environmental information and the development of e-participation, as well as to consider further improvements in current environmental agreements to achieve in-depth changes within local governments.

Cities, Citizens, and Environmental Protection: The Aalborg Commitments

As a growing proportion of the global population lives in urban areas, cities are emerging as key “battlegrounds for global sustainability” (Núñez, Alessi, and Egehofer 2010; Krause 2012). In 2011, more than half of the world’s population lived in urban areas, and this ﬁ gure is expected to reach 67 percent in 2050 (UNDESA 2011). Cities are central to the sustainability policy challenge because they are home to the majority of global energy use—between 60 percent and 80 percent (OECD 2010). Th us, signiﬁ cant advances in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and environmental protection can be achieved at local level (Anguelovski and Carmin 2011).

Participation at the urban level tends to be regarded as an essen- tial tool for climate governance (Alió and Gallego 2002; Solomon 2011), and it is an integral aspect of how some defi ne sustainability (Portney 2013; Portney and Berry 2010). For Astleithner and Hamedinger (2003), the ideal model of locally sustainable policies is characterized as a new governance mix, based on procedures such as dialogue and participation. In the case of environmental protection, citizen participation is particularly important because citizens not only should be consulted on governmental actions but also can make their own contributions by changing their behavior (for example, by reducing energy consumption and private motorized transport use). In fact, one of the features that helps distinguish cities’ sustainability eff orts is the extent to which such eff orts actu- ally seek to promote citizen participation and involvement (Portney 2013).

Because local governments are the level of government closest to citizens, they have unique opportunities to inﬂ uence individual behavior toward sustainability through education and raising awareness. Municipal governments around the world are becoming involved in environmental protection, partly in response to having realized its impact (Krause 2011). To achieve this objective, some initiatives have been implemented in Europe and worldwide, including the Aalborg Commitments, the Covenant of Mayors, the European Green Capital Award, and the Network of Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI).

Th e European Commission sponsored the Aalborg Commitments to provide support in implementing European strategies and policies for sustainable development. At the First European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns, which took place in Aalborg, Denmark, in 1994, the Charter of European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability (known as the Aalborg Charter) was adopted as a framework for the delivery of local sustainable development. A group of 10 networks of cities and towns

E-participation can help give the necessary visibility to environmental protection initiatives and promote the engagement and cooperation of citizens and other key stakeholders.

E-Participation and Environmental Protection: Are Local Governments Really Committed? 89

becomes a challenge (Portney and Berry 2010), especially in studies covering diﬀ erent countries, such as this one.

Some quantitative large-N studies focusing on the factors that inﬂ uence cities to make explicit environmental protection commitments have been conducted (Brody et al. 2008; García-Sánchez and Prado-Lorenzo 2008; Krause 2011; Portney 2013; Zahran et al. 2008). Based on previous studies of environmental protection and citizen participation, the following discussion develops four diﬀ erent rationales to explain why some signatories of the Aalborg Commitments show

higher levels of development in environmental e-participation. For each area, a proposition to be tested is indicated.

Public administration style. Some authors have pointed out (Hood 1995; Pollitt, Van Thiel, and Homburg 2007; Torres 2004) that the dissemination of public management innovations is infl uenced by the organizational and administrative culture, historical background, and legal structure. Public administration style has been an important element for explaining the evolution of other areas of public sector reforms and recent developments in e-government related to transparency, accountability, and e-participation (García-Sánchez, Rodríguez-Domínguez, and Gallego-Álvarez 2011; Pina, Torres, and Royo 2007, 2010).

Among the countries in this study, ﬁ ve broad styles of public administration can be identiﬁ ed: Anglo-Saxon, Eastern European, Nordic, Germanic, and Napoleonic. With regard to citizen participation, studies characterize Anglo-Saxon, Nordic, and Germanic countries as leaders, while Napoleonic and Eastern European countries usually lag behind (Allegretti and Herzberg 2004; Royo, Yetano, and Acerete 2011; Yetano, Royo, and Acerete 2010).

Anglo-Saxon and Nordic countries have a long-standing reputa- tion of public sector reforms, transparency, and citizen engagement. Germanic countries have a long tradition of consultation with social partners (Astleithner and Hamedinger 2003; OECD 2001). On the contrary, Napoleonic and Eastern European countries are considered laggards in introducing public sector reforms, and in some of these countries, such as Spain, associations have traditionally been the only legal participants in most participative processes (Allegretti and Herzberg 2004). Th e 2012 United Nations E-Government Survey (United Nations 2012) and the Voice and Accountability Index of the World Bank show a similar pattern, with higher levels of citizen participation in Anglo-Saxon, Nordic, and Germanic countries. Th erefore, a priori, a higher level of development of e-participation

can be expected in these cities. 3

Proposition 1: Anglo-Saxon, Nordic, and Germanic cities will show greater development in environmental e-participation initiatives.

Urban vulnerability. Environmental protection presupposes a certain degree of pressure from environmental problems or crises (Portney 2013, Astleithner and Hamedinger 2003). It is reasonable to expect that the extent to which a locality is vulnerable to

because of its potential contribution to enhancing the eﬃ ciency, transparency, and responsiveness of public institutions and promoting the participation of key stakeholders.

In spite of the recent developments in environmental protection and e-participation, the eﬀ ectiveness of the initiatives adopted has been questioned. Krause (2011, 2012) raises legitimate questions about the extent and type of follow-through on municipal environmental protection commitments. Other authors have indicated that, in some cases, the adoption of sustainability policies represents more “greenwashing” than actual commitment (Astleithner and Hamedinger 2003; Feichtinger and Pregernig 2005; Portney 2013). Furthermore, existing initiatives have been criticized for being fragmented rather than global (Romero-Lankao 2012).

Despite the current rhetoric about the beneﬁ ts of e-participation, previous research has shown that the use of the Internet in the public sector for external purposes has been mainly directed at the provision of public services and information to citizens and other stakeholders, neglecting the citizen participation dimension (Bonsón et al. 2012; Brainard and McNutt 2010; Coursey and Norris 2008; Mahrer and Krimmer 2005; Musso, Weare, and Hale 2000; Norris and Reddick 2013; Torres, Pina, and Acerete 2006; United Nations 2012). Th e search for legitimacy also seems to be behind the adoption of e-participation initiatives (García-Sánchez, Rodríguez-Domínguez, and Gallego-Álvarez 2011; Mahrer and Krimmer 2005).

Th erefore, local governments can be expected to vary substan- tially in their e-participation oﬀ erings. Two types of adoption of e-participation in environmental topics can be anticipated: local governments with great commitment and development and local governments that exhibit symbolic behavior, that is, those that have introduced some soft e-participation mechanisms, mainly related to the provision of information, but without a real commitment to consultation and cooperation initiatives.

Determinants of E-Participation in Environmental Issues

Th e environment is a public good that cannot readily be fenced in or allocated according to need or willingness to pay (Zahran et al. 2008). Th e nonexcludability of collective beneﬁ ts signiﬁ - cantly undermines incentives to participate, leading to suboptimal provision of public goods. In addition, the local authority culture (political, managerial, and organizational) of short-termism militates against a realistic view of the long haul implied by sustainability.

Local-level characteristics are the dominant drivers of cities’ deci- sions to commit to environmental protection (García-Sánchez, Rodríguez-Domínguez, and Gallego-Álvarez 2011; Krause 2011; Portney 2013; Prado-Lorenzo and García-Sánchez 2009). Very often, the context in which citizen participation processes take place, more than the methods used, determines the ability of public sector entities to succeed. However, the identiﬁ cation of local factors that might promote sustainability is a complex task (Alió and Gallego 2002, 129), and the lack of appropriate and robust data

Th e following discussion develops four diﬀ erent rationales to explain why some signatories of the Aalborg Commitments show higher levels of development in environmental e-participation.

environmental problems will affect its level of commitment to Web site. Th e degree of external visibility of the city is measured promoting environmental protection (including its willingness to

by the number of city visitors (tourist nights per year). Finally, voluntarily introduce environmental e-participation initiatives).

it is expected that in countries where the level of development However, previous studies have found mixed results. Brody et al.

of e-environment-related policies is higher, local governments (2008) and Zahran et al. (2008) indicated that urban vulnerability

will feel more pressure to adopt environmental e-participation may be an explanatory factor of interest in environmental topics

initiatives. 6

(defi ned as membership). However, Portney (2013), who measured the number of policies and programs adopted, found no relationship.

Proposition 3: Cities with more external pressures will show greater development in environmental e-participation

Th e extent of urban vulnerability to environmental problems has

initiatives.

been measured using proxy variables such as population density, population growth rate, 4 and whether the city is located on the

Local government environmental culture . Betsill (2001) observed coast. People living in densely populated urban areas are more

that most of the cities belonging to environmental networks had a exposed to air pollutants, and the limits of air quality ﬁ xed by

prior interest in environmental issues. There are many multilateral the European Commission are often exceeded (Urban Ecosystem

environmental agreements in effect. 7 The participation of cities in Europe 2007). Similarly, urban growth and development pat-

networks and competitions, namely, the Local Governments for terns are contributing to increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

Sustainability network, the Covenant of Mayors, and the European Additionally, the expected impacts of climate change are particularly Green Capital Award, is considered an indicator of their willingness harmful to coastal settlements because of the increasing risk of sea-

to implement environmental initiatives. Local Governments for level rise (Brody et al. 2008; Zahran et al. 2008).

Sustainability is an association of more than 1,220 local governments worldwide that are committed to sustainable

Proposition 2: Cities that are more vulnerable to environ- development (http://www.iclei.org). Given its specifi c focus on mental problems will show greater development in environ-

sustainable energy and climate change, this article also takes into mental e-participation initiatives.

account whether the cities analyzed have joined the Covenant of Mayors and submitted the requested action plan for reducing their

External pressures . There is increasing pressure on public sector carbon emissions. 8 The European Green Capital initiative is an organizations to lead the way with sustainability practices.

award that aims to provide an incentive for cities to inspire each Environment-related behaviors, in both the public and private

other and share best practices while engaging in friendly sectors, are often used as a public relations tool to enhance the

competition.

public image of organizations (Anguelovski and Carmin 2011; Correa-Ruiz and Moneva-Abadía 2011; Solomon 2011). Recent

Proposition 4: Cities with a higher-proﬁ le environmental research has shown that the online disclosure of information about

culture will show greater development in environmental policies on air pollution at the local level responds to external group

e-participation initiatives.

demands (Grimmelikhuijsen and Welch 2012) and that the pressure exerted by interest groups is a key factor in the development of

Methodology

e-participation (García-Sánchez, Rodríguez-Domínguez, and

Sample and Data Collection

Gallego-Álvarez 2011). Th is article examines the signatories to the Aalborg Commitments, which, by signing, show some degree of interest in environmental

Th is study considers that external pressures to adopt e-participation protection and citizen participation. By January 2013, a total of in environmental topics come from diﬀ erent actors, namely, local

665 local governments had signed the Aalborg Commitments. Th ey residents, city visitors, and the central government. Th e pressure

belonged to 35 diﬀ erent countries (some of them non-European, for exerted by citizens is measured using the percentage of citizens with

example, Egypt, Israel, Morocco, Senegal, and Tunisia). Th e sample tertiary education and the share of Internet access in the region

of the study was deﬁ ned as European cities with more than 50,000

inhabitants. However, because of disproportionate representation, educated citizens increase their involvement in pro-environment

where the city is located. 5 Several studies have shown that highly

the number of cities studied in Italy and Spain was limited. 9 Bigger campaigns (Brody et al. 2008; Zahran et al. 2008) and that residents local governments were selected for this study, as they are usually of cities that are more serious about sustainability are more likely to

the most innovative in the adoption of new technologies and, at the have higher educational levels (Portney and Berry 2010). According

same time, have more need for them because the distance between to García-Sánchez , Rodríguez-Domínguez, and Gallego-Álvarez

the governors and the governed is greater. Th e ﬁ nal sample com- (2011), a higher level of development of e-participation is strongly

prised 67 European cities. Th e countries covered and the number of linked to countries with high technological development. Internet

cities per country are as follows: Austria (1), Belgium (1), Bulgaria penetration creates demand for the information and services oﬀ ered

(2), Denmark (3), Estonia (3), Finland (5), France (4), Germany by local government Web sites. Th us, as the level of Internet pen-

(5), Greece (4), Iceland (1), Italy (8), Latvia (1), Lithuania (2), etration increases, local governments will feel more social pressure to Norway (3), Portugal (3), Spain (7), Sweden (8), Switzerland (2), provide environmental information, online services, and e-participa- and the United Kingdom (4). tion initiatives.

A comprehensive Web content analysis of the cities selected was Additionally, the higher the external visibility of the city for non-

carried out. Th e Web sites were accessed between February and residents, the more pressure there will be to have a more developed April 2011, and each was analyzed for 134 items (see tables 1, 2 and

90 Public Administration Review • January | February 2014

3). 10 As the study aims to analyze the use of the Internet to promote related to the ﬁ rst type (information). As a clear distinction between environmental protection and e-participation, the items included

consultation and active participation is diﬃ cult to draw in practice refer to e-participation in its broader sense, including the online

(OECD 2001), the interactivity dimension includes items related to disclosure of information and some e-services (permits, licenses,

these two types of citizen participation. Th e other two complemen- and grants) related to environmental topics. Most items are rated

tary dimensions analyze the usability and accessibility of Web sites

1 if they appeared on the Web site and 0 if not. Some items are and aspects related to Web site sophistication. Th ese are key aspects scored 0.5 if they partially fulﬁ lled the coding criteria. Th is method to ensure that citizens can easily access the information and facilities has been used previously in the analysis of local government Web

provided (usability) and indicate standards of Web site quality (Web sites (Pina, Torres, and Royo 2007, 2010; Torres, Pina, and Acerete

site maturity).

2006). Transparency (71 items) on Web sites refers to the extent to which

Dimensions Analyzed

an organization provides information about internal works, decision Th e level of development of e-participation regarding environmental processes, and procedures (Pina, Torres, and Royo 2007). Th e items issues was assessed by grouping the 134 items into four dimen-

in this dimension are grouped into six broad categories dealing with sions: transparency, interactivity, usability, and Web site maturity,

(1) general information about the environment department, (2) which are adapted from Pina, Torres, and Royo (2007). Most of the

explanations and instructions of requirements for citizens resulting items analyzed belong to transparency and interactivity, the two key

from the department’s activities (citizen consequences), (3) general dimensions of the study. Citizen participation eﬀ orts can take many information about environmental issues, (4) information about spe- forms that can be classiﬁ ed into three main types (Martin and Boaz

ciﬁ c policies and initiatives, (5) indicators and data about sustain- 2000; OECD 2001): information, consultation, and active partici-

ability, and (6) information about citizen participation processes in pation (also known as cooperation). Th e transparency dimension is

environmental issues.

Table 1 Transparency Dimension: Average City Scores (percent)

1. Transparency-Accountability (71 items) 71.2 1.1. General information about the department (6)

Address and telephone, organization chart, number of employees, budget, annual sustainability report, mission statement 67.3

1.2. Citizen consequences (4)

Information about environmental procedures, instructions about environmental procedures, searchable index for downloadable forms or forms to submit 82.8 online, instructions for appealing decision-making processes or address of an ombudsman

1.3. General information about environmental issues (14)

Strategic plan for a sustainable city, information about causes and probable impacts of climate change, index for reports and publications, drafts of new regulations regarding sustainability, environmental publications in electronic format for free, participation in national or European environmental networks/projects, Agenda 21 project and information, Agenda 21 schools program and information, information about activities linked to Agenda 21, policies for sustainable

74.5 local public service delivery, local government sustainable procurement policy, FAQ (environmental topics), environmental glossary, and “What’s new” section

about environmental matters

Carbon dioxide/energy (5), water (5), waste management/recycling (6), air quality (5), transport and mobility (11), parks and green spaces (5), noise pollution (4) 74.3

1.4. Information about specifi c policies and initiatives (41)

Sustainability indicators defi ned, objectives and time frame established regarding these indicators, sustainability indicators reported 32.3

1.5. Indicators and data about sustainability (3)

1.6. Information about citizen participation processes in environmental issues (3)

Information about current participatory processes (online/offl ine), information about the level of participation and results of past participatory processes (online/ 43.8 offl ine), information about future participatory processes

Note: Numbers in parentheses represent the number of items in each dimension.

Table 2 Interactivity Dimension: Average City Scores (percent)

2. Interactivity-Citizen Dialogue (40 items) 39.2 2.1. Obtaining information from the department (5)

Department’s general e-mail, subunits’ e-mails, individual employees’ e-mails, searchable database for reports, online request for information or publications 68.1

2.2. Development of e-services for environmental topics (5)

Forms for downloading, online form completion and submission, online payment of utility bills, taxes, fi nes, or other government obligations, possibility of 67.2 making an appointment with offi cials or staff, link to appeal process

2.3. Services to provide periodic information (8)

E-mail alerts about new reports/news about environmental topics, RSS feeds about environmental topics, SMS alerts about issues of interest, possibility of redis- tributing contents of the Web through blogs or social networks, periodic electronic journal about sustainability, information about air quality, water quality,

29.9 and noise pollution updated on the Web

2.4. Projects with online participation (or possibility of signing up to a project online) (8)

Carbon dioxide/energy, water, waste management/recycling, air quality, transport and mobility, parks and green spaces, Agenda 21, e-participation processes in 9.3 the last year

Location of recycling centers on an interactive map, simulators (e.g., of household electricity consumption), journey planner (public transport) 45.0

2.5. Initiatives to promote responsible behavior (3)

2.6. Initiatives to allow citizens to express their opinion regarding sustainability (9)

Complaints/suggestion boxes (Web site), chat, asking for opinions about specifi c topics (by e-mail, forms), e-consultation (short surveys yes/no; specify prefer- 43.8 ences), e-consultation (long surveys), blogs, Web forum, Facebook page or other type of social network, activity at Facebook offi cial page

E-rulemaking, e-petitions 25.4 Note: Numbers in parentheses represent the number of items in each dimension. E-Participation and Environmental Protection: Are Local Governments Really Committed? 91

2.7. Formal initiatives to participate in sustainability plans and environmental regulations (2)

92 Public Administration Review • January | February 2014

usability, and Web site maturity and weighting each of the ﬁ rst two dimensions by 40 percent and each of the last two dimensions by

10 percent to refl ect their relative importance to e-participation. As indicated earlier, the fi rst two dimensions are the most important in this research because they measure the development of e-participation on environmental topics. Th e other two are complementary dimensions that represent the capacity of the local government Web site to support e-participation developments. Th e analysis of the development of e-participation requires the study of these four dimensions, but with a greater weight in transparency and interactivity. Pina, Torres, and Royo (2007, 2009) previously used this weighting method. According to O’Sullivan, Rassel, and Berner (2007), index defi nitions should be consistent with past research unless a rationale exists for doing otherwise.

Statistical Techniques

Th e research ﬁ rst carried out descriptive analysis to provide a general perspective on the use that European local governments that are signatories to the Aalborg Commitments make of the Internet in environment-related activities. Th en, univariate and multivariate analyses analyzed which factors cause divergences in the level of development of e-participation. Besides the variables used to measure public administration style, urban vulnerability, external pressures, and local government environmental culture, the population of each city was also included as a control variable.

Pearson correlations tested the infl uence of the continuous independent variables, while the Mann-Whitney U test assessed the infl uence of dichotomous independent variables. Th e independent variables for which a signifi cant relationship was found with the e-participation indices were then included in the regression analysis

(using the ordinary least squares estimation 11 ). Th is multivariate analysis enabled us to study more deeply the determinants that inﬂ uence the decision of the local governments analyzed to voluntarily implement environmental e-participation initiatives.

Interactivity (40 items) is a measure of the degree of immediate feedback and the development of possibilities to interact with the environment department, either through online services or through citizen dialogue and e-participation initiatives. Th e items analyzed are classiﬁ ed into seven categories related to (1) the possibilities of obtaining information from the department, (2) the development of e-services, (3) services to be updated with periodic information, (4) projects with online participation (or the possibility of signing up for a project online), (5) initiatives to promote environmentally friendly behaviors, (6) initiatives to allow citizens to express their opinion regarding sustainability processes (complaint/suggestion boxes, chats, e-consultations, blogs, online forums, social media), and (7) more formal online initiatives to participate in sustainable planning and local environmental regulations by sending comments or promoting discussion on drafts about environmental regulations (e-rulemaking) or by using an e-petitions system.

Usability (9 items) refers to the ease with which users can access information and navigate the Web portal. Th is dimension has been included because Web portals deliver value to users according to how accessible and usable the speciﬁ c contents are. Th e features included in this section refer to general characteristics of the local entity Web site and online facilities for people with some kind of disability. Finally, Web site maturity (14 items) embraces those aspects that indicate a high degree of Web site sophistication, such as regular updating of the Web site, the existence of an interactive database of environmental indicators, the possibility of downloading them in Microsoft Excel format, audio/video ﬁ les for environment- related activities, and the possibility of commenting on them.

Th e partial scores in transparency, interactivity, usability, and Web site maturity were obtained by adding the individual scores for each item in each dimension and dividing the total by the maximum pos- sible score in each dimension. Th e total scores of Web sites by city were obtained by adding the scores for transparency, interactivity,

Table 3 Usability and Web Site Maturity Dimensions: Average City Scores (percent)

3. Usability (9 items) 61.2

3.1 Provides other-language access to site for visitors unable to speak or read the language of the host country 46.3 3.2 Site map

82.1 3.3 A–Z index (alphabetical order index)

41.8 3.4 Search engine

97.0 3.5 Help section

46.3 3.6 Homogeneity of the different subpages

95.5 3.7 Provides a text-only or accessible version of the Web site

59.7 3.8 Provides audio access to the site for the visually impaired

20.9 3.9 Web site contains some conformance icon that guarantees compliance with some accessibility standards

61.2

4. Web Site Maturity (14 items) 54.4

4.1 No broken links 77.6

4.2 Provides the date of publication (“last updated”) on the main page of the department (or in a key subordinate page), and it has been updated within the last month

83.6 4.3 Content arranged according to different topics (versus content arranged according to the hierarchical structure of the department)

94.0 4.4 Credit card payments

85.1 4.5 Secure servers (https://...)

91.0

4.6 Private areas with passwords are used in order to access personal information

91.0 4.7 Site entails the use of digital signature for transactions

88.1 4.8 Live broadcast of important speeches or events

19.4 4.9 Privacy policy

56.7 4.10 Security policy

41.8

4.11 Interactive database of environmental/sustainability indicators

4.5 4.12 Indicators downloadable in Microsoft Excel format

4.5 4.13 Audio/video fi les for environment-related activities

19.4 4.14 Possibility of commenting on those audio/video fi les

4.5

E-Participation and Environmental Protection: Are Local Governments Really Committed? 93

“initiatives to promote responsible behavior” and “initiatives to allow citizens to express their opinion regarding sustainability” obtain intermediate scores of around 45 percent. Again, important variations in the categories exist, with a sharp decrease in those that imply opening the debate to the citizens (e-rulemaking and e-petitions) and the existence of projects with online participation.

Similar results can be found in the usability and Web site maturity dimensions (table 3). Usability shows a high degree of development in technical items (search engine, homogeneity of subpages, and site map) but low percentages of development in items that enhance the accessibility of Web sites and bring about social inclusion, such as text-only versions, audio access for the visually impaired, diﬀ erent languages, or compliance with international accessibility standards. Likewise, in the Web site maturity dimension, the technical items (no broken links, last update) and those related to service delivery (credit card payments, secure servers for transactions, private areas, digital signature) are the most developed, whereas the items related to innovation and citizen participation, such as live broadcasts of important speeches or events, interactive database of environmental indicators, indicators downloadable in Microsoft Excel format, audio/video ﬁ les for environment-related activities, and the possibility of commenting on them, show the lowest scores.

Th e average total score of the sample is 55.7 percent (see table 4), showing a moderate degree of development of e-participation among the biggest European cities that have signed the Aalborg

Analysis of Results

Tables 1–3 show the average score of each dimension and the average frequency of implementation of each category of items or individual items. In the transparency dimension (table 1), the category related to service delivery, “citizen consequences,” is the most highly developed. High scores are also obtained for “general information about environmental issues” and “information about speciﬁ c policies and initiatives.” Conversely, the items included in “indicators and data about sustainability” and “information about citizen participation processes in environmental issues,” which allow citizens to access updated data about the state of the environment and information about past and future participatory processes, present levels of implementation below 45 percent. Th us, the disclosure levels are lower when the information requires a greater eﬀ ort of elaboration or when it is related to participatory processes.

In regard to the interactivity dimension (table 2), an important drop in the global mean can be seen (39.2 percent versus 71.2 percent for transparency). Th e categories related to the possibility of obtaining information from the environment department and the development of e-services are the most highly developed, with average scores of 68.1 percent and 67.2 percent, respectively. Th e least developed groups of items are those related to the existence of projects with online participation (9.3 percent), formal initiatives to participate in sustainability plans and environmental regulations (25.4 percent), and the possibility of receiving periodic information about environmental topics (29.9 percent). Th e categories

Table 4 Ranking of Cities and Scores of E-Participation Dimensions (percent) City

Usab. Mat. Total

Usab. Mat. Total Hamburg

85.9 61.3 88.9 64.3 74.2 St. Gallen

85.9 32.5 44.4 35.7 55.4 Göteborg

95.8 48.8 83.3 50.0 71.1 Hämeenlinna

67.6 25.0 72.2 57.1 50.0 Norrköping

91.5 46.3 66.7 57.1 67.5 St. Etienne

52.1 23.8 66.7 35.7 40.6 Reggio Emilia

46.5 27.5 50.0 28.6 37.4 Jönköping

73.2 40.0 94.4 64.3 61.2 Sofi a

BUL

36.6 23.8 27.8 64.3 33.4 Växjö

SWE

77.5 41.3 77.8 50.0 60.3 Ponta Delgada

Turku FIN

81.7 42.5 61.1 35.7 59.4 Mean

Note: Mean, maximum, and minimum in bold.

Commitments. Th e transparency of local governments about inter- dimensions, although higher in transparency and usability. Th ese nal works and decision processes dealing with procedures to reach

results show that the signing of the Aalborg Commitments has not environmental commitments is the dimension

promoted convergence in the level of use of that scores the highest average value (71.2

e-participation in environmental issues at the percent). On the contrary, the possibility of

local level in Europe. Th e results also suggest citizens interacting online with the corre-

Th ese results show that some,

that in order to improve their e-participation sponding local government department is the

but not all, variables from the

oﬀ erings, most cities are promoting the devel- dimension with the lowest score, only 39.2

four areas—public administra-

opment of transparency and usability (the percent. Th e other two dimensions, usability

tion style, urban vulnerability,

dimensions that require less eﬀ ort and cost), and sophistication of the Web site, have values

external pressures, and local

creating great diﬀ erences in the development quite close to the average e-participation score.

government environmental

of these two dimensions in comparison with

interactivity and maturity. Looking at the data from the individual cit-

culture—are related to devel-

opments in e-participation,

ies (table 4), most local governments obtain

especially to the key dimensions Tables 5 and 6 include the results of the

transparency scores of more than 75 percent

of this study: the total, transpar- univariate analyses. Table 5 shows a positive

(44 local governments). On the contrary, the correlation between the total e-participation maximum score obtained in interactivity is

ency, and interactivity scores.

index and the population growth rate, tourist

65 percent, and only 12 local governments nights per year, the level of Internet access, obtain scores over 50 percent in this dimension. Th e diﬀ er-

and the level of development of e-environment policies at the central ences between the minimum and maximum are great in the four

level. While transparency shows a similar behavior, interactivity is not related to tourist nights per year. Usability is related to the same variables, except for tourist nights, and with the addition of tertiary

Table 5 Pearson Correlations (continuous independent variables)

education. Web site maturity only shows a relationship with three

Transp.

Interact.

Usability Maturity

Total

variables: population growth, tourist nights, and population. Th e

Population density –0.136

results of the Mann-Whitney tests show that public administration

Population growth rate 0.324**

style, ICLEI membership, and having a Covenant of Mayors plan

(% 2001–11)

% Tertiary education 0.116

all have a positive and signiﬁ cant correlation with the total, transpar-

% Internet access in the 0.568**

ency, and interactivity e-participation indices (see table 6). None of

region Tourist nights per year

the dichotomous independent variables, except public administration

style, is related to usability, and none of them with Web site maturity.

(log) (N = 48)

National e-environment 0.485**

Population (log) 0.203

Th ese results show that some, but not all, variables from the four

** Signifi cant at the 1% level; * signifi cant at the 5% level.

areas—public administration style, urban vulnerability, external

Table 6 Mann-Whitney Tests (dichotomous independent variables) Independent Variable

Maturity Total

Public administration style

1.043 4.489 Asymptotic signifi cance

0.297 0.000** Anglo, Nordic, Germanic (means)

83.1 44.9 75.1 53.0 64.0 Napoleonic, Eastern European (means)

61.0 34.3 42.9 55.6 48.6

Coastal location

0.026 0.340 Asymptotic signifi cance

0.979 0.734 Coastal city (means)

67.7 38.6 59.3 55.0 54.0 Inland city (means)

74.0 39.6 62.8 53.9 57.1

ICLEI membership

0.669 2.263 Asymptotic signifi cance

0.0503 0.024* Members (means)

76.5 42.3 65.8 56.2 59.7 Not members (means)

66.6 36.5 57.3 52.3 52.3

Covenant of Mayors plan

1.762 2.812 Asymptotic signifi cance

0.078 0.005** Action plan submitted (means)

78.7 44.0 64.4 57.6 61.3 Not submitted † (means)

65.1 35.2 58.6 51.7 51.2

Green Capital Award

1.586 1.754 Asymptotic signifi cance

0.113 0.079 Applicant, fi nalist, or winning cities (means)

81.3 41.3 67.6 57.9 61.6 Not applicant cities (means)

67.5 38.4 58.8 53.1 53.5 **Signifi cant at the 1% level; *signifi cant at the 5% level.

Not submitted or not adhering to the Covenant of Mayors initiative. 94 Public Administration Review • January | February 2014

E-Participation and Environmental Protection: Are Local Governments Really Committed? 95

Discussion

Th is article analyzed the level of development of environmental e-participation initiatives in European local governments that were signatories to the Aalborg Commitments. Results show that, in general terms, the use of environmental e-participation initiatives is still in its infancy in these presumably committed cities. Membership in some environmental networks frequently results in symbolic adoption because of the minimal costs associated with membership and the lack of follow-through actions, which makes it easy for weakly committed cities to join (Krause 2012).

Th e total e-participation average (55.7 percent) indicates a low level of development among cities that are interested in environmental topics and citizen participation. Furthermore, results show important variations among signatory cities. Th is suggests that becoming

a signatory to the Aalborg Commitments has not fostered convergence in the development of e-participation in environment-related topics and that other variables need to be studied to understand the developments in this area. Similar results were obtained by Krause (2011) and Wang et al. (2012) when analyzing membership in climate protection networks in the United States. It could be argued that signing the Aalborg Commitments, in some cases, is just a symbolic act to present an image of modernity, global citizenship, and commitment to the environment and citizen participation but without promoting signiﬁ cant changes in government-to-citizen relationships.

A further objective was to see whether e-participation in environmental issues was being used only to inform citizens about policies and practices (transparency) or also to promote debate and active participation (interactivity). The results show that, similar to other citizen participation studies (Yetano, Royo, and Acerete 2010), the developments in e-participation are higher in transparency. However, it is noticeable that when this information requires a greater effort from the local government, the level of disclosure decreases. The level of development of interactivity and citizen dialogue is much smaller. The offer of real participative projects, up-to-date indicators, or e-petition initiatives is hardly present. These findings are consistent with previous research (Bonsón et al. 2012; Coursey and Norris 2008; Norris and Reddick 2013), indicating that local e-government is mainly informational, with some transactions but virtually no indication of the high-level functions predicted at the theoretical level.

pressures, and local government environmental culture—are related to developments in e-participation, especially to the key dimensions of this study: the total, transparency, and interactivity scores. In order to show whether these factors are driving the development of local governments in environmental e-participation initiatives, regression analysis has been applied.

Five regression analyses were run, one per e-participation score, tak- ing the scores in table 4 as dependent variables. As table 7 shows, all of the models are statistically signiﬁ cant, the signs of the signiﬁ cant

coeffi cients are in the expected direction, and high R 2 coeffi cients are obtained (ranging from 0.32 to 0.59). 12 Th e variables that explain the total environmental e-participation index of the cities are tourist nights, the level of Internet access in the region, and having a Covenant of Mayors plan. Th erefore, the implementation of e-participation in environmental issues is driven by a combination of external pressures and local government environmental culture. However, important insights are obtained by analyzing the infl uence of the independent variables on transparency and interactivity separately.

External pressures, in particular the Internet access and tourist nights variables, infl uence the transparency of local government environmental Web sites. Cities seem to be interested in creating a good image for visitors who may use the municipal Web site to look for information about the city they plan to visit. Similar reasoning can be used to explain the infl uence of the level of Internet access in the region, as it refl ects potential visits to the Web site by local residents. Local government environmental culture (represented by having a Covenant of Mayors plan) and public administration style infl uence the interactivity of the environmental section of the local government Web site, confi rming what other studies about the use of new technologies have concluded in diff erent areas of public management.

To summarize, these empirical results provide support for propo- sitions 1 (public administration style explains the level of interactivity of environmental Web sites) and 4 (local government environmental culture, measured by the Covenant of Mayors plan, explains both the level of interactivity and the total score). In regard to proposition 3 (external pressures), it has been found to explain a higher disclosure of environmental information (information-transparency side of citizen participation) but not the consultation-active participation side of citizen participation. Finally, no empirical evidence supporting proposition 2 (urban vulnerability) has been found.

Table 7 Standardized Regression Coeffi cients and Statistical Signifi cance

Dependent Variable

VIF Transp.

Interact.

Usability

Maturity Total Constant

–1.083 –12.246 Public administration style

–0.413* 0.179 Population growth rate

0.236 0.107 % Internet access in the region

0.292 0.380** Tourist nights per year (log)

0.368** 0.218* National e-environment

–0.072 –0.003 ICLEI membership

0.049 0.055 Covenant of Mayors plan submitted

0.318 0.593 Model signifi cance (F statistic)

48 48 48 48 48 ***p < .01; **p < .05; *p < .10.

Th e creation of a true e-dialogue seems to for e-participation. Th us, e-government is remain a pending issue for European local

Th e creation of a true e-dialogue conﬁ rmed as mainly an add-on to traditional

governments, even in local governments that

government-to-citizen relationships (Coursey are presumably committed to promoting

seems to remain a pending

issue for European local gov-

and Norris 2008).

citizen participation in environmental topics.

ernments, even in local gov-

As Romero-Lankao (2012) argues, given the Finally, the limitations of this study should complexity of the interconnected processes

ernments that are presumably

be acknowledged and the avenues for further involved in the relationships between cities

committed to promoting citizen research indicated. As in all Web content

and the environment, it is not surprising that

analyses, this study is just a snapshot of local local authorities tend to move toward rhetoric

participation in environmental

government practices at a speciﬁ c moment in rather than meaningful responses. As a con-

topics.

time, and future research should update the sequence, it does not seem that the Internet

ﬁ ndings obtained here. Future studies could is going to lead to a revolution in government-to-citizen relation-

compare cities that are members of environmental associations with ships or to a convergence in governance styles and decision-making

nonmembers to clarify the eﬀ ects of membership. Perhaps the main structures (at least in the short term). Th us, the theoretical claims

extension for future research should be a greater emphasis on the that indicate that the Internet is going to foster a revitalization of

real impact of environmental e-participation projects, reinforcing the public sphere must be taken with caution.

the qualitative analysis of the speciﬁ c online initiatives of the local entities and the changes in governmental actions resulting from the

Th e article also aimed to identify the factors that foster the develop- use of e-participation tools. ment of e-participation in environmental topics. Th ese factors are classiﬁ ed into four areas: public administration style, urban vulner-

Conclusions

ability, external pressures, and local government environmental Local governments have adopted a narrow approach to the imple- culture. Overall, the ﬁ ndings conﬁ rm that e-participation is a mul-

mentation of environmental e-participation initiatives, using their tifaceted concept, with diﬀ erent perspectives whose development is

E Participation and Environmental Protection Are Local Governments Really Committed (pages 87–98)