5. They may be accompanied by body-motion.
6. They may be replaced by body language.
32
5. The Functions of Backchannels
Several researchers have contributed to determine backchannel functions. Fries, Yngve, and Orestrom believe that backchannels are a
means for the non-primary speaker to give a signal to the primary speaker that he or she understands and agrees.
33
Furthermore, Tottie claims that backchannels
have several
functions, which
normally occur
simultaneously. They signal understanding and agreement, what can be termed the supportive function and encourage the speaker to continue his
or her turn. Backchannels may end up as a turn, if the previous speaker shows no willingness to continue speaking.
34
Moreover, Maynard classified the functions of backchannels into six functions as follows,
35
1. Continuers
According to Schegloff, backchannels functions as a continuer whereby the hearer, by using backchannels cues, they mandating
32
Anna –Brita Stenstrom, Impromptu Speech: A Symposium. Abo: Abo Akademis
Kopieringscentrtal 1
st
ed, 1982, p. 321.
33
Pino Cutrone, “The Backchannel norms of Native English Speakers: A Target for Japanese L2 English Learners”, Language Studies Working Papers vol. 2, 2010, p. 4.
34
Gunnel Tottie, Conversational Style in British and American English: The case of backchannels, New York: Longman, 1991, p. 256-257.
35
Pino Cutrone 2010, loc. cit.
the current speaker to continue speaking.
36
The main functions of this type of backchannels are for the non-primary speaker to signal
the primary speaker that they are listening, and allow the primary speaker to continue his or her turn. This can be seen in the
following example below, A. I‟ll pick it up from his place
B. Mm hm A. A
t around 7 o‟clock.
37
Gardner explains that items such as „Mm-hm‟ and „Uh-huh‟ with a fall rising intonation are indicated as continuers. Besides, items
such as „Yeah‟ and „Mmm‟ are called acknowledgement tokens and also serve as continuers.
38
2. Display of understanding of content
This function of backchannels occurs when non-primary speaker feels it is necessary to show that he or she understands about the
primary speaker is talking about, as in the following example, A: You have to go two blocks.
B: Mm hm. A: then turn left at the video store.
36
In Ron White, “Backchannelling, repair, pausing, and private speech”, Applied Linguistics Vol. 18, no. 3, 1997, p. 323.
37
Pino Cutrone 2010, loc. cit.
38
In Ibid, pp. 4-5.
B: Uh huh. A: It‟s a few stores down on the right side.
B: I see. A: You can‟t miss it.
39
Yule maintains that the types of signal „uh-huh‟, „yeah‟, „mmm‟ indicated that the non-primary speaker is following, and not
objecting to, what speaker is saying.
40
„Yeah‟ is thought to serve several functions, one of the functions is to show understanding of
content.
41
3. Agreement
This function of backchannels occurs when the non-primary speaker reacts to a question or question like utterance made by the
primary speaker, as in the example below, A: You mean you heard the news already.
B: Ya C. I was going to tell you.
42
In example such this, it may be difficult to distinguish between the agreement and understanding categories. According to Tao and
Thompson, a distinction by pointing out that the non-primary
39
Ibid.
40
George Yule 1996, Op. cit, pp. 75-76.
41
Pino Cutrone 2010, op. cit, p. 5.
42
Ibid.
speaker gives a claim of understanding when the primary speaker provides some new and previously unknown information to the
non-primary speaker. In the other hand, acknowledgement of agreement does not involve unknown information.
43
4. Support and empathy toward the speaker‟s judgment
This function of backchannels occurs when the non-primary speaker respond with a show of support and empathy to a
statement produced by the primary speaker, as in the following example below,
A: He quit his job again B: It‟s going to be hard to find a new one
A: Yeah B: He‟ll have to apply...
Geaney mantains that backchannels is vocal cues that signify that the primary speaker still has the non-
primary‟s interest.
44
Maynard identifies „Yeah‟ as a backchannel form that can be used to express
support and empathy towards the primary speaker‟s judgment.
45
43
In Ibid. pp. 5-6.
44
Declan Geaney, Discourse Analysis and Related Topics for Teachers of English as a Second Language 1
st
ed. Praha: Karolinum, 1996, p. 69.
45
In Pino Cutrone 2010, op. cit, p. 6.
5. Strong emotional response
This function of backchannels occurs when the non-primary speaker responds emphatically to a statement produced by the
primary speaker, which indicate more than simple continuer, understanding or support, as in the following example,
A. I got an A+ on my Chemistry test. B. Fantastic
A. I hope I can keep it up all semester. Goodwin has suggested assessment such as „Wow‟ or „Great‟
serves as strong emotive responses.
46
6. Minor addition or request for information
This function of backchannels occur when the non-primary speaker corrects something the primary speaker has just uttered, when the
non-primary speaker needs clarification or when the non-primary speaker attempts to add a word in completing the utterance of the
primary speaker, as the example below, A: John will likely be back in April.
B: Really. A. Yeah, the government is reducing troops in the gulf.
47
46
In Ibid.
47
Ibid. p. 7.
Maynard has pointed out that the item such as „Really‟ is a common backchannel form to request confirmation.
48
However, the intonation is important to produce backchannels. Stenstrom
describes that the backchannels can reflect empathy, enthusiasm, and indignation, but they can also reflect a lack of interest,
indifference, and impatience.
49
6. Key of Transcription