Mainstreaming fisheries in development strategies

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3. Mainstreaming fisheries in development strategies

Figures 1 and 2 offer some guidance as to which countries might be expected to have mainstreamed fisheries in development plans. In light of these observa- tions, the remainder of the paper examines the sector’s presence in development discourses. Methodology Content analysis is a ‘systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding’ Stemler 2001. This approach has been employed to examine how gender Zuck- erman 2002, ECOSOC 2003, sustainability DFID 2000, Boj¨o and Reddy 2002, World Bank 2002, and HIVAIDS World Bank 2001 have been mainstreamed within development plans. We adapt the framework used by Shyamsundar and Hamilton 2000, and refined by Oksanen and Mersmann 2002 in their appraisal of forestry’s status in Sub-Saharan African PRSPs. Earlier research by the authors Thorpe et al. 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2006 has utilised this approach to analyse fisheries in other regions. Our analysis considers four categories. First, documents were examined for fisheries issues. Second, they were scrutinised for analyses of links between fish- eries and poverty. Third, we considered whether plans identified government re- sponses, and whether responses were general or specific including detailed plans, monitoring and evaluation, etc. Finally, we examined plans for evidence of stake- holder participation in policy processes. The second stage of analysis considered the extent of statements attributable to each category, awarding a numeric score to each. Limited references to fisheries were coded as one, a more elaborate statement as two, and extensive references that could be described as best practice, that is, policies that offer useful guidance for other countries, as three. Zero indicates an absence of content. We concur with Okasen and Mersmann 2002, p. 132 that the method, although subjective in certain respects, is transparent, offers some guidance to a sector’s incorporation within development plans, and facilitates international comparisons. Analysis Six APFIC countries have completed PRSPs Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, Pak- istan, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. 18 NDPs were analysed for a further four countries India, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. 19 Details of the documents ex- amined in our analysis are given in Appendix B. Issues Figure 3 shows that eight PRSP or NDP documents have addressed fisheries issues. Downloaded By: [University of TokyoTOKYO DAIGAKU] At: 03:22 8 December 2008 Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 527 1 2 3 B an gl ad esh Ca m bo dia In di a Ma la ys ia Ne pa l Pa ki st an Phi lipp in es Sr i L ank a Th ai la nd Vi etn am Figure 3. Content analysis of fisheries issues in PRSPs and NDPs. Discussion was nominal in Thailand’s Ninth National Economic and Social Development Plan 2002–6, acknowledging that unsustainable exploitation im- pacted unfavourably on biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Greater emphasis to fisheries issues was given in the Indian and Malaysian NDPs, and Sri Lankan and Vietnam PRSPs. The Malaysian and Indian documents summarise past growth. The former links the sector to a strategy designed to strengthen agriculture and agro-industry through increased commercialisation, large-scale production, and the establishment of new consortia to provide port facilities and exploit deep-sea resources. The latter appears more cognisant of ensuring that increased fisheries production meets the nutritional needs of the poor. Vietnam’s PRSP has parallels with Malaysia’s NDP in emphasising comparative advantages in aquaculture and seafood production, although it also expressed concerns about anti-dumping ac- tions resulting from its growing exports. In contrast, Sri Lanka’s PRSP details the adverse impact of civil war upon fishing communities. We identified three outstanding examples of mainstreaming fisheries issues that might act as exemplars for other developing countries. Cambodia’s PRSP ad- dressed aquaculture, fisheries management, livelihoods, and community fisheries, with frequent references helping to mainstream fisheries issues throughout the document. While agriculture is a priority sector in Bangladesh’s poverty reduction strategy, a separate section details fisheries’ role and government plans to stimu- late growth and respond to stakeholder concerns raised during consultation. 20 The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan 2004–10 MTPDP proposes that Mindanao becomes a national agro-fisheries hub, developing the sector’s export potential by exploiting under-utilised marine and inland waters. It also advocates large-scale community-based programmes to intensify and diversify production. The document is interspersed with numerous references to the sector, whether Downloaded By: [University of TokyoTOKYO DAIGAKU] At: 03:22 8 December 2008 528 C. Reid et al. regarding the resolution of property rights conflicts, educational programmes for fishers, improved information systems, or highlighting threats to coastal and ma- rine areas from destructive fishing methods, siltation, and pollution. In these respects, the Philippines report represented Best Practice. Causal links Figure 4 shows how causal links between fisheries and poverty issues are repre- sented in seven documents. Discussion was limited in two cases: the Ninth Malaysian Plan 2006–10 9MP, which placed fishers among the 70,000 poor families benefiting from the Skim Pembangunan Kesejahteram Rakyat Citizen PeaceHarmonyWealth De- velopment Scheme, and a special programme to diversify and enhance sources of income. India’s NDP also failed to distinguish between fisher and non-fisher households when asserting the primary sector’s importance for improving nutri- tion standards among the rural poor. Greater recognition of poverty among fisher families was found in Sri Lanka’s PRSP, which scored two in this category. This placed coastal fishing communities among the rural economy’s poorest groups, vulnerable to seasonal and climatic factors. Cambodian and Vietnam PRSPs drew attention to fishing households’ limited access to credit and other resources. Re- spectively, these reports noted the importance of fish to poorer households, and the need to expand subsidised fishing activities. The Philippines MTPDP and Bangladeshi PRSP, while commenting on similar issues, were more substantive. The Philippine plan acknowledges that poverty is concentrated in rural areas. This is tied to a commitment to increase employment prospects 743,540 jobs in fisheries alone, grant artisanal fishers exclusive access to resources within 15 km of shore, and expand production to reduce domestic 1 2 3 Ba ng la des h Ca m bo dia In dia M al ay sia Ne pa l Pa ki st an Phi lip pin es Sr i L an ka Th ai la nd Vi et na m Figure 4. Content analysis of causal links in PRSPs and NDPs. Downloaded By: [University of TokyoTOKYO DAIGAKU] At: 03:22 8 December 2008 Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 529 fish prices. Fishers are also one group expected to benefit from emergency and livelihood assistance programmes and expanded healthcare provision. Livelihood vulnerability is also a key feature of the 370-page Bangladeshi PRSP, manifested through examination of fishers’ livelihood strategies during consultations. These findings informed various strategic goals identified in the Agricultural Growth through Poverty Reduction and Food Security Policy implementation matrices. Again, we describe this as representing Best Practice. Responses Figure 5 shows how eight documents addressed responses to fisheries issues and causal links between fisheries and poverty. The Thai National Economic and Social Development Plan scored one in this category, offering to establish marine protected areas for aquatic fauna and the protection of local fishing areas. Six documents rated two in this category in our analysis. India, with multiple responses throughout its Tenth Five Year Plan, plans to promote aquaculture to diversify rural incomes in ‘backward regions’, and to boost research activity to promote sustainable fisheries and aquaculture. The 9MP detailed various interventions aimed at stimulating the commercial growth of fisheries, aquaculture, fish processing, and ornamental fish culture. These in- terventions included the modernisation of coastal fisheries, the provision of new infrastructure including a deep-sea fishing complex at Tanjung Mamis, and vessel upgrades. Rapid expansion of aquaculture was central to Vietnam’s response, with infrastructure investment and accompanying extension service provision designed to ensure sustainable growth targets are met. Sri Lanka based its fisheries policy on its National Fisheries Development and Coastal Zone Management programmes, which outline strategies to ensure the 1 2 3 Ba ng la de sh Ca m bo dia In di a M ala ys ia Ne pa l Pa ki st an Ph ili pp in es Sri L ank a Th ai lan d Vi et na m Figure 5. Content analysis of responses in PRSPs and NDPs. Downloaded By: [University of TokyoTOKYO DAIGAKU] At: 03:22 8 December 2008 530 C. Reid et al. sector’s sustainable development, combined with targeted interventions to bring poor and socially excluded groups including fishers into the economic main- stream. The Bangladeshi PRSP is also concerned with enhancing fisher welfare. It aims to facilitate greater access to floodplain fisheries, increase productivity in aquaculture and capture fisheries, promote rice-fish culture, and to introduce local stock varieties. Institutional reform is also envisaged. In contrast, the Philip- pine response is more explicitly export-oriented. The MTPDP outlines a six-point export strategy for marine products; promises to establish an aquaculture and seaweed enterprise programme, and develop landing and post-harvest facilities. It was anticipated that funding for these proposals would be generated through public–private finance mechanisms in late-2005. However, the widespread devas- tation of the fisheries sector by the 2004 tsunami has prompted a reconsideration of these plans. The most elaborate responses were outlined in Cambodia’s PRSP. This in- cludes actionimplementation matrices detailing objectives, strategies, monitor- ing indicators, and budgets. Nonetheless, the more recent 2004 Progress Report suggests there is still a need to develop a fisheries development master plan. Rice-fish farming, aquaculture, and community-based fisheries management are identified as key components in Cambodia’s strategy for equitable agricultural development. This reflects the disparity in access to fish between upper dryland communities who would benefit from rural aquaculture and rice-fish culture and those that live within the extensive floodplains where there is a lack of effective management of the abundant fishery resources. Particularly notewor- thy interventions include a programme to promote improved resource access for poor families and communities, a study examining the commercial importance of freshwater fisheries, and extension programmes that reflect the women’s domi- nant roles in traditional farming, fishing, and related commercial activities Best Practice. Process Figure 6 illustrates how six documents reported on fisheries stakeholders’ partic- ipation in the policy process. The 9MP noted the need to increase fishers’ involvement in agro-processing and marketing programmes. Three documents were more forthcoming. The Philip- pine MTPDP, developed with fisheries stakeholder participation, commits the gov- ernment to mobilise, organise and build fishers’ capacity through infrastructure provision and enterprise support. Cambodia’s PRSP, confirming fisher represen- tatives’ participation in the document’s preparation, committed the government to greater co-management of fisheries resources. Community participation is also placed firmly on the agenda in Thailand; the Ninth National Economic and Social Development Plan outlined a series of measures intended to improve local input into fisheries decision-making. This is a reflection of the country’s decentralisation programme, which devolves resource management to district levels, and also Downloaded By: [University of TokyoTOKYO DAIGAKU] At: 03:22 8 December 2008 Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 531 1 2 3 4 B ang lad esh Ca m bo dia In di a Ma la ys ia Ne pa l Pa ki st an Phi lipp in es Sr i L an ka Th ai la nd Vi etn am Figure 6. Content analysis of processes in PRSPs and NDPs. perhaps part of the growing recognition that top-down management approaches have failed to resolve over-exploitation and conflicts. The fullest accounts were provided by Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Sri Lanka dedicated a full section of its PRSP to detailing a variety of community-based coastal preservation and marine resource management projects to be implemented over a period of five years. In Bangladesh, consultations allowed fisher representatives to discuss the nature and causes of poverty and help devise poverty reduction targets and strategies Best Practice.

4. Mainstreaming fisheries into development plans