Nonparametric Tests

16.1 Nonparametric Tests

Most of the hypothesis-testing procedures discussed in previous chapters are based on the assumption that the random samples are selected from normal populations. Fortunately, most of these tests are still reliable when we experience slight depar- tures from normality, particularly when the sample size is large. Traditionally, these testing procedures have been referred to as parametric methods. In this chapter, we consider a number of alternative test procedures, called nonparamet- ric or distribution-free methods, that often assume no knowledge whatsoever about the distributions of the underlying populations, except perhaps that they are continuous.

Nonparametric, or distribution-free procedures, are used with increasing fre- quency by data analysts. There are many applications in science and engineering where the data are reported as values not on a continuum but rather on an ordinal scale such that it is quite natural to assign ranks to the data. In fact, the reader may notice quite early in this chapter that the distribution-free methods described here involve an analysis of ranks. Most analysts find the computations involved in nonparametric methods to be very appealing and intuitive.

For an example where a nonparametric test is applicable, consider the situation in which two judges rank five brands of premium beer by assigning a rank of 1 to the brand believed to have the best overall quality, a rank of 2 to the second best, and so forth. A nonparametric test could then be used to determine whether there is any agreement between the two judges.

We should also point out that there are a number of disadvantages associ- ated with nonparametric tests. Primarily, they do not utilize all the information provided by the sample, and thus a nonparametric test will be less efficient than the corresponding parametric procedure when both methods are applicable. Con- sequently, to achieve the same power, a nonparametric test will require a larger sample size than will the corresponding parametric test.

As we indicated earlier, slight departures from normality result in minor devi- ations from the ideal for the standard parametric tests. This is particularly true for the t-test and the F-test. In the case of the t-test and the F-test, the P-value

656 Chapter 16 Nonparametric Statistics quoted may be slightly in error if there is a moderate violation of the normality

assumption. In summary, if a parametric and a nonparametric test are both applicable to the same set of data, we should carry out the more efficient parametric technique. However, we should recognize that the assumptions of normality often cannot be justified and that we do not always have quantitative measurements. It is fortu- nate that statisticians have provided us with a number of useful nonparametric procedures. Armed with nonparametric techniques, the data analyst has more ammunition to accommodate a wider variety of experimental situations. It should

be pointed out that even under the standard normal theory assumptions, the ef- ficiencies of the nonparametric techniques are remarkably close to those of the corresponding parametric procedure. On the other hand, serious departures from normality will render the nonparametric method much more efficient than the parametric procedure.

Sign Test

The reader should recall that the procedures discussed in Section 10.4 for testing the null hypothesis that μ = μ 0 are valid only if the population is approximately normal or if the sample is large. If n < 30 and the population is decidedly nonnormal, we must resort to a nonparametric test.

The sign test is used to test hypotheses on a population median. In the case of many of the nonparametric procedures, the mean is replaced by the median as the pertinent location parameter under test. Recall that the sample median was defined in Section 1.3. The population counterpart, denoted by ˜ μ, has an analogous definition. Given a random variable X, ˜ μ is defined such that P (X > ˜ μ) ≤ 0.5 and P (X < ˜ μ) ≤ 0.5. In the continuous case,

P (X > ˜ μ) = P (X < ˜ μ) = 0.5.

Of course, if the distribution is symmetric, the population mean and median are equal. In testing the null hypothesis H 0 that ˜ μ=˜ μ 0 against an appropriate alternative, on the basis of a random sample of size n, we replace each sample value exceeding ˜ μ 0 with a plus sign and each sample value less than ˜ μ 0 with a minus sign. If the null hypothesis is true and the population is symmetric, the sum of the plus signs should be approximately equal to the sum of the minus signs. When one sign appears more frequently than it should based on chance alone, we

reject the hypothesis that the population median ˜ μ is equal to ˜ μ 0 . In theory, the sign test is applicable only in situations where ˜ μ 0 cannot equal the value of any of the observations. Although there is a zero probability of obtain- ing a sample observation exactly equal to ˜ μ 0 when the population is continuous, nevertheless, in practice a sample value equal to ˜ μ 0 will often occur from a lack of precision in recording the data. When sample values equal to ˜ μ 0 are observed, they are excluded from the analysis and the sample size is correspondingly reduced. The appropriate test statistic for the sign test is the binomial random variable

X, representing the number of plus signs in our random sample. If the null hy- pothesis that ˜ μ=˜ μ 0 is true, the probability that a sample value results in either

a plus or a minus sign is equal to 1/2. Therefore, to test the null hypothesis that

16.1 Nonparametric Tests 657 μ=˜ ˜ μ 0 , we actually test the null hypothesis that the number of plus signs is a value

of a random variable having the binomial distribution with the parameter p = 1/2. P-values for both one-sided and two-sided alternatives can then be calculated using this binomial distribution. For example, in testing

H 0 :˜ μ=˜ μ 0 ,

H 1 :˜ μ<˜ μ 0 ,

we shall reject H 0 in favor of H 1 only if the proportion of plus signs is sufficiently less than 1/2, that is, when the value x of our random variable is small. Hence, if the computed P-value

P = P (X ≤ x when p = 1/2)

is less than or equal to some preselected significance level α, we reject H 0 in favor of H 1 . For example, when n = 15 and x = 3, we find from Table A.1 that

P = P (X ≤ 3 when p = 1/2) =

so the null hypothesis ˜ μ=˜ μ 0 can certainly be rejected at the 0.05 level of signifi- cance but not at the 0.01 level. To test the hypothesis

H 0 :˜ μ=˜ μ 0 ,

H 1 :˜ μ>˜ μ 0 ,

we reject H 0 in favor of H 1 only if the proportion of plus signs is sufficiently greater

than 1/2, that is, when x is large. Hence, if the computed P-value P = P (X ≥ x when p = 1/2)

is less than α, we reject H 0 in favor of H 1 . Finally, to test the hypothesis

H 0 :˜ μ=˜ μ 0 ,

H 1 :˜ μ 0 ,

we reject H 0 in favor of H 1 when the proportion of plus signs is significantly less than or greater than 1/2. This, of course, is equivalent to x being sufficiently small or sufficiently large. Therefore, if x < n/2 and the computed P-value

P = 2P (X ≤ x when p = 1/2) is less than or equal to α, or if x > n/2 and the computed P-value P = 2P (X ≥ x when p = 1/2) is less than or equal to α, we reject H 0 in favor of H 1 .

658 Chapter 16 Nonparametric Statistics Whenever n > 10, binomial probabilities with p = 1/2 can be approximated

from the normal curve, since np = nq > 5. Suppose, for example, that we wish to test the hypothesis

H 0 :˜ μ=˜ μ 0 ,

H 1 :˜ μ<˜ μ 0 ,

at the α = 0.05 level of significance, for a random sample of size n = 20 that yields x = 6 plus signs. Using the normal curve approximation with

we find that

Therefore, P = P (X ≤ 6) ≈ P (Z < −1.57) = 0.0582, which leads to the nonrejection of the null hypothesis.

Example 16.1: The following data represent the number of hours that a rechargeable hedge trim- mer operates before a recharge is required:

1.5, 2.2, 0.9, 1.3, 2.0, 1.6, 1.8, 1.5, 2.0, 1.2, 1.7. Use the sign test to test the hypothesis, at the 0.05 level of significance, that this

particular trimmer operates a median of 1.8 hours before requiring a recharge. Solution :

4. Test statistic: Binomial variable X with p = 1 2 .

5. Computations: Replacing each value by the symbol “+” if it exceeds 1.8 and by the symbol “−” if it is less than 1.8 and discarding the one measurement that equals 1.8, we obtain the sequence

for which n = 10, x = 3, and n/2 = 5. Therefore, from Table A.1 the computed P-value is

P = 2P

X ≤ 3 when p =

b x; 10,

2 x=0

16.1 Nonparametric Tests 659

6. Decision: Do not reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the median operating time is not significantly different from 1.8 hours.

We can also use the sign test to test the null hypothesis ˜ μ 1 −˜ μ 2 =d 0 for paired observations. Here we replace each difference, d i , with a plus or minus sign depending on whether the adjusted difference, d i −d 0 , is positive or negative. Throughout this section, we have assumed that the populations are symmetric. However, even if populations are skewed, we can carry out the same test procedure, but the hypotheses refer to the population medians rather than the means.

Example 16.2:

A taxi company is trying to decide whether the use of radial tires instead of regular belted tires improves fuel economy. Sixteen cars are equipped with radial tires and driven over a prescribed test course. Without changing drivers, the same cars are then equipped with the regular belted tires and driven once again over the test course. The gasoline consumption, in kilometers per liter, is given in Table 16.1. Can we conclude at the 0.05 level of significance that cars equipped with radial tires obtain better fuel economy than those equipped with regular belted tires?

Table 16.1: Data for Example 16.2

Car

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Radial Tires 4.2 4.7 6.6 7.0 6.7 4.5 5.7 6.0 Belted Tires 4.1 4.9 6.2 6.9 6.8 4.4 5.7 5.8

Car

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Radial Tires 7.4 4.9 6.1 5.2 5.7 6.9 6.8 4.9 Belted Tires 6.9 4.9 6.0 4.9 5.3 6.5 7.1 4.8

Solution : Let ˜ μ 1 and ˜ μ 2 represent the median kilometers per liter for cars equipped with radial and belted tires, respectively.

4. Test statistic: Binomial variable X with p = 1/2.

5. Computations: After replacing each positive difference by a “+” symbol and each negative difference by a “−” symbol and then discarding the two zero differences, we obtain the sequence

+−++−+++++++−+ for which n = 14 and x = 11. Using the normal curve approximation, we find

and then P = P (X ≥ 11) ≈ P (Z > 1.87) = 0.0307.

660 Chapter 16 Nonparametric Statistics

6. Decision: Reject H 0 and conclude that, on the average, radial tires do improve

fuel economy. Not only is the sign test one of the simplest nonparametric procedures to ap- ply; it has the additional advantage of being applicable to dichotomous data that cannot be recorded on a numerical scale but can be represented by positive and negative responses. For example, the sign test is applicable in experiments where

a qualitative response such as “hit” or “miss” is recorded, and in sensory-type ex- periments where a plus or minus sign is recorded depending on whether the taste tester correctly or incorrectly identifies the desired ingredient.

We shall attempt to make comparisons between many of the nonparametric procedures and the corresponding parametric tests. In the case of the sign test the competition is, of course, the t-test. If we are sampling from a normal distribution, the use of the t-test will result in a larger power for the test. If the distribu- tion is merely symmetric, though not normal, the t-test is preferred in terms of power unless the distribution has extremely “heavy tails” compared to the normal distribution.