Choosing a statistical test
26 Choosing a statistical test
There are very many statistical tests available to graphic means of presenting the issues in this the researcher. Which test one employs depends
chapter (see http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/ on several factors, for example:
9780415368780 – Chapter 26, file 26.1.doc).
the purpose of the analysis (e.g. to describe or explore data, to test a hypothesis, to seek
How many samples?
correlations, to identify the effects of one or more independent variables on a dependent
In addition to the scale of data being used (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio), the kind of
variable, to identify differences between two or statistic that one calculates depends in part more groups; to look for underlying groupings on, first, whether the samples are related to, of data, to report effect sizes)
the kinds of data with which one is working or independent of, each other, and second, the (parametric and non-parametric)
number of samples in the test. With regard to
the scales of data being used (nominal, ordinal, the first point, as we have seen in previous interval, ratio)
chapters, different statistics are sometimes used
the number of groups in the sample when groups are related to each other and when
the assumptions in the tests they are independent of each other. Groups will
whether the samples are independent of each
be independent when they have no relationship other or related to each other.
to each other, e.g. in conducting a test to see if there is any difference between the voting of males
Researchers wishing to use statistics will need to and females on a particular item, say mathematics ask questions such as:
performance. The tests that one could use here are,
for example: the chi-square test (for nominal data), What statistics do I need to answer my research the Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis questions?
(for ordinal data), and the t-test and analysis of Are the data parametric or non-parametric?
variance (ANOVA) for interval and ratio data. How many groups are there (e.g. two, three or However, there are times when the groups more)?
might be related. For example, we may wish to Are the groups related or independent?
measure the performance of the same group at What kind of test do I need (e.g. a difference
test, a correlation, factor analysis, regression)? two points in time – before and after a particular intervention – or we may wish to measure the
We have addressed several of these points in voting of the same group on two different factors, the preceding chapters; those not addressed in
say preference for mathematics and preference for previous chapters are addressed here. In this
music. Here it is not different groups that are being chapter we draw together the threads of the
involved, but the same group on two occasions and discussion of statistical analysis and address what,
the same two on two variables respectively. In this for many researchers, can be a nightmare: deciding
case different statistics would have to be used, for which statistical tests to use. In the interests
example the Wilcoxon test, the Friedman test, the of clarity we have decided to use tables and
t-test for paired samples, and the sign test. Let us
HOW MANY SAMPLES? 587
Chapter
give a frequently used example of an experiment With regard to the number of samples in the (Box 26.1).
test, there are statistical tests which are for single In preceding chapters we have indicated which
samples (one group only, e.g. a single class in tests are to be used with independent samples and
school), for two samples (two groups, e.g. males and which are to be used with related samples.
females in a school) and for three or more samples
Box 26.1
Identifying statistical tests for an experiment
Control group
Control group
Wilcoxon test or t-test
for paired samples
t-test for independent samples for the pretest
t-test for independent
(depending on data
samples for the post-test →
Wilcoxon test or t-test
group
for paired samples
(depending on data type)
Box 26.2
Statistical tests to be used with different numbers of groups of samples
Scale One sample
More than two samples of data
Two samples
Related Nominal
Fisher exact test
McNemar
Chi-square (χ 2 )
Cochran Q
k-samples test
Chi-square (χ 2 )
Chi-square (χ 2 )
one-sample test
two-samples test
Ordinal Kolmogorov-
Kruskal-Wallis test Friedman test Smirnov
Mann-Whitney U test
Wilcoxon
matched pairs test
one-sample test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Sign test
Ordinal regression
test
analysis
Wald-Wolfowitz Spearman rho Ordinal regression
analysis
One-way ANOVA Repeated and ratio
Interval t-test
t-test
t-test for paired
samples
measures ANOVA
Pearson product
Two-way ANOVA
moment correlation Tukey hsd test
Scheff´e test
588 CHOOSING A STATISTICAL TEST
Box 26.3
Types of statistical tests for four scales of data
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval and ratio
Measures of
Tetrachoric
Spearman’s rho
Pearson product-moment
Point biserial
Kendall rank order
correlation
correlation
Phi coefficient
Kendall partial rank correlation
Cramer’s V
Measures of
Chi-square
Mann-Whitney U test
t-test for two independent
t-test for two related samples
Cochran Q
Wilcoxon matched pairs
One-way ANOVA
Binomial test
Friedman two-way analysis of
Two-way ANOVA for more
variance Wald-Wolfowitz test
Tukey hsd test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
Scheff´e test
Measures of linear
Ordinal regression analysis
Linear regression
relationship between independent and dependent variables
Multiple regression
Identifying
Factor analysis
underlying factors, data reduction
Elementary linkage analysis
(e.g. parents, teachers, students and administrative The statistical tests to be used also depend on staff in a school). Tests which can be applied
the scales of data being treated (nominal – ratio) to a single group include the binomial test, the
and the tasks which the researcher wishes to chi-square one-sample test, and the Kolmogorov-
perform – the purpose of the analysis (e.g. to Smirnov one-sample test; tests which can be
discover differences between groups, to look applied to two groups include the chi-square test,
for degrees of association, to measure the Mann-Whitney U test, the t-test, the Spearman
effect of one or more independent variables and Pearson tests of correlation; tests which can
on a dependent variable etc.). In preceding
be applied to three or more samples include the chapters we have described the different scales chi-square test, analysis of variance and the Tukey
of data and the kinds of tests available test. We set out some of these tests in Box 26.2. It
for different purposes. In respect of these is essential to use the correct test for the correct
considerations, Box 26.3 summarizes some of the number of groups.
main tests here.
HOW MANY SAMPLES? 589
Chapter
Box 26.4
Choosing statistical tests for parametric and non-parametric data
Non-parametric
data
Descriptive Correlation
Goodness
Differences
Effects of
variables on
regression
dependent
Frequencies Spearman’s
Three or Mode
Three or
more related Cross-tabulations
Wallis test
test
U test
Parametric data
Descriptive Correlation
Differences
Effect size
Effects of
Grouping of
variables on
(reduction)
dependent
Cohen’s d
variable
Eta 2
Frequencies Pearson’s
Factor Mode
Regression analysis Mean
Standard deviation correlation Median
coefficient
Two related
Paired
Two or more
Three or
Three or more related
Repeated
samples
measures
ANOVA
590 CHOOSING A STATISTICAL TEST
Box 26.5
Statistics available for different types of data
Data type Legitimate statistics
Points to observe/questions/examples
Nominal Mode (the score achieved by the Is there a clear ‘front runner’ that receives the highest greatest number of people)
score with low scoring on other categories, or is the modal score only narrowly leading the other categories? Are there two scores which are vying for the highest score – a bimodal score?
Frequencies Which are the highest/lowest frequencies? Is the distribution even across categories?
Chi-square (a statistic that charts the Are differences between scores caused by chance/accident difference between statistically expected
or are they statistically significant, i.e. not simply caused by and actual scores)
chance?
Ordinal Mode Which score on a rating scale is the most frequent? Median (the score gained by the middle
What is the score of the middle person in a list of scores? person in a ranked group of people or, if there is an even number of cases, the score which is midway between the highest score obtained in the lower half of the cases and the lowest score obtained in the higher half of the cases).
Frequencies Do responses tend to cluster around one or two categories of a rating scale? Are the responses skewed towards one end of a rating scale (e.g. ‘strongly agree’)? Do the responses pattern themselves consistently across the sample? Are the frequencies generally high or generally low (i.e. whether respondents tend to feel strongly about an issue)? Is there a clustering of responses around the central categories of a rating scale (the central tendency, respondents not wishing to appear to be too extreme)?
Chi-square Are the frequencies of one set of nominal variables (e.g. sex) significantly related to a set of ordinal variables?
Spearman rank order correlation (a Do the results from one rating scale correlate with the statistic to measure the degree of
results from another rating scale? Do the rank order association between two ordinal
positions for one variable correlate with the rank order variables)
positions for another variable?
Mann-Whitney U-test (a statistic to Is there a significant difference in the results of a rating measure any significant difference
scale for two independent samples (e.g. males and between two independent samples)
females)?
Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance (a Is there a significant difference between three or more statistic to measure any significant
nominal variables (e.g. membership of political parties) and differences between three or more
the results of a rating scale?
independent samples) continued
ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591
Chapter
Box 26.5
continued
Interval and ratio Mode Mean
What is the average score for this group? Frequencies
Median Chi-square Standard deviation (a measure of the
Are the scores on a parametric test evenly distributed? dispersal of scores)
Do scores cluster closely around the mean? Are scores widely spread around the mean? Are scores dispersed evenly? Are one or two extreme scores (‘outliers’) exerting a disproportionate influence on what are otherwise closely clustered scores?
z-scores (a statistic to convert How do the scores obtained by students on a test scores from different scales, i.e. with
which was marked out of 20 compare to the scores by different means and standard
the same students on a test which was marked out of deviations, to a common scale, i.e.
with the same mean and standard deviation, enabling different scores to be compared fairly)
Pearson product-moment Is there a correlation between one set of interval data correlation (a statistic to measure
(e.g. test scores for one examination) and another set the degree of association between
of interval data (e.g. test scores on another two interval or ratio variables)
examination)?
t-tests (a statistic to measure the Are the control and experimental groups matched in difference between the means of
their mean scores on a parametric test? Is there a one sample on two separate
significant different between the pretest and post-test occasions or between two samples
scores of a sample group?
on one occasion) Analysis of variance (a statistic to
Are the differences in the means between test results ascertain whether two or more
of three groups statistically significant?
means differ significantly)
The type of tests used also vary according
Assumptions of tests
to whether one is working with parametric or non-parametric data. Boxes 26.4 and 26.5 draw
Statistical tests are based on certain assumptions. It is important to be aware of these assumptions and
together and present the kinds of statistical tests to operate fairly within them. Some of the more available, depending on whether one is using
parametric or non-parametric data, together with widely used tests have the following assumptions (Box 26.6).
the purpose of the analysis. Box 26.5 sets out The choice of which statistics to employ is not the commonly used statistics for data types and arbitrary, but dependent on purpose. purposes (Siegel 1956; Cohen and Holliday 1996;
Hopkins et al. 1996).
592 CHOOSING A STATISTICAL TEST
Box 26.6
Assumptions of statistical tests
Data are normally distributed, with no outliers.
Mode There are few values, and few scores, occurring which have a similar frequency. Median
There are many ordinal values.
Chi-square
Data are categorical (nominal). Randomly sampled population. Mutually independent categories. Data are discrete (i.e. no decimal places between data points).
80 per cent of all the cells in a cross-tabulation contain 5 or more cases. Kolmogorov-Smirnov
The underlying distribution is continuous. Data are nominal.
t-test and analysis of
Population is normally distributed.
variance
Sample is selected randomly from the population. Each case is independent of the other. The groups to be compared are nominal, and the comparison is made using interval and ratio data. The sets of data to be compared are normally distributed (the bell-shaped Gaussian curve of distribution). The sets of scores have approximately equal variances, or the square of the standard deviation is known. The data are interval or ratio.
Wilcoxon test
The data are ordinal. The samples are related.
Mann-Whitney and The groups to be compared are nominal, and the comparison is made using ordinal data. Kruskal-Wallis
The populations from which the samples are drawn have similar distributions. Samples are drawn randomly. Samples are independent of each other.
Spearman rank order
The data are ordinal.
correlation Pearson correlation
The data are interval and ratio.
Regression (simple
Assumptions underlying regression techniques:
and multiple)
The data derive from a random or probability sample. The data are interval or ratio (unless ordinal regression is used). Outliers are removed. There is a linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The dependent variable is normally distributed (the bell-shaped Gaussian curve of distribution). The residuals for the dependent variable (the differences between calculated and observed scores) are approximately normally distributed. Collinearity is removed (where one independent variable is an exact or very close correlate of another).
Factor analysis
The data are interval or ratio. The data are normally distributed. Outliers have been removed. The sample size should not be less than 100–150 persons. There should be at least five cases for each variable. The relationships between the variables should be linear. The data must be capable of being factored.
Notes
1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY – SETTING THE FIELD
1 We are not here recommending, nor would we wish of scientific research, Mishler contends, is largely to encourage, exclusive dependence on rationally
tacit and unexplicated; moreover, scientists learn it derived and scientifically provable knowledge for the
through a process of socialization into a ‘particular conduct of education – even if this were possible.
form of life’. The discovery, testing and validation There is a rich fund of traditional and cultural
of findings is embedded in cultural and linguistic wisdom in teaching (as in other spheres of life)
practices and experimental scientists proceed in which we would ignore to our detriment. What we
pragmatic ways, learning from their errors and are suggesting, however, is that total dependence
failures, adapting procedures to their local contexts, on the latter has tended in the past to lead to
making decisions on the basis of their accumulated an impasse: and that for further development and
experiences. See, for example, Mishler, E. G. (1990) greater understanding to be achieved education must
Validation in inquiry-guided research: the role of needs resort to the methods of science and research.
exemplars in narrative studies. Harvard Educational 2 A classic statement opposing this particular view of
Review , 60 (4), 415–42. science is that of Kuhn, T. S. (1962) The Structure
5 See, for example, Rogers, C. R. (1969) Freedom of Scientific Revolutions . Chicago, IL: University
to Learn . Columbus, OH: Merrill, and also Rogers, of Chicago Press. Kuhn’s book, acknowledged as
C. R. and Stevens, B. (1967) Person to Person: The an intellectual tour de force, makes the point
Problem of Being Human . London: Souvenir. that science is not the systematic accumulation of
6 Investigating social episodes involves analysing knowledge as presented in textbooks; that it is a
the accounts of what is happening from the far less rational exercise than generally imagined. In
points of view of the actors and the participant effect, it is ‘a series of peaceful interludes punctuated
spectator(s)/investigator(s). This is said to yield by intellectually violent revolutions . . . in each of
three main kinds of interlocking material: images of which one conceptual world view is replaced by
the self and others, definitions of situations, and rules another.’
for the proper development of the action. See Harr´e, 3 For a straightforward overview of the discussions
R. (1976) The constructive role of models. In here see Chalmers, A. F. (1982) What Is This Thing
L. Collins (ed.) The Use of Models in the Social Called Science? (second edition). Milton Keynes:
Sciences . London: Tavistock. Open University Press.
7 See also Verma, G. K. and Beard, R. M. (1981) What 4 The formulation of scientific method outlined earlier
is Educational Research? Aldershot: Gower, for further has come in for strong and sustained criticism.
information on the nature of educational research E. G. Mishler, for example, describes it as a
and also a historical perspective on the subject. ‘storybook image of science’, out of tune with the actual practices of working scientists who turn
2 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL out to resemble craftpersons rather than logicians.
RESEARCH
By craftpersons, Mishler (1990) is at pains to stress that competence depends upon ‘apprenticeship training, continued practice and experienced-based,
1 For example, Social Research Association (2003); contextual knowledge of the specific methods
American Sociological Association (1999); British applicable to a phenomenon of interest rather than
Educational Research Association (2000); Ameri- an abstract ‘‘logic of discovery’’ and application of
can Psychological Association (2002); British So- formal ‘‘rules’’ ’ (Mishler 1990). The knowledge base
ciological Association (2002); British Psychological
594 NOTES
Society (2005). Comparable developments may be Wade, N. (1983) Betrayers of Truth: Fraud and Deceit found in other fields of endeavour. For an exami-
in the Halls of Science . New York: Century. nation of key ethical issues in medicine, business, and journalism together with reviews of common
5 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ethical themes across these areas, see Serafini, A. (ed.) (1989) Ethics and Social Concern. New York:
1 See also Walford (2001: 38) in his discussion of Paragon House. The book also contains an ac-
gaining access to UK public schools, where an early count of principal ethical theories from Socrates to
question that was put to him was ‘Are you one of R. M. Hare.
us?’
2 US Dept of Health, Education and Welfare, Public 2 Walford (2001: 69) comments on the very negative Health Service and National Institute of Health
attitudes of teachers to research on UK independent (1971) The Institutional Guide to D.H.E.W. Policy
schools, the teachers feeling that researchers had on Protecting Human Subjects . DHEW Publication
been dishonest and had tricked them, looking only (NIH): 2 December, 72–102.
for salacious, sensational and negative data on the 3 As regards judging researchers’ behaviour, perhaps
school (e.g. on bullying, drinking, drugs, gambling the only area of educational research where the
and homosexuality).
term ethical absolute can be unequivocally applied and where subsequent judgement is unquestionable
8 HISTORICAL AND DOCUMENTARY is that concerning researchers’ relationship with
RESEARCH
their data. Should they choose to abuse their data 1 By contrast, the historian of the modern period, for whatever reason, the behaviour is categorically
i.e. the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is more wrong; no place here for moral relativism. For
often faced in the initial stages with the problem once a clear dichotomy is relevant: if there is
of selecting from too much material, both at the such a thing as clearly ethical behaviour, such
stage of analysis and writing. Here the two most abuse is clearly unethical. It can take the form
common criteria for such selection are the degree of of, first, falsifying data to support a preconceived,
significance to be attached to data, and the extent often favoured, hypothesis; second, manipulating
to which a specific detail may be considered typical data, often statistically, for the same reason
of the whole.
(or manipulating techniques used – deliberately 2 However, historians themselves usually reject such including leading questions, for example); third,
a direct application of their work and rarely indulge using data selectively, that is, ignoring or excluding
in it on the grounds that no two events or the bits that don’t fit one’s hypothesis; and fourth,
contextual circumstances, separated geographically going beyond the data, in other words, arriving
and temporally, can possibly be equated. As the at conclusions not warranted by them (or over-
popular sayings go, ‘History never repeats itself’ and interpreting them). But even malpractice as serious
so, ‘The only thing we can learn from History is that as these examples cannot be controlled by fiat:
we can learn nothing from History’. ethical injunctions would hardly be appropriate
3 Thomas, W. I. and Znaniecki, F. (1918) The in this context, let alone enforceable. The only
Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Chicago, answer (in the absence of professional monitoring)
IL: University of Chicago Press. For a fuller is for the researcher to have a moral code that is
discussion of the monumental work of Thomas and ‘rationally derived and intelligently applied’, to use
Znaniecki, see Plummer, K. (1983) Documents of the words of the philosopher, R. S. Peters, and to
Life: An Introduction to the Problems and Literature be guided by it consistently. Moral competence, like
of a Humanistic Method. London: Allen & Unwin, other competencies, can be learned. One way of
especially Chapter 3, The Making of a Method. acquiring it is to bring interrogative reflection to
See also Madge, J. (1963) The Origin of Scientific bear on one’s own code and practice, e.g. did I
Sociology. London: Tavistock. For a critique of provide suitable feedback, in the right amounts, to
Thomas and Znaniecki, see Riley, M. W. (1963) the right audiences, at the right time? In sum, ethical
Sociological Research 1: A Case Approach . New York: behaviour depends on the concurrence of ethical
Harcourt, Brace & World. thinking which in turn is based on fundamentally
4 Sikes, P., Measor, L. and Woods, P. (1985) Teacher thought-out principles. Readers wishing to take
Careers . Lewes: Falmer. See also Smith, L. M. (1987) the subject of data abuse further should read Peter
Kensington Revisited . Lewes: Falmer; Goodson, I. Medawar’s (1991) elegant and amusing essay,
and Walker, R. (1988) Putting life into educa- ‘Scientific fraud’, in D. Pike (ed.) The Threat and the
tional research. In R. R. Sherman and R. B. Webb Glory: Reflections on Science and Scientists . Oxford:
(eds) Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and Oxford University Press, and also Broad, W. and
Methods . Lewes: Falmer; Acker, S. (1989) Teachers,
NOTES 595
Notes
Gender and Careers . Lewes: Falmer; Blease, D. and of bullying by their pupils: a study to investigate
Cohen, L. (1990) Coping with Computers: An incidence. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Ethnographic Study in Primary Classrooms . London:
68, 255–68; Hall, K. and Nuttall, W. (1999) The Paul Chapman; Evetts, J. (1990) Women in Pri-
relative importance of class size to infant teachers mary Teaching . London: Unwin Hyman; Goodson,
in England. British Educational Research Journal, 25 I. (1990) The Making of Curriculum. Lewes:
(2), 245–58; Rigby, K. (1999) Peer victimisation Falmer; Evetts, J. (1991) The experience of sec-
at school and the health of secondary school ondary headship selection: continuity and change.
students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, Educational Studies , 17 (3), 285–94; Sikes, P. and
95–104; Strand, S. (1999) Ethnic group, sex and Troyna, B. (1991) True stories: a case study in the
economic disadvantage: associations with pupils’ use of life histories in teacher education. Educa-
educational progress from Baseline to the end of tional Review , 43 (1), 3–16; Winkley, D. (1995)
Key Stage 1. British Educational Research Journal, 25 Diplomats and Detectives: LEA Advisers and Work .
London: Robert Royce. Examples of different kinds of survey studies are as follows: Francis’s (1992) ‘true cohort’ study of
9 SURVEYS, LONGITUDINAL, patterns of reading development, following a group CROSS-SECTIONAL AND TREND STUDIES
of 54 young children for two years at six-monthly intervals; Blatchford’s (1992) cohort, cross-sectional
1 There are several examples of surveys, including study of 133–175 children (two samples) and their the following: Millan, R., Gallagher, M. and Ellis, R.
attitudes to work at 11 years of age; a large- (1993) Surveying adolescent worries: development
scale, cross-sectional study by Munn et al. (1990) of the ‘Things I Worry About’ scale. Pastoral
into pupils’ perceptions of effective disciplinarians, Care in Education , 11 (1), 43–57; Boulton, M. J.
with a sample size of 543; a trend/prediction study (1997) Teachers’ views on bullying: definitions,
of school building requirements by a government attitudes and abilities to cope. British Journal of
department (Department of Education and Science Educational Psychology , 67, 223–33; Cline, T. and
1977), identifying building and improvement needs Ertubney, C. (1997) The impact of gender on
based on estimated pupil populations from births primary teachers’ evaluations of children’s difficulties
during the decade 1976–86; a survey study by Belson in school. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
(1975) of 1,425 teenage boys’ theft behaviour; a 67, 447–56; Dosanjh, J. S. and Ghuman, P. A. S.
survey by Hannan and Newby (1992) of 787 student (1997) Asian parents and English education – 20
teachers (with a 46 per cent response rate) and years on: a study of two generations. Educational
their views on government proposals to increase the Studies , 23 (3), 459–72; Foskett, N. H. and
amount of time spent in schools during the training Hesketh, A. J. (1997) Constructing choice in
period.
continuous and parallel markets: institutional 2 Examples of longitudinal and cross-sectional stud- and school leavers’ responses to the new post-
ies include the following: Davies, J. and Brember, I 16 marketplace. Oxford Review of Education,
(1997) Monitoring reading standards in year 6: 23 (3), 299–319; Gallagher, T., McEwen, A. and
a 7-year cross-sectional study. British Educational Knip, D. (1997) Science education policy: a
Research Journal , 23 (5), 615–22; Preisler, G. M. survey of the participation of sixth-form pupils
and Ahstr¨om, M. (1997) Sign language for hard in science and the subjects over a 10-year
of hearing children – a hindrance or a benefit for period, 1985–95. Research Papers in Education,
their development? European Journal of Psychol- 12 (2), 121–42; Jules, V. and Kutnick, P. (1997)
ogy of Education , 12 (4), 465–77; Busato, V. V., Student perceptions of a good teacher: the gender
Prins, F. J., Elshant, J. J. and Hamaker, C. (1998) perspective. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
Learning styles: a cross-sectional and longitudi- 67, 497–511; Borg, M. G. (1998) Secondary
nal study in higher education. British Journal of school teachers’ perceptions of pupils’ undesirable
Educational Psychology , 68, 427–41; Davenport, E. behaviours. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
C. Jr, Davison, M. L., Kuang, H., Ding, S., Kin, 68, 67–79; Papasolomoutos, C. and Christie, T.
S-K. and Kwak, N. (1998) High school math- (1998) Using national surveys: a review of
ematics course-taking by gender and ethnic- secondary analyses with special reference to schools.
ity. American Educational Research Journal, 35 Educational Research , 40 (3), 295–310; Tatar, M.
(3), 497–514; Davies, J. and Brember, I. (1998) (1998) Teachers as significant others: gender
Standards in reading at key stage 1 – a cross- differences in secondary school pupils’ perceptions.
sectional study. Educational Research, 40 (2), 153–60; British Journal of Educational Psychology , 68,
Marsh, H. W. and Yeung, A. S. (1998) Lon- 255–68; Terry, A. A. (1998) Teachers as targets
gitudinal structural equation models of academic
596 NOTES
self-concept and achievement: gender differences 2 Examples of experimental research can be seen in the in the development of math and English con-
following: Dugard, P. and Todman, J. (1995) Anal- structs. American Educational Research Journal, 35 (4),
ysis of pre-test and post-test control group designs in 705–38; Noack, P. (1998) School achievement and
educational research. Educational Psychology, 15 (2), adolescents’ interactions with the fathers, mothers,
181–98; Bryant, P., Devine, M., Ledward, A. and and friends. European Journal of Psychology of Ed-
Nunes, T. (1997) Spelling with apostrophes and ucation , 13 (4), 503–13; Galton, M., Hargreaves, L,
understanding possession. British Journal of Educa- Comber, C., Wall, D. and Pell, T. (1999) Changes
tional Psychology , 67, 91–110; Hall, E., Hall, C. and in patterns in teacher interaction in primary class-
Abaci, R. (1997) The effects of human relations rooms, 1976–1996. British Educational Research Jour-
training on reported teacher stress, pupil control nal , 25 (1), 23–37.
ideology and locus of control. British Journal of Educa- 3 For further information on event-history analysis
tional Psychology , 67, 483–96; Marcinkiewicz, H. R. and hazard rates we refer readers to Allison (1984);
and Clariana, R. B. (1997) The performance effects Plewis (1985); Hakim (1987); Von Eye (1990); Rose
of headings within multi-choice tests. British Jour- and Sullivan (1993).
nal of Educational Psychology , 67, 111–17; Tones, K. (1997) Beyond the randomized controlled trial:
11 CASE STUDIES a case for ‘judicial review’. Health Education Re-
search , 12 (2), i–iv; Alfassi, M. (1998) Reading 1 For further examples of case studies see Woods, P.
for meaning: the efficacy of reciprocal teach- (1993) Managing marginality: teacher development
ing in fostering reading comprehension in high through grounded life history. British Educational
school students in remedial reading classes. Research Journal , 19 (5), 447–88; Bates, I. and
American Educational Research Journal , 35 (2), Dutson, J. (1995) A Bermuda triangle? A case
309–22; Bijstra, J. O. and Jackson, S. (1998) So- study of the disappearance of competence-based
cial skills training with early adolescents: effects vocational training policy in the context of practice.
on social skills, well-being, self-esteem and cop- British Journal of Education and Work , 8 (2),
ing. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 13 41–59; Jacklin, A. and Lacey, C. (1997) Gender
(4), 569–83; Cline, T., Proto, A., Raval, P. D. and integration in the infant classroom: a case study.
Paolo, T. (1998) The effects of brief exposure British Educational Research Journal , 23 (5), 623–40.
and of classroom teaching on attitudes children express towards facial disfigurement in peers. Ed- ucational Research , 40 (1), 55–68; Didierjean, A.
12 EX POST FACTO RESEARCH and Cauzinille-Marm`eche, E. (1998) Reasoning by analogy: is it schema-mediated or case-based? Euro-
1 In Chapters 12 and 13 we adopt the symbols pean Journal of Psychology of Education , 13 (3), and conventions used in Campbell, D. T. and
385–98; Overett, S. and Donald, D. (1998) Paired Stanley, J. C. (1963) Experimental and Quasi-
reading: effects of a parental involvement pro- Experimental Designs for Research on Teaching . Boston,
gramme in a disadvantaged community in South MA: Houghton Mifflin. These are presented fully in
Africa. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Chapter 13.
68, 347–56; Sainsbury, M., Whetton, C., Mason, K. 2 For further information on logical fallacies, see
and Schagen, I. (1998) Fallback in attainment on Cohen, M. R. and Nagel, E. (1961) An Introduction
transfer at age 11: evidence from the summer lit- to Logic and Scientific Method . London: Routledge
eracy schools evaluation. Educational Research, 40 & Kegan Paul. The example of the post hoc, ergo
(1), 73–81; Littleton, K., Ashman, H., Light, P., propter hoc fallacy given by the authors concerns
Artis, J., Roberts, T. and Oosterwegel, A. (1999) sleeplessness, which may follow drinking coffee,
Gender, task contexts, and children’s performance but sleeplessness may not occur because coffee was
on a computer-based task. European Journal of Psy- drunk.
chology of Education , 14 (1), 129–39. 3 For a detailed discussion of the practical issues
13 EXPERIMENTS, QUASI-EXPERIMENTS, SINGLE- in educational experimentation, see Riecken and CASE RESEARCH AND META-ANALYSIS
Boruch (1974); Bennett and Lumsdaine (1975); Evans (1978: Chapter 4).
1 Questions have been raised about the authenticity of 4 An example of meta-analysis in educational research both definitions and explanations of the Hawthorne
can be seen in Severiens, S. and ten Dam, G. (1998) effect. See Diaper, G. (1990) The Hawthorne effect:
A multilevel meta-analysis of gender differences in a fresh examination. Educational Studies, 16 (3),
learning orientations. British Journal of Educational 261–7.
Psychology , 68, 595–618. The use of meta-analysis
NOTES 597
Notes
is widespread, indeed the Cochrane Collaboration into pupils’ perceptions of the behaviour of
is a pioneer in this field, focusing on meta-analyses white teachers towards minority pupils in school. of randomized controlled trials (see Maynard and
See Naylor, P. (1995) Adolescents’ perceptions of Chalmers 1997).
teacher racism. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Loughborough University of Technology.
15 QUESTIONNAIRES 1 This is the approach used in Belbin’s (1981)
18 OBSERVATION
celebrated work on the types of personalities in 1 For an example of time-sampling, see Childs, G. a management team.
(1997) A concurrent validity study of teachers’ ratings for nominated ‘problem’ children. British
16 INTERVIEWS Journal of Educational Psychology , 67, 457–74. 1 Examples of interviews in educational research in-
2 For an example of critical incidents, see Tripp, D. clude the following: Ferris, J. and Gerber, R. (1996)
(1994) Teachers’ lives, critical incidents and pro- Mature-age students’ feelings of enjoying learning
fessional practice. International Journal of Qualitative in a further education context. European Journal of
Studies in Education , 7 (1), 65–72. Psychology of Education , 11 (1), 79–96; Carroll, S.
3 For an example of an observational study, and Walford, G. (1997) Parents’ responses to the
see Sideris, G. (1998) Direct classroom observation. school quasi-market. Research Papers in Education, 12
Research in Education , 59, 19–28. (1), 3–26; Cullen, K. (1997) Headteacher appraisal:
a view from the inside. Research Papers in Educa-
20 PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
tion , 12 (2), 177–204; Cicognani, C. (1998) Par- ents’ educational styles and adolescent autonomy.
1 See also the following applications of personal con- European Journal of Psychology of Education , 13 (4),
struct theory to research on teachers and teacher 485–502; Van Etten, S., Pressley, M., Freebern, G.
groups: Shapiro, B. L. (1990) A collaborative ap- and Echevarria, M. (1998) An interview study of col-
proach to help novice science teachers reflect on lege freshmen’s beliefs about their academic motiva-
changes in their construction of the role of the tion. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 13
science teacher. Alberta Journal of Educational Re- (1), 105–30; Robinson, P. and Smithers, A. (1999)
search , 36 (3), 203–22; Cole, A. L. (1991) Personal Should the sexes be separated for secondary educa-
theories of teaching: development in the forma- tion – comparisons of single-sex and co-educational
tive years. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, schools? Research Papers in Education, 14 (1), 23–49.
37 (2), 119–32; Corporal, A. H. (1991) Repertory grid research into cognitions of prospective pri-
17 ACCOUNTS mary school teachers. Teaching and Teacher Edu- cation , 36, 315–29; Lehrer, R. and Franke, M. L.
1 For an example of concept mapping in educational (1992) Applying personal construct psychology to research see Lawless, L., Smee, P. and O’Shea, T.
the study of teachers’ knowledge of fractions. Jour- (1998) Using concept sorting and concept
nal for Research in Mathematical Education , 23 (3), mapping in business and public administration, and
223–41; Shaw, E. L. (1992) The influence of meth- education: an overview. Educational Research, 40 (2),
ods instruction on the beliefs of preservice elemen- 219–35.
tary and secondary science teachers: preliminary 2 For further examples of discourse analysis,
comparative analyses. School Science and Mathemat- see Ramsden, C. and Reason, D. (1997) Conver-
ics , 92, 14–22.
sation – discourse analysis in library and informa- 2 For an example of personal constructs in educational tion services. Education for Information, 15 (4),
research, see Morris, P. (1983) Teachers’ percep- 283–95; Butzkamm, W. (1998) Code-switching in
tions of their pupils: a Hong Kong case study. a bilingual history lesson: the mother tongue as
Research in Education , 29, 81–6; Derry, S. J. and a conversational lubricant. Bilingual Education and
Potts, M. K. (1998) How tutors model students: Bilingualism , 1 (2), 81–99; Mercer, N., Wegerif, R.
a study of personal constructs in adaptive tutor- and Dawes, L. (1999) Children’s talk and the de-
ing. American Educational Research Journal, 35 (1), velopment of reasoning in the classroom. British
Educational Research Journal , 25 (1), 95–111. 3 Cohen, L. (1993) Racism Awareness Materials in
21 ROLE-PLAYING
Initial Teacher Training . Report to the Leverhulme Trust, 11–19 New Fetter Lane, London, EC4A
1 For an account of a wide range of role- 1NR. The video scenarios are part of an inquiry
play applications in psychotherapy, see Holmes, P.
598 NOTES
and Karp, M. (1991) Psychodrama: Inspiration and analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, Technique . London: Routledge.
323–38. For examples of research using correlation coefficients, see Lamb, S., Bibby, P., Wood, D. and
24 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS Leyden, G. (1997) Communication skills, educa- tional achievement and biographic characteristics
1 Bynner and Stribley (1979: 242) present a useful of children with moderate learning difficul- table of alphas, which lists values of r ii from
ties. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 0.05 to 0.80 and the values of item numbers
12 (4), 401–14; Goossens, L., Marcoen, A., van from 2 to 50. The values of alpha can then be
Hees, S. and van de Woestlijne, O. (1998) interpolated. See Bynner, J. and Stribley, K. M. (eds.)
Attachment style and loneliness in adolescence. (1979) Social Research: Principles and Procedures.
European Journal of Psychology of Education , 13 London: Longman and the Open University Press,
(4), 529–42; Okagaki, L. and Frensch, P. A. (1998) Table 19.1.
Parenting and school achievement: a multiethnic 2 Muijs (2004) indicates that, in SPSS, one can
perspective. American Educational Research Journal, find multicollinearity by looking at ‘collinearity
diagnostics’ in the ‘Statistics’ command box, and 4 Examples of multilevel modelling in educational re- in the collinearity statistics one should look at the
search can be seen in the following: Fitz-Gibbon, C. ‘Tolerance’ column on the output. He indicates that
T. (1991) Multilevel modelling in an indicator sys- values will vary from 0 to 1, and the higher the value
tem. In S. W. Raudenbush and J. D. Willms (eds) the less is the collinearity, whereas a value close to 0
Schools, Classrooms and Pupils: International Studies indicates that nearly all the variance in the variable
of Schooling from a Multilevel Perspective . San Diego, is explained by the other variables in the model.
CA: Academic Press; Bell, J. F. (1996) Question choice in English literature examination. Oxford
25 MULTIDIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENT AND Review of Education , 23 (4), 447–58; Hill, P. W. and FACTOR ANALYSIS
Rowe, K. J. (1996) Multilevel modelling in school effectiveness research. School Effectiveness and School
1 Robson, (1993) suggests that as few as 100 can be Improvement , 7 (1), 1–34; Schagen, I. and Sains- used.
bury, M. (1996) Multilevel analysis of the key stage 2 Self-serving bias refers to our propensity to accept
1 national curriculum data in 1995. Oxford Review responsibility for our successes, but to deny
of Education , 22 (3), 265–72; Croxford, L. (1997) responsibility for our failures.
Participation in science subjects: the effect of the 3 For examples of research conducted using fac-
Scottish curriculum framework. Research Papers in tor analysis, see McEneaney, J. E. and Sheridan, E.
Education , 12 (1), 69–89; Thomas, S., Sammons, M. (1996) A survey-based component for pro-
P., Mortimore, P. and Smees, R. (1997) Differen- gramme assessment in undergraduate pre-service
tial secondary school effectiveness: comparing the teacher education. Research in Education, 55,
performance of different pupil groups. British Educa- 49–61; Prosser, M. and Trigwell, K. (1997) Rela-
tional Research Journal , 23 (4), 351–69; Kivulu, J. M. tions between perceptions of the teaching environ-
and Rogers, W. T. (1998) A multilevel analysis ment and approaches to teaching. British Journal
of cultural experience and gender influences on of Educational Psychology , 67, 25–35; Vermunt, J.
causal attributions to perceived performance in D. (1998) The regulation of constructive learning
mathematics. British Journal of Educational Psy- processes. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
chology , 68, 25–37; McNiece, R. and Jolliffe, F. 68, 149–71; Andrews, P. and Hatch, G. (1999) A
(1998) An investigation into regional differ- new look at secondary teachers’ conception of
ences in educational performance in the Na- mathematics and its teaching. British Educational
tional Child Development Study. Educational Re- Research Journal , 25 (2), 203–23; Valadines, N.
search , 40 (1), 13–30; Mooij, T. (1998) Pupil-class (1999) Formal reasoning performance of higher
determinants of aggressive and victim behaviour secondary school students: theoretical and educa-
in pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, tional implications. European Journal of Psychology
68, 373–85; Musch, J. and Br¨oder, A. (1999) Test of Education , 14 (1), 109–17. For an example
anxiety versus academic skills: a comparison of two of research using cluster analysis see Seifert, T.
alternative models for predicting performance in a L. (1997) Academic goals and emotions: results
statistics exam. British Journal of Educational Psy- of a structural equation model and a cluster
chology , 69, 105–16.
Bibliography
Acker, S. (1989) Teachers, Gender and Careers. Lewes: Alexander, P. C. and Neimeyer, G. J. (1989) Falmer.
Constructivism and family therapy. International Acker, S. (1990) Teachers’ culture in an English primary
Journal of Personal Construct Psychology , 2 (2), school: continuity and change. British Journal of
Sociology of Education , 11 (3), 257–73. Alfassi, M. (1998) Reading for meaning: the Acton, H. B. (1975) Positivism. In J. O. Urmson
efficacy of reciprocal teaching in fostering reading (ed.) The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.
comprehension in high school students in remedial London: Hutchinson, 253–6.
reading classes. American Educational Research Journal, Adams-Webber, J. R. (1970) Elicited versus provided
constructs in repertory grid technique: a review. British Alkin, M. C., Daillak, R. and White, P. (1991) Journal of Medical Psychology , 43, 349–54.
Does evaluation make a difference? In D. S. Adelman, C., Kemmis, S. and Jenkins, D. (1980)
Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Rethinking case study: notes from the Second
Improving Education through Research . London: Falmer, Cambridge Conference. In H. Simons (ed.) Towards
a Science of the Singular. Norwich: Centre for Applied Allison, P. (1984) Event history analysis: regression Research in Education, University of East Anglia,
for longitudinal event data. Sage University Papers: 45–61.
Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences , no. 46. Adeyemi, M. B. (1992) The effects of a social
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
studies course on the philosophical orientations of Altricher, H. and Gstettner, P. (1993) Action research: history and geography graduate students in Botswana.
a closed chapter in the history of German social Educational Studies , 18 (2), 235–44.
science? Educational Action Research, 1 (3), 329–60. Adler, P. A. and Adler, P. (1994) Observational
Am, O. (1994) Back to Basics: Introduction to ˚ techniques. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln
Systems Theory and Complexity . http://www.stud. (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage,
his.no/∼onar/Ess/Back-to-Basics.html. Retrieved 10 377–92.
June 2000.
Agar, M. (1993) Speaking of ethnography. Cited in American Educational Research Association (2000) D. Silverman, Interpreting Qualitative Data. London:
Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Sage.
http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/ Aiken, L. R. (2003) Psychological Testing and Assessment
Association .
About AERA/Ethical Standards/EthicalStandards. (eleventh edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
pdf. Retrieved 15 May 2005. Airasian, P. W. (2001) Classroom Assessment: Concepts
American Psychological Association (1973) Ethical and Applications (fourth edition). New York:
Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human McGraw-Hill.
Subjects . Ad Hoc Committee on Ethical Standards in Aitkin, M., Bennett, N. and Hesketh, J. (1981)
Psychological Research. Washington, DC: American Teaching styles and pupil progress: a re-analysis.
Psychological Association. British Journal Educational Psychology , 51 (2), 170–86.
American Psychological Association (1994) Publication Alban-Metcalf, R. J. (1997) Repertory Grid Technique.
Manual of the American Psychological Association In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology
(fourth edition). Washington, DC: B. Thompson. and Measurement: An International Handbook (second
American Psychological Association (1999) Stan- edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 315–18.
dards for Educational and Psychological Testing
600 BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.apa.org/science/standards/html. M. Brenner, P. Marsh and M. Brenner (eds) The Social Retrieved 15 may 2005.
Contexts of Method . London: Croom Helm, 237–55. American Psychological Association (2001) Publication
C. (1990) Overcoming Organizational Manual of the American Psychological Association (fifth
Argyris,
Defenses – Facilitating Organizational Learning . Boston, edition). Washington, DC: American Psychological
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Association. Arksey, H. and Knight, P. (1999) Interviewing for Social American Psychological Association (2002) Ethi-
Scientists . London: Sage.
cal Principles and Code of Conduct http://www. Arnold, P. and Atkins, J. (1991) The social and apa.org/ethics/code2002.html. Retrieved 15 May
emotional adjustment of hearing-impaired children 2005.
integrated in primary schools. Educational Researcher, American Sociological Association (1999) Code
33 (3), 223-8.
of Ethics and Policies and Procedures of the Aronowitz, S. and Giroux, H. (1986) Education Under ASA Committee on Professional Ethics . http://www.
Siege . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. asanet.org/members/ecoderev.html. Retrieved 15 Aronson, E. and Carlsmith, J. M. (1969) Experi- May 2005.
mentation in social psychology. In G. Lindzey and Anderson, D. S. and Biddle, B. J. (eds) (1991) Knowledge
E. Aronson (eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology, for Policy: Improving Education through Research .
Volume 2 . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1–79. London: Falmer.
Aronson, E., Ellsworth, P. C., Carlsmith, J. M. and Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. (1998) Fundamentals
Gonzalez, M. H. (1990) Methods of Research in Social of Educational Research (second edition). London:
Psychology . New York: McGraw-Hill. RoutledgeFalmer.
Arsenault, N. and Anderson, G. (1998) Qualitative Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. (2001) Fundamentals
research. In G. Anderson and N. Arsenault, of Educational Research . London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Fundamentals of Educational Research (second edition). Andrews, P. and Hatch, G. (1999) A new look at
London: RoutledgeFalmer, 119–35. secondary teachers’ conception of mathematics and
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C. and Razavieh, A. (1972) its teaching. British Educational Research Journal, 25
Introduction to Research in Education . New York: Holt, (2), 203–23.
Rinehart & Winston.
Anfara, V. A., Brown, K. M. and Mangione, T. Ashmore, M. (1989) The Reflexive Thesis. Chicago, IL: L. (2002) Qualitative analysis on stage: making
University of Chicago Press. the research process more public. Educational
Atkinson, R. (1998) The Life Interview. London: Sage. Researcher 31 (7), 28–38. http://35.8.171.42/
Axline, V. (1964) Dibs: In Search of Self. New aera/pubs/er/pdf/vol31 07/AERA310706.pdf.
York: Ballantine.
Retrieved 29 October 2005. Bailey, K. D. (1978) Methods of Social Research. Angoff, W. H. (1971) Scales, norms, and equivalent
Basingstoke: Collier-Macmillan. scores. In R. L. Thorndike (ed.) Educational
Bailey, K. D. (1994) Methods of Social Research (fourth Measurement (second edition). Washington, DC:
edition). New York: The Free Press. American Council on Education, 508–600.
Baker, T. L. (1994) Doing Social Research (second Antonsen, E. A. (1988) Treatment of a boy of twelve:
edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. help with handwriting, play therapy and discussion of
Ball, S. J. (1981) Beachside Comprehensive. Cambridge: problems. Journal of Education Therapy, 2 (1), 2–32.
Cambridge University Press. Apple, M. (1990) Ideology and Curriculum (second
Ball, S. J. (1990) Politics and Policy-Making in Education. edition). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
London: Routledge.
Applebee, A. N. (1976) The development of children’s Ball, S. J. (1994a) Education Reform: A Critical and Post- responses to repertory grids. British Journal of Social
Structuralist Approach . Buckingham: Open University and Clinical Psychology , 15, 101–2.
Press.
Arditti, J. A. (2002) Doing family research at the Ball, S. J. (1994b) Political interviews and the politics jail: reflections of a prison widow. The Qualitative
of interviewing. In G. Walford (ed.) Researching Report , 7 (4). http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR7-
the Powerful in Education . London: UCL Press, 4/arditti.html. Retrieved 21 November 2003.
Argyle, M. (1978) Discussion chapter: an appraisal of Bannister, D. (ed.) (1970) Perspectives in Personal the new approach to the study of social behaviour. In
Construct Theory . London: Academic Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 601
Bibliography
Bannister, D. and Mair, J. M. M. (1968) The Evaluation Bell, J. F. (1996) Question choice in English literature
of Personal Constructs . London: Academic Press. examination. Oxford Review of Education, 23 (4), Banuazizi, A. and Movahedi, A. (1975) Interpersonal
dynamics in a simulated prison: a methodological Belson, W. A. (1975) Juvenile Theft: Causal Factors. analysis. American Psychologist, 30, 152–60.
London: Harper & Row.
Bargh, J. A., McKenna, K. Y. A. and Fitzsimons, G. Belson, W. A. (1986) Validity in Survey Research. M. (2002) Can you see the real me? Activation and
Aldershot: Gower.
expression of the ‘true self’ on the Internet. Journal of Bennett, C. A. and Lumsdaine, A. A. (1975) Evaluation Social Issues , 58, 33–48.
and Experimentation. New York: Academic Press. Barker, C. D. and Johnson, G. (1998) Interview talk as
Bennett, S. and Bowers, D. (1977) An Introduction professional practice. Language and Education, 12 (4),
to Multivariate Techniques for Social and Behavioural 229–42.
Sciences . London: Macmillan.
Barr Greenfield, T. (1975) Theory about organisations: a Bennett, S. N. (1976) Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress. new perspective and its implications for schools. In M.
Shepton Mallett, UK: Open Books. G. Hughes (ed.) Administering Education: International
Bennett, S. N., Desforges, C. and Wilkinson, E. (1984) Challenge. London: Athlone, 71–99.
The Quality of Pupil Learning Experience . London: Barratt, P. E. H. (1971) Bases of Psychological Methods.
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sydney, NSW: John Wiley. Berger, P. L. and Luckmann, T. (1967) The Social Bates, I. and Dutson, J. (1995) A Bermuda triangle?
Construction of Reality . Harmondsworth: Penguin. A case study of the disappearance of competence-
Bernstein, B. (1970) Education cannot compensate for based vocational training policy in the context of
society. New Society, February (387), 344–57. practice. British Journal of Education and Work, 8 (2),
41–59. Bernstein, B. (1971) On the classification and framing of educational knowledge. In M. F. D. Young
Batteson, C. and Ball, S. J. (1995) Autobiographies and interviews as means of ‘access’ to elite policy making
(ed.) Knowledge and Control. Basingstoke: Collier- in education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 43
Macmillan, 47–69.
(2), 201–16. Bernstein, B. (1974) Sociology and the sociology of Bauman, R. (1986) Story, Performance and Event.
education: a brief account. In J. Rex (ed.) Approaches Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. to Sociology: An Introduction to Major Trends in British Baumrind, D. (1964) Some thoughts on ethics of Sociology . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 145–59.
research. American Psychologist, 19, 421–3. Bernstein, B. (1975) Class and pedagogies: visible and Beck, R. N. (1979) Handbook in Social Philosophy. New
invisible. In B. Bernstein, Class, Codes and Control, York: Macmillan.
Volume 3 . London: Routledge.
Becker, H. (1968) Whose side are you on? Social Bernstein, R. J. (1983) Beyond Objectivism and Relativism. Problems , 14, 239–47.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Becker, H. (1970) Sociological Work . Chicago, Best, J. W. (1970) Research in Education. Englewood IL: Aldane.
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Becker, H. S. and Geer, B. (1960) Participant Beynon, H. (1988) Regulating research: politics observation: the analysis of qualitative field data.
and decision-making in industrial organizations. In In R. Adams and J. Preiss (eds) Human Organization
A. Bryman (ed.) Doing Research in Organizations. Research: Field Relations and Techniques . Homewood,
London: Routledge.
IL: Dorsey. Bhadwal, S. C. and Panda, P. K. (1991) The effects of Beer, M., Eisenstadt, R. A. and Spector, B. (1990)
a package of some curricular strategies on the study Why change programs don’t produce change. Harvard
habits of rural primary school students: a year long Business Review , Nov./Dec. (68), 158–66.
study. Educational Studies, 17 (3), 261–72. Belbin, R.M. (1981) Management Teams: Why They
Biddle, B. J. and Anderson, D. S. (1991) Social research Succeed or Fail . London: Heinemann.
and educational change. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Bell, J. (1991) Doing your Research Project (second
Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education edition). Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
through Research . London: Falmer, 1–20. Bell, J. (1999) Doing your Research Project (third edition).
Bijstra, J. O. and Jackson, S. (1998) Social skills Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
training with early adolescents: effects on social skills,
602 BIBLIOGRAPHY
well-being, self-esteem and coping. European Journal Borg, M. G. (1998) Secondary school teachers’ of Psychology of Education , 13 (4), 569–83.
perceptions of pupils’ undesirable behaviours. British Bimrose, J. and Bayne, R. (1995) A multicultural
Journal of Educational Psychology , 68, 67–79. framework in counsellor training: a preliminary
Borg, W. R. (1963) Educational Research: An evaluation. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling,
Introduction . London: Longman. 23 (2), 259–65.
Borg, W. R. (1981) Applying Educational Research: A Binet, A. (1905) M´ethode nouvelle pour le diagnostic
Practical Guide for Teachers . New York: Longman. de l’intelligence des anormaux. Cited in G. de
Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1979) Educational Landsheere (1997) History of educational research. In
Research: An Introduction (third edition). London: J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology,
Longman.
and Measurement: An International Handbook (second Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1996) Educational Research: edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 8–16.
An Introduction (sixth edition). New York: Longman. Black, P. (1998) Testing: Friend or Foe?. London: Falmer.
Borkowsky, F. T. (1970) The relationship of Black, T. R. (1999) Doing Quantitative in the Social
work quality in undergraduate music curricula to Sciences . London: Sage.
effectiveness in instrumental music teaching in the Blalock, H. Jnr. (1979) Social Statistics (second edition).
public schools. Journal of Experimental Education, 39, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Blalock, H. M. (1991) Dilemmas of social research. In Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. D. and van Heerden, J. D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for
(2004) The concept of validity. Psychological Review, Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
Falmer, 60–9. Boruch, R. F. (1997) Randomized Experiments for Blatchford, P. (1992) Children’s attitudes to work at
Planning and Evaluation . Applied Social Research 11 years. Educational Studies, 18 (1), 107–18.
Methods series, vol. 44. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Blease, D. and Cohen, L. (1990) Coping with Computers:
Boruch, R. F. and Cecil, J. S. (1979) Assuring the An Ethnographic Study in Primary Classrooms . London:
Confidentiality of Social Research Data . Philadelphia, Paul Chapman.
PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Bliss, J., Monk, M. and Ogborn, J. (1983) Qualitative
Boulton, M. J. (1992) Participation in playground Data Analysis for Educational Research . London:
activities at middle school. Education Research, 34 Croom Helm.
(3), 167–82. Boulton, M. J. (1997) Teachers’ views on bullying:
Bloom, B. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational definitions, attitudes and abilities to cope. British Objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain . Lon- Journal of Educational Psychology , 67, 223–33. don: Longman. Bowe, R., Ball, S. J. and Gold, A. (1992) Reforming Bloor, M. (1978) On the analysis of observational data: Education and Changing Schools . London: Routledge. a discussion of the worth and uses of induction Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in Capitalist techniques and respondent validation. Sociology, 12 America . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (3), 545–52.
Bracht, G. H. and Glass, G. V. (1968) The external Blumenfeld-Jones, D. (1995) Fidelity as a criterion
validity of experiments. American Educational Research for practising and evaluating narrative inquiry.
Journal , 4 (5), 437–74.
International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , Bradburn, N. M. and Berlew, D. E. (1961) Economic 8 (1), 25–33.
Development and Cultural Change . Chicago, IL: Blumer, H. (1969) Symbolic Interactionism. Englewood
University of Chicago Press. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bradburn, N. M. and Sudman, S. (1979) Improving Boas, F. (1943) Recent anthropology. Science, 98,
Interview Method and Questionnaire Design . San 311–14.
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bogdan, R. G. and Biklen, S. K. (1992) Qualitative
Breakwell, G. M. (1990) Interviewing. London: Research for Education (second edition). Boston, MA:
Routledge and British Psychological Society. Allyn & Bacon.
Breakwell, G. M. (2000) Interviewing. In G. M. Bolton, G. M. and Heathcote, D. (1999) So You Want
Breakwell, S. Hammond and C. Fife-Shaw (eds) to Use Role-Play? A New Approach in How to Plan .
(2000) Research Methods in Psychology (second Stoke on Trent, UK: Trentham Books.
edition). London: Sage 239–50.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 603
Bibliography
Brenner, M., Brown, J. and Canter, D. (1985) The Burke, M., Noller, P. and Caird, D. (1992) Transition
Research Interview . London: Academic Press. from probationer to educator: a repertory grid analysis. Brenner, M. and Marsh, P. (eds) (1978) The Social
International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology , Contexts of Method . London: Croom Helm.
British Educational Research Association (2000) Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979) Sociological Paradigms Ethical Guidelines . http://www.bera.ac.uk. Retrieved
and Organizational Analysis. London: Heinemann 14 June 2000.
Educational.
British Psychological Society (2005) Code of Busato, V. V., Prins, F. J., Elshant, J. J. and Hamaker, Conduct,
C. (1998) Learning styles: a cross-sectional and http://www.bps.org.uk/document-download-
Ethical Principles
and
Guidelines .
longitudinal study in higher education. British Journal area/document-download$.cfm?file uuid=
of Educational Psychology , 68, 427–41. 6D0645CC-7E96-C67F-D75E2648E5580115
Butt, T. (1995) What’s wrong with laddering? Changes, &ext=pdf. Retrieved 15 May 2005.
British Sociological Association (2002) Statement of Butzkamm, W. (1998) Code-switching in a bilingual Ethical Practice for the British Sociological Asso-
history lesson: the mother tongue as a conversational ciation . http://www.britsoc.co.uk/new site/user doc/
lubricant. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1 (2), Statement%20of%20Ethical%20Practice.doc. Re-
trieved 15 May 2005. Bynner, J. and Stribley, K. M (eds) (1979) Social Broad, W. and Wade N. (1983) Betrayers of Truth: Fraud
Research: Principles and Procedures . London: Longman and Deceit in the Halls of Science . New York: Century.
and the Open University Press.
Brock-Utne, B. (1996) Reliability and validity in Calder, J. (1979) Introduction to applied sampling. qualitative research within education in Africa.
Research Methods in Education and the Social Sciences . International Review of Education , 42 (6), 605–21.
Block 3, part 4, DE304, Milton Keynes: Open Brown, J. and Sime, J. D. (1977) Accounts as
University Press.
general methodology. Paper presented to the British Callawaert, S. (1999) Philosophy of Education, Psychological Society Conference, University of
Frankfurt critical theory, and the sociology of Pierre Exeter.
Bourdieu. In T. Popkewitz and L. Fendler (eds) Critical Brown, J. and Sime, J. D. (1981) A methodology of
Theories in Education: Changing Terrains of Knowledge accounts. In M. Brenner (ed.) Social Method and and Politics . London: Routledge, 117–44.
Social Life . London: Academic Press. Campbell, D. T. and Fiske, D. W. (1959) Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-
Brown, R. and Herrnstein, R.J. (1975) Psychology. London: Methuen.
multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, Bruner, J. (1986) Actual Minds, Possible Worlds.
81–105. Campbell, D. T. and Stanley, J. (1963) Experimental and
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Quasi-experimental Designs for Research on Teaching . Bryant, P., Devine, M., Ledward, A., and Nunes, T.
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. (1997) Spelling with apostrophes and understanding
Campbell, D., Sanderson, R. E. and Laverty, possession. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
S. G. (1964) Characteristics of a conditioned 67, 91–110. response in human subjects during extinction trials Bryman, A. and Cramer, D. (1990) Quantitative Data
following a single traumatic conditioning trial. Analysis for Social Scientists . London: Routledge.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 68, Buhler, C. and Allen, M. (1972) Introduction to
Humanistic Psychology . Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cannell, C. F. and Kahn, R. L. (1968) Interviewing. In Bulmer, M. (ed.) (1982) Social Research Ethics.
G. Lindzey and A. Aronson (eds) The Handbook of London: Macmillan.
Social Psychology, vol. 2: Research Methods . New York: Burgess, R. G. (ed.) (1989) The Ethics of Educational
Addison-Wesley, 526–95.
Research . Lewes: Falmer. Caplan, N. (1991) The use of social research knowledge Burgess, R. G. (1993) Biting the hand that feeds you?
at the national level. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Educational research for policy and practice. In R. G.
Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education Burgess (ed.) Educational Research and Evaluation for
through Research . London: Falmer, 193–202. Policy and Practice . Lewes: Falmer, 1–18.
Capra, F. (1996) The Web of Life. New York: Anchor.
604 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Capraro, R. M. and Capraro, M. (2002) Treatments Chomsky, N. (1959) Review of Skinner’s Verbal of effect sizes and statistical significance tests in
Behaviour. Language , 35 (1), 26–58. textbooks. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
Cicognani, C. (1998) Parents’ educational styles and 62 (5), 771–82.
adolescent autonomy. European Journal of Psychology Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical.
of Education , 13 (4), 485–502. Lewes: Falmer.
Cicourel, A. V. (1964) Method and Measurement in Carroll, S. and Walford, G. (1997) Parents’ responses to
Sociology . New York: The Free Press. the school quasi-market. Research Papers in Education,
Clarke, A. and Dawson, R. (1999) Evaluation Research. 12 (1), 3–26.
London: Sage.
Carspecken, P. F. (1996) Critical Ethnography in Cline, T. and Ertubney, C. (1997) The impact of Educational Research . London: Routledge.
gender on primary teachers’ evaluations of children’s Carspecken, P. F. and Apple, M. (1992) Critical
difficulties in school. British Journal of Educational qualitative research: theory, methodology, and
Psychology, 67, 447–56.
practice. In M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy and J. Cline, T., Proto, A., Raval, P. D. and Paolo T. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of Qualitative Research in
(1998) The effects of brief exposure and of classroom Education . London: Academic Press, 507–53.
teaching on attitudes children express towards facial Cartwright, D. (1991) Basic and applied social
disfigurement in peers. Educational Research, 40 (1), psychology. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle
(eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Cochrane, A. L. (1972) Effectiveness and Efficiency: Research . London: Falmer, 23–31.
Random Reflections on Health Services . London: Carver, R. P. (1978) The case against significance
Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust. testing. Harvard Educational Review, 48 (3), 378–99.
R. (2000) What is an effect size? Cassell, J. (1993) The relationship of observer to
Coe,
Durham: CEM Centre, University of Durham: observed when studying up. Cited in R. M. Lee,
www.cemcentre.org/ebeuk/research/effectsize/ Doing Research on Sensitive Topics . London: Sage.
ESbrief.htm. Retrieved 7 January 2005. Cattell, R. B. (1966) The Scree test for the number
Coe, R., Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. and Tymms, P. (2000) of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1 (2),
Promoting Evidence-Based Education: The Role of 245–76.
Practitioners . Roundtable paper presented at the Cavan, S. (1977) Review of J. D. Douglas’s (1976)
British Educational Research Association, University Investigative Social Research: Individual and Team
of Cardiff, 7–10 September. Field Research . American Journal of Sociology, 83 (3),
Coffey, A., Holbrook, B. and Atkinson, P. (1996) 809–11.
Qualitative data analysis: technologies and rep- Central Advisory Council for Education (1967) Children
resentations. Sociological Research Online. http:// and their Primary Schools . London: HMSO.
www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/1/1/4.html. Chalmers, A. F. (1982) What Is This Thing Called Science?
Retrieved 14 November 2000. (second edition). Milton Keynes: Open University
Cohen, D. K. and Garet, M. S. (1991) Reforming Press.
educational policy with applied social research. In Chambers, K. (2003) How often do you have sex:
D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for problem gambling as a sensitive issue. Paper presented
Policy: Improving Education through Research . London: at the Twelfth International Congress on Gambling
Falmer, 123–40.
and Risk Taking, Vancouver, BC. Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical Power Analysis for the Chelinsky, E. and Mulhauser, F. (1993) Educational
Behavioral Sciences . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. evaluations for the US Congress: some reflections on
Cohen, J. and Stewart, I. (1995) The Collapse of Chaos. recent experience. In R. G. Burgess (ed.) Educational
Harmondsworth: Penguin. Research and Evaluation for Policy and Practice . London:
Cohen, L. (1977) Educational Research in Classrooms and Falmer, 44–60.
Schools: A Manual of Materials and Methods . London: Child, D. (1970) The Essentials of Factor Analysis. New
Harper & Row.
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Cohen, L. (1993) Racism Awareness Materials in Childs, G. (1997) A concurrent validity study of
Initial Teacher Training . Report to the Leverhulme teachers’ ratings for nominated ‘problem’ children.
Trust, 11–19 New Fetter Lane, London, EC4A British Journal of Educational Psychology , 67, 457–74.
1NR.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 605
Bibliography
Cohen, L. and Holliday, M. (1979) Statistics for F. (1992) Meta-analysis for Explanation. New York:
Education and Physical Education . London: Harper &
Russell Sage Foundation.
Row. Cooke, R. A. and Lafferty, J. C. (1989) The Cohen, L. and Holliday, M. (1982) Statistics for Social
Organizational Culture Inventory . Plymouth, MI: Scientists . London: Harper & Row.
Human Synergistics International. Cohen, L. and Holliday, M. (1996) Practical Statistics for
Cooley, C. H. (1902) Human Nature and the Social Order. Students . London: Paul Chapman.
New York: Charles Scribner.
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Coomber, R. (1997) Using the Internet for sur- Education (fourth edition). London: Routledge.
vey research. Sociological Research Online, 2 (2). Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. R. B.
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/2/2/2. (2004) A Guide to Teaching Practice (fifth edition).
html. Retrieved 14 November 2000. London: Routledge.
Cooper, D. C. and Schindler, P. S. (2001) Business Cohen, M. R. and Nagel, E. (1961) An Introduction
Research Methods (seventh edition). New York: to Logic and Scientific Method . London: Routledge &
McGraw-Hill.
Kegan Paul. Cooper, H. M. and Rosenthal, R. (1980) Statistical Cole, A. L. (1991) Personal theories of teaching:
versus traditional procedures for summarizing research development in
findings. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 442–9. berta Journal of Educational Research , 37 (2),
the formative
years. Al-
Cooper, M. (1976) An exact probability test for 119–32.
use with Likert scales. Educational and Psychological Coleman, J. S. (1991) Social policy research and societal
Measurement , 36, 647–55.
decision-making. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle Corey, S. M. (1953) Action Research to Improve School (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through
Practice . New York: Teachers College, Columbia Research . London: Falmer, 113–22.
University.
Collins, J. S. and Duguid, P. (1989) Situated cognition Corporal, A. H. (1991) Repertory grid research into and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher,
cognitions of prospective primary school teachers. 32, 32–42.
Teaching and Teacher Education , 36, 315–29. Connell, R. W., Ashenden, D. J., Kessler, S. and
Coser, L. A. and Rosenberg, B. (1969) Sociological Doswett, G. W. (1996) Making the difference:
Theory: A Book of Readings (third edition). New schools, families and social division. Cited in B.
York: Macmillan.
Limerick, T. Burgess-Limerick and M. Grace, The Coyle, A. (1995) Discourse analysis. In G. M. Breakwell, politics of interviewing: power relations and accepting
S. Hammond and C. Fife-Shaw (eds) Research Methods the gift. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
in Psychology . London: Sage, 243–58. Education , 9 (4), 449–60.
Cresswell, J. W. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Connelly, F. M. and Clandinin, D. J. (1997) Narrative
Design: Choosing among the Five Traditions . Thousand inquiry. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research,
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Methodology, and Measurement: An International Cresswell, M. J. and Houston, J. G. (1991) Assess- Handbook (second edition). London: Elsevier
ment of the national curriculum – some funda- Science, 81–6.
mental considerations. Educational Review, 43 (1), Connelly, F. M. and Clandinin, D. J.(1999) Narrative
inquiry. In J. P. Keeves and G. Lakomski (eds) Issues Cronbach, L. J. (1949) Essentials of Psychological Testing in Educational Research . Oxford: Elsevier Science,
(first edition). New York: Harper & Row. 132–40.
Cronbach, L. J. (1970) Essentials of Psychological Testing Conover, N. J. (1971) Practical Nonparametric Statistics.
(third edition). New York: Harper & Row. New York: John Wiley.
Crow, G. M. (1992) The principalship as a career: Cook, T. D. (1991) Postpositivist criticisms, reform
in need of a theory. Educational Management and associations, and uncertainties about social research.
Administration , 21 (2), 80–7.
In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Croxford, L. (1997) Participation in science subjects: Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
the effect of the Scottish curriculum framework. Falmer, 43–59.
Research Papers in Education , 12 (1), 69–89. Cook, T. D., Cooper, H., Cordray, D. S., Hartmann, H.,
Cuff, E. G. and Payne, G. C. F. (eds) (1979) Perspectives Hedges, L. V., Light, R. J., Louis, T. A. and Mosteller,
in Sociology . London: Allen & Unwin.
606 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cullen, K. (1997) Headteacher appraisal: a view from Delamont, S. (1976) Interaction in the Classroom. the inside. Research Papers in Education, 12 (2),
London: Methuen.
177–204. Delamont, S. (1981) All too familiar? A decade Cummings, L. (1985) Qualitative research in the infant
of classroom research. Educational Analysis, 3 (1), classroom: a personal account. In R. Burgess (ed.)
Issues in Educational Research: Qualitative Methods . Delamont, S. (1992) Fieldwork in Educational Set- Lewes: Falmer, 216–50.
tings: Methods, Pitfalls and Perspectives . London: Cunningham, G. K. (1998) Assessment in the Classroom.
Falmer.
London: Falmer. Denscombe, M. (1995) Explorations in group Curriculum
interviews: an evaluation of a reflexive and partisan Centre
approach. British Educational Research Journal, 21 (2), http://cem.dur.ac.uk/ebeuk/culture.htm. Retrieved
A Culture
21 May 2001. Denzin, N. (1970a) Strategies of multiple triangulation. Curtis, B. (1978) Introduction to B. Curtis and
In N. Denzin (ed.) The Research Act in Sociology: A W. Mays (eds) Phenomenology and Education.
Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Method . London: London: Methuen.
Butterworth, 297–313.
Daly, P. (1996) The effects of single-sex and co- Denzin, N. K. (1970b) The Research Act in Sociology: educational secondary schooling on girls’ achieve-
A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods. ment. Research Papers in Education, 11 (3), 289–306.
London: Butterworth.
Daly, P. and Shuttleworth, I. (1997) Determinants Denzin, N. K. (1989) The Research Act (third edition). of public examination entry and attainment in
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. mathematics: evidence of gender and gender-type
Denzin, N. K. (1997) Triangulation in educational of school from the 1980s and 1990s in Northern
research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Ireland. Evaluation and Research in Education, 11 (2),
Methodology and Measurement: An International 91–101.
Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Davenport, E. C. Jr., Davison, M. L., Kuang, H.,
Ding, S., Kin, S-K. and Kwak, N. (1998) High Denzin, N. K. (1999) Biographical research methods. school mathematics course-taking by gender and
In J. P. Keeves and G. Lakomski (eds) Issues ethnicity. American Educational Research Journal, 35
in Educational Research . Oxford: Elsevier Science, (3), 497–514.
Davidson, J. (1970) Outdoor Recreation Surveys: The Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (eds) (1994) Handbook Design and Use of Questionnaires for Site Surveys .
of Qualitative Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. London: Countryside Commission.
Department of Education and Science (1977) A Study Davie, R. (1972) The longitudinal approach. Trends in
of School Buildings . Annex 1. London: HMSO. Education , 28, 8–13.
Derry, S. J. and Potts, M. K. (1998) How tutors model Davies, J. and Brember, I (1997) Monitoring reading
students: a study of personal constructs in adaptive standards in year 6: a 7-year cross-sectional study.
tutoring. American Educational Research Journal, 35 British Educational Research Journal , 23 (5), 615–22.
Davies, J. and Brember, I. (1998) Standards in reading Deyle, D. L., Hess, G. and LeCompte, M. L. (1992) at key stage 1 – a cross-sectional study. Educational
Approaching ethical issues for qualitative researchers Research , 40 (2), 153–60.
in education. In M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy Day, K. J. (1985) Perspectives on privacy: a sociological
and J. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of Qualitative analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of
Research in Education . London: Academic Press, Edinburgh. Quoted in R. M. Lee (1993) Doing
Research on Sensitive Topics . London: Sage. Diaper, G. (1990) The Hawthorne effect: a fresh De Laine, M. (2000) Fieldwork, Participation and Practice.
examination. Educational Studies, 16 (3), 261–7. London: Sage.
Dicker, R. and Gilbert, J. (1988) The role of the Deem, R. (1994) Researching the locally powerful: a
telephone in educational research. British Educational study of school governance. In G. Walford (ed.)
Research Journal , 14 (1), 65–72. Researching the Powerful in Education . London: UCL
Didierjean, A. and Cauzinille-Marm`eche, E. (1998) Press, 151–71.
Reasoning by analogy: is it schema-mediated
BIBLIOGRAPHY 607
Bibliography
or case-based? European Journal of Psychology of Doll, W. E. Jr. (1993) A Post-modern Perspective on
Education , 13 (3), 385–98. Curriculum . New York: Teachers College Press. Diener, E. and Crandall, R. (1978) Ethics in Social
Dooley, D. (2001) Social Research Methods (fourth and Behavioral Research . Chicago, IL: University of
edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Chicago Press.
Dosanjh, J. S. and Ghuman, P. A. S. (1997) Asian Dietz, S. M. (1977) An analysis of programming DRL
parents and English education – 20 years on: a study schedules in educational settings. Behaviour Research
of two generations. Educational Studies, 23 (3), and Therapy , 15, 103–11.
Dillman, D. A. (2001) Navigating the rapids of Douglas, J. D. (1973) Understanding Everyday Life. change: some observations on survey methodology
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. in the early 21st century. Presidential address at the
Douglas, J. D. (1976) Investigative Social Research. American Association for Public Opinion Research,
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
St Petersburg, FL. Douglas, J. W. B. (1976) The use and abuse of national Dillman, D. A. and Bowker, D. K. (2000) The web
cohorts. In M. D. Shipman (ed.) The Organization questionnaire challenge to survey methodologists.
and Impact of Social Research . London: Routledge & In U.-D. Reips and M. Bosnjak (eds) Dimensions of
Kegan Paul, 3–21.
Internet Science . Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science. Dugard, P. and Todman, J. (1995) Analysis of http://survey.sesrc.wsu.edu/dillman/zuma paper
pre-test and post-test control group designs in dillman bowker.pdf. Retrieved 26 February 2005
educational research. Educational Psychology, 15 (2), Dillman, D. A., Tortora, R. D. and Bowker,
D. (1998a) Influence of plain vs. fancy design Duncan, M. G. (1968) A Dictionary of Sociology. London: in response rates for web surveys. Proceedings
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
of Survey Methods Section, annual meeting Duncombe, J. and Jessop, J. (2002) ‘Doing rapport’ and of the American Statistical Association, Dallas,
the ethics of ‘faking friendship’. In M. Mauthner, M. TX. http://survey.sesrc.wsu.edu/dillman.papers.htm.
Birch, J. Jessop and T. Miller (eds) Ethics in Qualitative Retrieved 8 February 2005. Research . London: Sage, 107–22.
Dillman, D. A., Tortora, R. D. and Bowker, Dunham, R. B. and Smith, F. J. (1979) Organizational
D. Surveys: An Internal Assessment of Organizational (1998b) Principles for constructing web
Health . Glenview, IL: Scott, Foreman. surveys http://survey.sesrc.wsu.edu/dillman/papers/
websurveyppr.pdf. Retrieved 8 February 2005. Dunning, G. (1993) Managing the small primary school: the problem role of the teaching head. Educational
Dillman, D. A., Carley-Baxter, L, and Jackson, A. Management and Administration , 21 (2), 79–89. (1999) Skip pattern compliance in three test
Durkheim, E. (1950) The Rules of Sociological Method. forms: a theoretical and empirical evaluation.
New York: The Free Press.
SESRC Technical Report #99–01. Social and Durkheim, E. (1956) Education and Sociology. Glencoe, Economic Sciences Research Center. Pullman, WA:
IL: Free Press.
Washington State University. Dyer, C. (1995) Beginning Research in Psychology. Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., Christian, L. M. and
Oxford: Blackwell.
Stern, M. J. (2003) Multiple answer questions in Eagleton, T. (1991) Ideology. London: Verso. self-administered surveys: the use of check-all-that-
Ebbinghaus, H. (1897) ¨ Uber eine neue methode apply and forced-choice question formats. Paper
zur Pr¨ufung geistiger F¨ahigkeiten. Cited in G. de presented at the American Statistical Association,
Landsheere (1997) History of educational research. In San Francisco, CA.
J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology, Dobbert, M. L. and Kurth-Schai, R. (1992) Systematic
and Measurement: An International Handbook (second ethnography: toward an evolutionary science of
edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 8–16. education and culture. In M. LeCompte, W. L.
Ebbutt, D. (1985) Educational action research: some Millroy and J. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of
general concerns and specific quibbles. In R. Burgess Qualitative Research in Education . London: Academic
(ed.) Issues in Educational Research: Qualitative Press, 93–160.
Methods . Lewes: Falmer, 152–74. Dochartaigh, N. O. (2002) The Internet Research
Ebel, R. L. (1979) Essentials of Educational Measurement Handbook . London: Sage.
(third edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
608 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eder, D. and Fingerson, L. (2003) Interviewing children English, H. B. and English, A. C. (1958) A Compre- and adolescents. In J. A. Holstein and J. F. Gubrium
hensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytic (eds) Inside Interviewing: New Lenses, New Concerns.
Terms . London: Longman. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 33–53.
Entwistle, N. L. and Ramsden, P. (1983) Understanding Edwards, A. (1990) Practitioner Research. Study Guide
Student Learning . Beckenham: Croom Helm. No. 1. Lancaster: St Martin’s College.
Epting, F. R. (1988) Journeying into the personal Edwards, A. D. (1976) Language in Culture and Class.
constructs of children. International Journal of Personal London: Heinemann.
Construct Psychology , 1 (1), 53–61. Edwards, A. D. (1980) Patterns of power and authority in
Epting, F. R., Suchman, D. I. and Nickeson, K. J. (1971) classroom talk. In P. Woods (ed.) Teacher Strategies:
An evaluation of elicitation procedures for personal Explorations in the Sociology of the School . London:
constructs. British Journal of Psychology, 62, 513–17. Croom Helm, 237–53.
Erickson, F. (1973) What makes school ethnography Edwards, A. D. and Westgate, D. P. G. (1987)
‘ethnographic’? Anthropology and Education Quarterly, Investigating Classroom Talk . Lewes: Falmer.
Edwards, D. (1991) Discourse and the development Erickson, F. E. (1992) Ethnographic microanalysis of of understanding in the classroom. In O. Boyd-
interaction. In M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy and J. Barrett and E. Scanlon (eds), Computers and Learning.
Preissle (eds) The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Wokingham: Addison-Wesley, 186–204.
Education . London: Academic Press, 201–26. Edwards, D. (1993) Concepts, memory and the
Erikson, K. T. (1967) A comment on disguised organisation of pedagogic discourse: a case study.
observation in sociology. Social Problems, 14, 366–73. International Journal of Educational Research , 19 (3),
Evans, J. and Benefield, P. (2001) Systematic reviews 205–25.
of educational research: does the medical model fit? Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. M. (1987) Common
British Educational Research Journal , 27 (5), 527–41. Knowledge: The Development of Understanding in the
Research Association Conference, University of Classroom . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Cardiff, 7–10 September. Edwards, D. and Potter, J. (1993) Language and
Evans, K. M. (1978) Planning Small Scale Research. causation: a discursive action model of description
Windsor: NFER.
and attribution. Psychological Review, 100 (1), 23–41. Everitt, B. S. (1977) The Analysis of Contingency Tables. Edwards, R. and Mauthner, M. (2002) Ethics and
London: Chapman & Hall. feminist research: theory and practice. In M.
Evetts, J. (1990) Women in Primary Teaching. London: Mauthner, M. Birch, J. Jessop and T. Miller (eds)
Unwin Hyman.
Ethics in Qualitative Research . London: Sage 14–31. Evetts, J. (1991) The experience of secondary headship Eisenhart, M. A. and Howe, K. R. (1992) Validity
selection: continuity and change. Educational Studies, in educational research. In M. D. LeCompte, W.
L. Millroy and J. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of Ewens, A. Howkins, E. and Badger, D. (2000) Evaluating Qualitative Studies in Education . New York: Academic
interprofessional education from a community nurse Press, 643–680.
and social work perspective. Research in Post- Eisner, E. (1985) The Art of Educational Evaluation.
Compulsory Education , 5 (1), 5–20. Lewes: Falmer.
Eysenck, H. (1978) An exercise in mega-silliness. Eisner, E. (1991) The Enlightened Eye: Qualitative Inquiry
American Psychologist , 33, 517. and the Enhancement of Educational Practice . New
Ezzy, D. (2002) Qualitative Analysis: Practice and York: Macmillan.
Innovation. London: Routledge. Ekehammar, B. and Magnusson, D. (1973) A method
Farberow, N. L. (ed.) (1963) Taboo Topics. New York: to study stressful situations. Journal of Personality and
Atherton.
Social Psychology , 27 (2), 176–9. Fay, B. (1987) Critical Social Science. New York: Cornell Elliott, J. (1978) What is action-research in schools?
University Press.
Journal of Curriculum Studies , 10 (4), 355–7. Feixas, G., Marti, J. and Villegas, M. (1989) Personal Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change.
construct assessment of sports teams. International Buckingham: Open University Press.
Journal of Personal Construct Psychology , 2 (1), 49–54. Elliott, J. (2001) Making evidence-based practice
Feldt, L. S. and Brennan, R. L. (1993) Reliability. In educational. British Educational Research Journal, 27
R. Linn (ed.) Educational Measurement. New York: (5), 555–574.
Macmillan, 105–46.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 609
Bibliography
Fendler, L. (1999) Making trouble: prediction, agency, Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1991) Multilevel modelling in
critical intellectuals. In T. S. Popkewitz and L. Fendler an indicator system. In S. W. Raudenbush and (eds) Critical Theories in Education: Changing Terrains
J. D. Willms (eds) Schools, Classrooms and Pupils: of Knowledge and Politics . London: Routledge, 169–88.
International Studies of Schooling from a Multilevel Ferris, J. and Gerber, R. (1996) Mature-age students’
Perspective . San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 67–83. feelings of enjoying learning in a further education
Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1996) Monitoring Educa- context. European Journal of Psychology of Education,
tion: Indicators, Quality and Effectiveness . London: 11 (1), 79–96.
Cassell.
Festinger, L. and Katz, D. (1966) Research Methods in Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1997) The Value Added National the Behavioral Sciences . New York: Holt, Rinehart
Project. Final Report . London: School Curriculum and & Winston.
Assessment Authority.
Fiedler, J. (1978) Field Research: A Manual for Logistics Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1999) Education: high potential and Management of Scientific Studies in Natural Settings .
not yet realized. Public Money and Management, 19 London: Jossey-Bass.
Field, P. A. and Morse, J. M. (1989) Nursing Research: Flanagan, J. (1949) Critical requirements: a new The Application of Qualitative Methods . London:
approach to employee evaluation. Cited in E. C. Chapman and Hall.
Wragg, An Introduction to Classroom Observation. Fielding, N. G. and Fielding, J. L. (1986) Linking Data.
London: Routledge.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Flanders, N. (1970) Analysing Teacher Behaviour. Fielding, N. G. and Lee, R. M. (1998) Computer Analysis
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. and Qualitative Research . London: Sage.
Flaugher, R. (1990) Item pools. In H. Wainer (ed.) Finch, J. (1985) Social policy and education: problems
Computerized Adaptive Testing: A Primer . Hillsdale, and possibilities of using qualitative research. In R. G.
NJ: Erlbaum, 41–64.
Burgess (ed.) Issues in Educational Research: Qualitative Flick, U. (1998) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Methods . Lewes: Falmer, 109–28.
London: Sage.
Fine, G. A. and Sandstrom, K. L. (1988) Knowing Chil- Flick, U. (2004) Design and process in qualitative dren: Participant Observation with Minors . Qualitative
research. In U. Flick, E. von Kardoff and I. Steinke Research Methods Series 15. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
(eds) A Companion to Qualitative Research. London: Finn, C. E. (1991) What ails education research? In
Sage, 146–52.
D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Flick, U., von Kardoff, E., and Steinke, I. (eds) (2004) Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
A Companion to Qualitative Research . Translated by B. Falmer, 39–42.
Jenner. London: Sage.
Finnegan, R. (1996) Using documents. In R. Sapsford Floud, R. (1979) An Introduction to Quantitative Methods and V. Jupp (1996) (eds) Data Collection and
for Historians (second edition). London: Methuen. Analysis . London: Sage and the Open University
Fogelman, K. (2002) Surveys and sampling. In M. Press, 138–51.
Coleman and A. R. J. Briggs (eds) Research Fisher, B., Russell, T. and McSweeney, P. (1991)
Methods in Educational Leadership . London: Paul Using personal constructs for course evaluation.
Chapman.
Journal of Further and Higher Education , 15 (1), Forgas, J. P. (1976) The perception of social episodes: 44–57.
categoric and dimensional representations in two Fisher, R. A. (1941) Statistical Methods for Research
different social milieux. Journal of Personality and Workers . Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
Social Psychology , 34 (2), 199–209. Fitz, J. and Halpin, D. (1994) Ministers and mandarins:
Forgas, J. P. (1978) Social episodes and social structure educational research in elite settings. In G. Walford
in an academic setting: the social environment of an (ed.) Researching the Powerful in Education. London:
intact group. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, UCL Press, 32–50.
Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1984) Meta-analysis: an ex- Forward, J., Canter, R. and Kirsch, N. (1976) Role- planation. British Educational Research Journal, 10
enactment and deception methodologies. American (2), 135–44.
Psychologist , 35, 595–604.
Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1985) The implications of meta- Foskett, N. H. and Hesketh, A. J. (1997) Constructing analysis for educational research. British Educational
choice in continuous and parallel markets: insti- Research Journal , 11 (1), 45–9.
tutional and school leavers’ responses to the new
610 BIBLIOGRAPHY
post-16 marketplace. Oxford Review of Education, 23 Gadd, D. (2004) Making sense of interviewee– (3), 299–319.
interviewer dynamics in narratives about violence in Foster, J. R. (1992) Eliciting personal constructs and
intimate relationships. International Journal of Social articulating goals. Journal of Career Development, 18
Research Methodology , 7 (5), 383–401. (3), 175–85.
Gage, N. L. (1989) The paradigm wars and their Foster, P. (1989) Change and adjustment in a
aftermath. Teachers College Record, 91 (2), 135–50. Further Education College. In R. G. Burgess (ed.)
Gallagher, T., McEwen, A. and Knip, D. (1997) Science The Ethics of Educational Research . Lewes: Falmer,
education policy: a survey of the participation of 188–204.
sixth-form pupils in science and the subjects over a Fournier, V. (1997) Graduates’ construction systems and
10-year period, 1985–95. Research Papers in Education, career development. Human Relations, 50, 363–91.
Fowler, J., Cohen, L. and Jarvis, P. (2000) Practical Galton, M. and Simon, B. (1980) Inside the Primary Statistics for Field Biology . Chichester: John Wiley.
Classroom . London: Routledge. Fox, D.J. (1969) The Research Process in Education. New
Galton, M., Hargreaves, L, Comber, C., Wall, D. York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
and Pell, T. (1999) Changes in patterns in teacher Francis, H. (1992) Patterns of reading development
interaction in primary classrooms, 1976–1996. British in the first school. British Journal of Educational
Educational Research Journal , 25 (1), 23–37. Psychology , 62, 225–32.
Gardner, G. (1978) Social Surveys for Social Planners. Frankfort-Nachmias, C. and Nachmias, D. (1992)
Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Research Methods in the Social Sciences . London:
Gardner, H. (1993) Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Edward Arnold.
Practice . New York: Basic Books. Fransella, F. (1975) Need to Change? London: Methuen.
Garfinkel, H. (1967) Studies in Ethnomethodology. Fransella, F. (2004) International Handbook of Personal
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Construct Psychology . New York: John Wiley.
Garner, C. and Raudenbush, S. W. (1991) Neighbour- Fransella, F. (ed.) (2005) The Essential Practitioner’s
hood effects in educational attainment: a multilevel Handbook of Personal Construct Psychology . New York:
analysis. Sociology of Education, 64 (4), 251–62. John Wiley.
Garrahan, P. and Stewart, P. (1992) The Nissan Fransella, F. and Bannister, D. (1977) A Manual for
Enigma: Flexibility at Work in a Local Economy . Repertory Grid Technique . London: Academic Press.
London: Mansell.
Frederiksen, J.R. and Collins, A. (1989) A systems ap- Gaukroger, A. and Schwartz, L. (1997) A university proach to educational testing. Educational Researcher,
and its region: student recruitment to Birmingham, 189, 27–32.
1945–75. Oxford Review of Education, 23 (2), Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Har-
mondsworth: Penguin. Geertz, C. (1973a) The Interpretation of Cultures. New Frick, A., B¨achtiger, M. T. and Reips, U.-D. (1999)
York: Basic Books.
Financial incentives, personal information and Geertz, C. (1973b) Thick description: towards an dropout rate in online studies. In U.-D. Reips and
interpretive theory of culture. In. C. Geertz (ed.) M. Bosnjak (eds) Dimensions of Internet Science.
The Interpretation of Cultures . New York: Basic Books. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science, 209–19.
Geertz, C. (1974) From the native’s point of view: on Fricker, R. D. Jr. and Schonlau, M. (2002)
the nature of anthropological understanding. Bulletin Advantages and disadvantages of Internet-surveys:
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , 28 (1), evidence from the literature. Washington, DC: Rand
Organization. http://www.schonlau.net/publication/ Geuss, R. (1981) The Idea of a Critical Theory. London: 02fieldmethods.pdf. Retrieved 26 January 2005.
Cambridge University Press. Frisbie, D. (1981) The relative difficulty ratio – a
Gewirtz, S. and Ozga, J. (1993) Sex, lies and test and item index. Educational and Psychological
audiotape: interviewing the education policy elite. Measurement , 41 (2), 333–9.
Paper presented to the Economic and Research Fullan, M. (1999) Change Forces (second edition).
Council, 1988 Education Reform Act Research London: Falmer.
seminar. University of Warwick. Gadamer, H. G. (1975) Truth and Method. New York:
Gewirtz, S. and Ozga, J. (1994) Interviewing the Polity Press.
education policy elite. In G. Walford (ed.) Researching
BIBLIOGRAPHY 611
Bibliography
the Powerful in Education . London: UCL Press, Glass, G. V. and Smith, M. L. (1978) Meta-Analysis
186–203. of Research on the Relationship of Class-size and Gibbons, J. D. (1976) Nonparametric Methods for
Achievement . San Francisco: Farwest Laboratory. Quantitative Analysis . New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Glass, G. V. and Worthen, B. R. (1971) Evaluation Winston.
and research: similarities and differences. Curriculum Gibson, R. (1985) Critical times for action research.
Theory Network , 3 (Fall), 149–65. Cambridge Journal of Education , 15 (1), 59–64.
Glass, G. V., McGaw, B. and Smith, M.L. (1981) Meta- Giddens, A. (ed.) (1975) Positivism and Sociology.
Analysis in Social Research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. London: Heinemann.
Gleick, J. (1987) Chaos. London: Abacus. Giddens, A. (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method:
Goffman, E. (1968) Asylums. Harmondsworth: Penguin. A Positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies.
Golafshani, N. (2003) Understanding reliability and London: Hutchinson.
validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, Giddens, A. (1979) Central Problems in Social Theory.
8 (4), 597–607. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8- London: Macmillan.
4/golafshani.pdf. Retrieved 29 October 2005. Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society.
Gold, R. L. (1958) Roles in sociological field Cambridge: Polity Press.
observations. Social Forces, 36, 217–23. Gilbert, N. and Troitzsch, K. G. (2005) Simulation for the
Goldstein, H. (1987) Multilevel Modelling in Educational Social Scientist (second edition). Maidenhead: Open
and Social Research . London: Charles Griffin. University Press.
Good, C. V. (1963) Introduction to Educational Research. Gillies, V. and Alldred, P. (2002) The ethics of
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. intention: research as a political tool. In M.
Goodson, I. (1983) The use of life histories in the study Mauthner, M. Birch, J. Jessop and T. Miller
of teaching. In M. Hammersley (ed.) The Ethnography (eds) Ethics in Qualitative Research. London: Sage, of Schooling . Driffield, UK: Nafferton, 129–54.
32–52. Goodson, I. (1990) The Making of Curriculum. Lewes:
Falmer.
Ginsburg, G. P. (1978) Role playing and role performance in social psychological research. In
Goodson, I. and Walker, R. (1988) Putting life into M. Brenner, P. Marsh and M. Brenner (eds) The
educational research. In R. R. Sherman and R. B. Social Contexts of Method
Webb (eds) Qualitative Research in Education: Focus
91–121. and Methods . Lewes: Falmer, 110–22. Gipps, C. (1994) Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of
. London: Croom Helm,
Goossens, L., Marcoen, A., van Hees, S. and van Educational Assessment
de Woestlijne, O. (1998) Attachment style and . London: Falmer. loneliness in adolescence. European Journal of Giroux, H. (1989) Schooling for Democracy. London: Psychology of Education , 13 (4), 529–42. Routledge.
Gorard, S. (2001) Quantitative Methods in Educational Glaser, B. G. (1978) Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in
Research: The Role of Numbers Made Easy . the Methodology of Grounded Theory . Mill Valley, CA:
London: Continuum.
Sociology Press. Gorard, S. (2003) Quantitative Methods in Social Science. Glaser, B. G. (1996) Grounded theory: an interview
London: Continuum.
with A. Lowe. Programme 8 of Doing a PhD in Business Gorard, S. and Taylor, C. (2004) Combining Methods and Management . Glasgow: University of Sterling and
in Educational and Social Research . London: Open Heriot-Watt University
University Press.
Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967) The Discovery of Gorard, S., Taylor, C. and Fitz, J. (2002) Markets Grounded Theory . Chicago, IL: Aldane.
in public policy: the case of the United Kingdom Glass, G. V. (1976) Primary, secondary and meta-
Education Reform Act. International Studies in analysis. Educational Research, 5, 3–8.
Sociology of Education , 12 (1), 23–42. Glass, G. V. (1977) Integrating findings: the meta-
Gottschalk, L. (1951) Understanding History. New York: analysis of research. Review of Research in Education,
Alfred A. Knopf.
5, 351–79. Graue, M. E. and Walsh, D. J. (1998) Studying Children in Glass, G. V. and Hopkins, K. D. (1996) Statistical
Context: Theories, Methods and Ethics . London: Sage. Methods in Education and Psychology (third edition).
Greig, A. D. and Taylor, J. (1998) Doing Research with Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Children . London: Sage.
612 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gronlund, N. (1981) Measurement and Evaluation Haig, B. D. (1997) Feminist research methodology. In in Teaching (fourth edition). New York: Collier-
J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology, Macmillan.
and Measurement: An International Handbook (second Gronlund, N. (1985) Stating Objectives for Classroom
edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 180–5. Instruction (third edition). New York: Macmillan.
Haig, B. (1999) Feminist research methodology. In J. P. Gronlund, N. E. and Linn, R. L. (1990) Measurement
Keeves and G. Lakomski (eds) Issues in Educational and Evaluation in Teaching (sixth edition). New
Research . Oxford: Elsevier Science, 222–31. York: Macmillan.
Hakim, C. (1987) Research Design, Contemporary Social Grundy, S. (1987) Curriculum: Product or Praxis.
Research: 13 . London: Allen & Unwin. Lewes: Falmer.
Haladyna, T. M. (1997) Writing Test Items to Evaluate Grundy, S. (1996) Towards empowering leadership: the
Higher Order Thinking . Needham Heights, MA: Allyn importance of imagining. In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.)
& Bacon.
New Directions in Action Research . London: Falmer, Haladnya, T., Nolen, S. and Haas, N. (1991) Raising 106–20.
standardized achievement test scores and the origins Grundy, S. and Kemmis, S. (1988) Educational action
of test score pollution. Educational Researcher, 20 (5), research in Australia: the state of the art (an
overview). In S. Kemmis and R. McTaggart (eds) The Hall, E., Hall, C. and Abaci, R. (1997) The effects of Action Research Reader (second edition). Geelong,
human relations training on reported teacher stress, Vic.: Deakin University Press, 83–97.
pupil control ideology and locus of control. British Guba, E. G. and Lincoln, Y. S. (1989) Fourth Generation
Journal of Educational Psychology , 67, 483–96. Evaluation . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hall, K. and Nuttall, W. (1999) The relative importance Guilford, J. P. and Fruchter, B. (1973) Fundamental
of class size to infant teachers in England. British Statistics in Psychology and Education . New York:
Educational Research Journal , 25 (2), 245–58. McGraw-Hill.
Hall, S. (1996) Reflexivity in emancipatory action Habermas, J. (1970) Toward a theory of communicative
research: illustrating the researcher’s constitutiveness. competence. Inquiry, 13, 360–75.
In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New Directions in Action Habermas, J. (1972) Knowledge and Human Interests,
Research . London: Falmer. trans. J. Shapiro. London: Heinemann.
Halsey, A. H. (ed.) (1972) Educational Priority: Volume Habermas, J. (1974) Theory and Practice, trans. J. Viertel.
1: E. P. A. Problems and Policies . London: HMSO. London: Heinemann.
Hambleton, R. K. (1993) Principles and selected Habermas, J. (1976) Legitimation Crisis, trans. T.
application of item response theory, in R. Linn (ed.) McCarthy. London: Heinemann
Educational Measurement (third edition). Phoenix, Habermas, J. (1979) Communication and the Evolution of
AZ: American Council on Education and the Oryx Society . London: Heinemann.
Press, 147–200.
Habermas, J. (1982) A reply to my critics. In J. Hamilton, V. L. (1976) Role-play and deception: a re- Thompson and D. Held (eds) Habermas: Critical
examination of the controversy. Journal for the Theory Debates . London: Macmillan, 219–83.
of Social Behaviour , 6, 233–50. Habermas, J. (1984) The Theory of Communicative
Hammersley, M. (1992) What’s Wrong with Ethnography? Action. Volume One: Reason and the Rationalization
London: Routledge.
of Society , trans. T. McCarthy. Boston, MA: Beacon. Hammersley, M. (1993) Social Research: Philosophy, Habermas, J. (1987) The Theory of Communicative
Politics and Practice . London: Sage in association with Action. Volume Two: Lifeworld and System , trans. T.
the Open University Press. McCarthy. Boston, MA: Beacon.
Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1983) Ethnography: Habermas, J. (1988) On the Logic of the Social Sciences,
Principles in Practice . London: Routledge. trans. S. Nicholsen and J. Stark. Cambridge: Polity
Hampden-Turner, C. (1970) Radical Man. Cambridge, Press in association with Basil Blackwell.
MA: Schenkman.
Habermas, J. (1990) Moral Consciousness and Commu- Haney, C., Ranks, C. and Zimbardo, P. (1973) nicative Action , trans. C. Lenhardt and S. Nicholsen.
Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. Cambridge: Polity Press in association with Basil
International Journal of Criminology and Penology , 1, Blackwell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 613
Bibliography
Hanna, G. S. (1993) Better Teaching through Better Hedges, A. (1985) Group interviewing. In R. Walker
Measurement . Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace (ed.) Applied Qualitative Research. Aldershot: Gower, Jovanovich.
Hannan, A. and Newby, M. (1992) Student teacher and Hedges, L. (1981) Distribution theory for Glass’s headteacher views on current provision and proposals
estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal for the future of Initial Teacher Education for
of Educational Statistics , 6, 107–28. primary schools (mimeo). Rolle Faculty of Education,
Hedges, L. (1990) Directions for future methodology. University of Plymouth.
In K. W. Wachter and M. L. Straf (eds) The Future of Harlen, W. (ed.) (1994) Enhancing Quality in Assessment.
Meta-analysis . New York: Russell Sage Foundation. London: Paul Chapman.
Cited in B. McGaw (1997) Meta-analysis. In J. Harr´e, R. (1972) The Philosophies of Science. Oxford:
P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology, Oxford University Press.
and Measurement: An International Handbook (second Harr´e, R. (1974) Some remarks on ‘rule’ as a scientific
edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 371–80. concept. In T. Mischel (ed.) On Understanding
Hedges, L. and Olkin, I. (1980) Vote-counting methods Persons . Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 143–84.
in research synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 88 (2), Harr´e, R. (1976) The constructive role of models. In L.
Collins (ed.) The Use of Models in the Social Sciences. Hedges, L. and Olkin, I. (1985) Statistical Methods for London: Tavistock, 16–43.
Meta-analysis . New York: Academic Press. Harr´e, R. (1977a) The ethogenic approach: theory
Held, D. (1980) Introduction to Critical Theory. Los and practice. In L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in
Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Experimental Social Psychology , Vol. 10. New York:
Hesse, M. (1982) Science and objectivity. In J. Academic Press, 284–314.
Thompson and D. Held (eds) Habermas: Critical Harr´e, R. (1977b) Friendship as an accomplish-
Debates . London: Macmillan, 98–115. ment. In S. Duck (ed.) Theory and Practice in
Hewson, C., Yule, P., Laurent, D. and Vogel, C. (2003) Interpersonal Attraction . London: Academic Press,
Internet Research Methods . London: Sage. 339–54.
Higgs, G., Webster, C. J. and White, S. D. (1997) The Harr´e, R. (1978) Accounts, actions and meanings – the
use of geographical information systems in assessing practice of participatory psychology. In M. Brenner,
spatial and socio-economic impacts of parental P. Marsh and M. Brenner (eds) The Social Contexts of
choice. Research Papers in Education, 12 (1), 27–48. Method . London: Croom Helm, 44–66.
Hildenbrand, B. (2004) Anselm Strauss. In U. Flick, E. Harr´e, R. and Rosser, E. (1975) The rules of disorder.
von Kardoff and I. Steinke (eds) A Companion to The Times Educational Supplement , 25 July.
Qualitative Research . London: Sage, 17–23. Harr´e, R. and Secord, P. (1972) The Explanation of Social
Hill, J. E. and Kerber, A. (1967) Models, Methods and Behaviour . Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Analytical Procedures in Educational Research . Detroit, Harris, N., Pearce, P. and Johnstone, S. (1992) The Legal
MI: Wayne State University Press. Context of Teaching . London: Longman.
Hill, P. W. and Rowe, K. J. (1996) Multilevel modelling Harrison, R. and Stokes, H. (1992) Diagnosing
in school effectiveness research. School Effectiveness Organizational Culture . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
and School Improvement , 7 (1), 1–34. Bass.
Hinkle, D. N. (1965) The change of personal constructs Hartley, S., Gerhardt-Powals, J., Jones, D., Mc-
from the viewpoint of a theory of implications. Cormack, C., Medley, D., Price, B., Reek,
Unpublished PhD thesis. Ohio State University. M. and Summers, M. (1997) Evaluating Educa-
Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1989) Research and the tional Materials on the Web . University of Washington.
Teacher . London: Routledge.
http://staff.washington.edu/rells/pod97/evaluate.htm. Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995) Research and the Retrieved 1 May 2003.
Teacher (second edition). London: Routledge. Harvey, C. D. H. (1988) Telephone survey techniques.
Hockett, H.C. (1955) The Critical Method in Historical Canadian Home Economics Journal , 38 (1), 30–5.
Research and Writing . London: Macmillan. Heath, S. B. (1982) Questioning at home and at school:
Hoinville, G. and Jowell, R. (1978) Survey Research a comparative study, in G. Spindler (ed.) Doing the
Practice . London: Heinemann.
Ethnography of Schooling . New York: Holt, Rinehart Holbrook, D. (1977) Education, Nihilism and Survival. & Winston, 102–31.
London: Darton, Longman & Todd.
614 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Holland, J. L. (1985) Making Vocational Choices: Humphreys, L. (1970) Tearoom Trade: A Study of A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work
Homosexual Encounters in Public Places . London: Environments . Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gerald Duckworth.
Holly, P. (1984) Action Research: A Cautionary Note. Humphreys, L. (1975) Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Classroom Action Research Network, Bulletin no. 6.
Sex in Public Places (enlarged edition). New York: Cambridge: Cambridge Institute of Education.
Aldine.
Holly, P. and Whitehead, D. (1986) Action Research in Hunter, J. E. Schmidt, F. L. and Jackson, G. B. (1982) Schools: Getting It into Perspective . Classroom Action
Meta-analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Research Network.
Studies . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Holmes, P. and Karp, M. (1991) Psychodrama: Inspiration
Hurn, C. J. (1978) The Limits and Possibilities of Schooling. and Technique . London: Routledge.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Holmes, R. M. (1998) Fieldwork with Children. London:
Hutchinson, B. and Whitehouse, P. (1986) Action Sage.
research, professional competence and school Holsti, O. R. (1968) Content analysis. In G. Lindzey and
organization. British Educational Research Journal, 12 E. Aronson (eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology.
(1), 85–94. Hycner, R. H. (1985) Some guidelines for the
Volume 2: Research Methods. Reading, MA: Addison- phenomenological analysis of interview data. Human Wesley, 596–692.
Studies , 8, 279–303.
Hopkins, D. (1985) A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Ions, E. (1977) Against Behaviouralism: A Critique of Research . Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Behavioural Science . Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Hopkins, K. D., Hopkins, B. R. and Glass, G. V.
Jacklin, A. and Lacey, C. (1997) Gender integration in (1996) Basic Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (third
the infant classroom: a case study. British Educational edition). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Research Journal , 23 (5), 623–40. Horkheimer, M. (1972) Critical Theory: Selected Essays,
Jackson, D. and Marsden, D. (1962) Education and the trans. M. Connell et al. New York: Herder and Herder.
Working Class . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Horowitz, I. L. and Katz, J. E. (1991) Brown vs Board
Jackson, G. B. (1980) Methods for integrative reviews. of Education. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle
Review of Educational Research , 50, 438–60. (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through
Jackson, P. W. (1968) Life in Classrooms. Eastbourne: Research . London: Falmer, 237–44.
Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Houghton, D. (1991) Mr Chong: a case study of a
Jacob, E. (1987) Qualitative research traditions: a dependent learner of English for academic purposes.
review. Review of Educational Research, 57 (1), 1–50. System , 19 (1–2), 75–90.
James, M. (1993) Evaluation for policy: rationality and House, E. R. (1979) Technology versus craft: a ten-
political reality: the paradigm case of PRAISE? In R. year perspective on innovation. Journal of Curriculum
G. Burgess (ed.) Educational Research and Evaluation Studies , 11 (1), 1–15.
for Policy and Practice . London: Falmer. Howitt, D. and Cramer, D. (2005) Introduction to
Jayaratne, T. E. (1993) The value of quantitative Research Methods in Psychology . Harlow: Pearson.
methodology for feminist research. In M. Hammersley Hoyle, E. (1986) The Politics of School Management.
(ed.) Social Research: Philosophy, Politics and Practice. Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton.
London: Sage in association with the Open University Press, 109–23.
Hudson, P. and Miller, C. (1997) The treasure hunt: strategies for obtaining maximum response to a postal
Jayaratne, T. and Stewart, A. (1991) Quantitative survey. Evaluation and Research in Education, 11 (2),
and qualitative methods in the social sciences: 102–12.
current feminist issues and practical strategies. In M. Fonow and J. Cook (eds) Beyond Methodology:
Hughes, J. A. (1976) Sociological Analysis: Methods Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research . Bloomington, of Discovery . Sunbury-on-Thames: Nelson and
IN: Indiana University Press. Sons.
Jones, J. (1990) The role of the headteacher in Huizinga, J. (1949) Homo Ludens. London: Routledge
staff development. Educational Management and & Kegan Paul, subsequently published by Paladin.
Administration , 18 (1), 27–36. Hult, M. and Lennung, S. (1980) Towards a definition
Jones, N. (1999) The changing management agenda for of action-research: a note and bibliography. Journal of
primary heads. International Journal of Public Sector Management Studies , 17 (2), 241–50.
Management , 12 (4), 324–37.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 615
Bibliography
Jones, S. (1987) The analysis of depth interviews. In R. Kelly, A. (1985) Action research: what is it and what
Murphy and H. Torrance (eds) Evaluating Education: can it do? In R. G. Burgess (ed.) Issues in Educational Issues and Methods . London: Paul Chapman, 263–77.
Research: Qualitative Methods . Lewes: Falmer, 129–51. Jones, S. (ed.) (1999) Doing Internet Research. Thousand
Kelly, A. (1986) The development of children’s Oaks, CA: Sage.
attitudes to science: a longitudinal study. European Joy, G. T. (2003) A brief description of culturally valid
Journal of Science Education , 8, 399–412. knowledge. Personal communication. Sophia Junior
Kelly, A. (1987) Science for Girls? Milton Keynes: Open College, Hakone-machi, Kanagawa-ken, Japan.
University Press.
Jules, V. and Kutnick, P. (1997) Student perceptions of Kelly, A. (1989a) Education or indoctrination? The a good teacher: the gender perspective. British Journal
ethics of school-based action research. In R. G. of Educational Psychology , 67, 497–511.
Burgess (ed.) The Ethics of Educational Research. Lewes: Kamin, L. (1991) Some historical facts about IQ testing.
Falmer, 100–13.
In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Kelly, A. (1989b) Getting the GIST: A Qualitative Study Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
of the Effects of the Girls Into Science and Technology Falmer, 259–67.
Project . Manchester Sociology Occasional Papers, no. Kaplan, A. (1973) The Conduct of Inquiry. Aylesbury:
22. Manchester: University of Manchester. Intertext Books.
Kelly, A. and Smail, B. (1986) Sex stereotypes Karr, B. (1995) Complexity Theory and Rhetorical Inven-
and attitudes to science among eleven-year-old tion . http://english.ttu.edu/courses/5361/papers/paper
children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 1 karr 420.html. Retrieved 14 November 2000.
Kauffman, S. A. (1995) At Home in the Universe: The Kelly G. A. (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs. Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity .
New York: Norton.
Harmondsworth: Penguin. Kelly, G. A. (1969) Clinical Psychology and Personality: Kazdin, A. E. (1982) Single-case Research Designs. New
The Selected Papers of George Kelly , edited by B. A. York: Oxford University Press.
Maher. New York: John Wiley.
Keat, R. (1981) The Politics of Social Theory. Oxford: Kelman, H. C. (1967) Human use of human subjects. Basil Blackwell.
Psychological Bulletin , 67 (1), 1–11. Keeves, J. P. (ed.) (1997a) Educational Research,
Kemmis, S. (1982) Seven principles for programme eval- Methodology and Measurement: An International
uation in curriculum development and innovation. Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science.
Journal of Curriculum Studies, 14 (3), 221–40. Keeves, J. P. (1997b) Longitudinal research methods. In
Kemmis, S. (1997) Action research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology
Educational Research, Methodology, and Measurement: and Measurement: An International Handbook (second
An International Handbook (second edition). Oxford: edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 138–49.
Elsevier Science, 173–9.
Keeves, J. P. and Sellin, N. (1997) Multilevel analysis. Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (eds) (1981) The Action In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology
Research Planner (first edition). Geelong, Vic.: Deakin and Measurement: An International Handbook (second
University Press.
edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 394–403. Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (eds) (1988) The Action Kelle, U. (ed.) (1995) Computer-Aided Qualitative Data
Research Planner (second edition). Geelong, Vic.: Analysis . London: Sage.
Deakin University Press.
Kelle, U. (2004) Computer-assisted analysis of Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1992) The Action qualitative data. In U. Flick, E. V. Kardoff and I.
Research Planner (third edition) Geelong, Vic.: Steinke (eds) A Companion to Qualitative Research,
Deakin University Press.
trans. B. Jenner. London: Sage, 276–293. Kerlinger, F. N. (1970) Foundations of Behavioral Kelle, U. and Laurie, H. (1995) Computer use in
Research . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. qualitative research and issues of validity. In U.
Kerlinger, F. N. (1986) Foundations of Behavioral Kelle (ed.) Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis.
Research (third edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart London: Sage, 19–28.
& Winston.
Kelly, A. (1978) Feminism and research. Women’s Kerlinger, F. N. (1991) Science and behavioural Studies International Quarterly , 1, 225–32.
research. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds)
616 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Improving Education through Research . London: Falmer, Research . London: Falmer, 87–102.
Kgaile, A. P. and Morrison, K. R. B. (2006) Kogan, M. and Atkin, J. M. (1991) Special commissions Measuring and targeting internal conditions for
and educational policy in the U.S.A. and U.K. In D. school effectiveness in the Free State of South
S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Africa. Educational Management, Administration and
Policy: Improving Education through Research . London: Leadership , 34 (1), 47–68.
Falmer, 245–58.
Kierkegaard, S. (1974) Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Kohn, A. (2000) The Case against Standardized Testing: Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Raising the Scores, Ruining the Schools. Portsmouth, Kimmel, A. J. (1988) Ethics and Values in Applied Social
NH: Heinemann.
Research . Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Kolakowski, L. (1978) Main Currents of Marxism, Kincheloe, J. L. (1991) Teachers as Researchers:
Volume Three: The Breakdown , trans. P. S. Falla. Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment .
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
London: Falmer. Krejcie, R. V. and Morgan, D. W. (1970) Determining Kincheloe, J. L. (2003) Teachers as Researchers:
sample size for research activities. Educational and Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment (second
Psychological Measurement , 30, 607–10. edition). London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Kremer-Hayon, L. (1991) Personal constructs of Kincheloe, J. and McLaren, P. (1994) Rethinking
elementary school principals in relation to teachers. critical theory and qualitative research. In N.
Research in Education , 43, 15–21. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook
Krippendorp, K. (2004) Content Analysis: An Introduc- of Qualitative Research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage,
tion to its Methodology . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 105–17.
Krosnick, J. A. (1999) Survey research. Annual Review King, J. A., Morris, L. L. and Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1987)
of Psychology , 50, 537–67. How to Assess Program Implementation . Beverly Hills,
Krosnick, J. A. and Alwin, D. F. (1987) An evaluation CA: Sage.
of a cognitive theory of response-order effects in King, R. (1979) All Things Bright and Beautiful?
survey measurement. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, Chichester: John Wiley.
Kirk, J. and Miller, M. L. (1986) Reliability and Validity Krueger, R. A. (1988) Focus Groups: A Practical Guide in Qualitative Research . Qualitative Research Methods
for Applied Research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Series no. 1. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Kuhn, T. S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Kirk, R. E. (1999) Statistics: An Introduction. London:
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Harcourt Brace.
Kvale, S. (1996) Interviews. London: Sage. Kitwood, T. M. (1977) Values in adolescent life: towards
Labov, W. (1969) The logic of non-standard English. In a critical description, Unpublished PhD dissertation,
N. Keddie (ed.) Tinker, Tailor . . . the Myth of Cultural School of Education, University of Bradford.
Deprivation . Harmondsworth: Penguin, 21–66. Kivulu, J. M. and Rogers, W. T. (1998) A multilevel
Laing, R. D. (1967) The Politics of Experience and the Bird analysis of cultural experience and gender influences
of Paradise . Harmondsworth: Penguin. on causal attributions to perceived performance in
Lakatos, I. (1970) Falsification and the methodology of mathematics. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
scientific research programmes. In I. Lakatos and A. 68, 25–37.
Musgrave (eds) Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Kline, P. (2000) Handbook of Psychological Testing
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 91–195. (second edition). London: Routledge.
Lakomski, G. (1999) Critical theory. In J. P. Keeves Kline, R. (2004) Beyond Significance Testing. Washing-
and G. Lakomski (eds) Issues in Educational Research. ton, DC: American Psychological Association.
Oxford: Elsevier Science, 174–83. Klockars, C. B. (1979) Dirty hands and deviant subjects.
Lamb, S., Bibby, P., Wood, D. and Leyden, G. (1997) In C. B Klockars and F. O’Connor (eds) Deviance and
Communication skills, educational achievement and Decency: The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects .
biographic characteristics of children with moderate Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
learning difficulties. European Journal of Psychology of Knott, J. and Wildavsky, A. (1991) If dissemination
Education , 12 (4), 401–14. is the solution, what is the problem? In D. S.
Lansing, J. B., Ginsberg, G. P. and Braaten, K. (1961) An Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for Policy:
Investigation of Response Error . Urbana-Champaign,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 617
Bibliography
IL: Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Lemke, J. (2001) Toward Systemic Educational Change:
University of Illinois. Questions from a Complex Systems Perspective. Cam- Lather, P. (1986) Research as praxis. Harvard
bridge, MA: New England Complex Systems In- Educational Review , 56, 257–77.
stitute. http://www.necsi.org/events/cxedk16 3.html. Lather, P. (1991) Getting Smart: Feminist Research
Retrieved 10 November 2001.
and Pedagogy within the Post Modern . New Leva˘ci´c, R. and Glatter, R. (2000) Really good ideas: York: Routledge.
developing evidence-informed policy and practice in Laudan, L. (1990) Science and Relativism. Chicago, IL:
educational leadership and management. Educational University of Chicago Press.
Management and Administration , 29 (1), 5–25. Lave, J. and Kvale, S. (1995) What is anthropological
Levin, H. M. (1991) Why isn’t educational research research? An interview with Jean Lave by Steiner
more useful? In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle Kvale. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
(eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Education , 8 (3), 219–28.
Research . London: Falmer, 70–8. Lawless, L., Smee, P. and O’Shea, T. (1998) Using
Levine, M. (1984) Canonical Analysis and Factor concept sorting and concept mapping in business and
Comparisons . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. public administration, and education: an overview.
Lewin, K. (1946) Action research and minority Educational Research , 40 (2), 219–35.
problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2 (4), 34–46. Layder, D. (1994) Understanding Social Theory. London:
Lewin, K. (1948) Resolving Social Conflicts. New Sage.
York: Harper.
Lazarsfeld, P. (1940) ‘Panel’ studies. Public Opinion Lewin, K. (1952) Field Theory in Social Science. London: Quarterly
Tavistock.
, 4 (1), 122–8. Lewin, R. (1993) Complexity: Life on the Edge of Chaos. Lazarsfeld, P. P. and Barton, A. (1951) Qualitative
measurement in the social sciences: classification,
London: Phoenix.
typologies and indices. In D. P. Lerner and H. D. Lewis, A. (1992) Group child interviews as a research Lasswell (eds) The Policy Sciences. Stanford, CA:
tool, British Educational Research Journal, 18 (4), Stanford University Press, 155–92.
413–21. Lewis, D. (1974) Assessment in Education. London:
LeCompte, M. and Preissle, J. (1993) Ethnography and Qualitative Design in Educational Research (second
University of London Press.
edition). London: Academic Press. Lewis-Beck, M. S. (ed.) (1993) Experimental Design and Methods . London: Toppan with the cooperation of
LeCompte, M., Millroy, W. L. and Preissle, J. (eds)
Sage.
(1992) The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education . London: Academic Press.
Liebling, H. and Shah, S. (2001) Researching sensitive topics: investigations of the sexual abuse
Lee, R. M. (1993) Doing Research on Sensitive Topics. of women in Uganda and girls in Tanzania. London: Sage. Law, Social Justice and Global Development .
Lee, R. M. and Renzetti, C. M. (1993) The problems http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/global/issue/2001-1/ of researching sensitive topics: an overview and
liebling.html. Retrieved 21 November 2003. introduction. In C. Renzetti and R. M. Lee (eds)
Lietz, P. (1997) Cross-sectional research methods. In Researching Sensitive Topics . London: Sage.
J. B. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Method- Leech, N. L. and Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004) A proposed
ology and Measurement . Oxford: Elsevier Science, fourth measure of significance: The role of economic
significance in educational research. Evaluation and Lietz, P. and Keeves, J. P. (1997) Cross-sectional Research in Education , 18 (3), 179–98.
research methods. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Lehrer, R. and Franke, M. L. (1992) Applying personal
Research, Methodology and Measurement: An Interna- construct psychology to the study of teachers’
tional Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier knowledge of fractions. Journal for Research in
Science, 138–49.
Mathematical Education , 23 (3), 223–41. Light, R. J. and Smith, P. V. (1971) Accumulating Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A. and Sherblom, S. A. (1996)
evidence: procedures for resolving contradictions Breaking Free . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational
among different research studies. Harvard Educational Review.
Review , 41, 429–71.
618 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Likert, R. (1932) A Technique for the Measurement of Federation. Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Attitudes . New York: Columbia University Press.
Education, University of East Anglia. Limerick, B., Burgess-Limerick, T. and Grace, M. (1996)
MacDonald, G. (1997) Social work: beyond control? The politics of interviewing: power relations and
In A. Maynard and I. Chalmers (eds) Non-random accepting the gift. International Journal of Qualitative
Reflections on Health Service Research . London: BMJ Studies in Education , 9 (4), 449–60.
Publishing Group, 122–46. Lin, N. (1976) Foundations of Social Research. New York:
McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A. and McGraw-Hill.
Lowell, E. L. (1953) The Achievement Motive. New Lincoln, Y. S. and Guba, E. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry.
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
McCormick, J. and Solman, R. (1992) Teachers’ Lincoln, Y. S. and Guba, E. G. (1986) But is
attributions of responsibility for occupational stress it rigorous? Trustworthiness and authenticity in
and satisfaction: an organisational perspective. naturalistic inquiry. In D. D. Williams (ed.)
Educational Studies , 18 (2), 201–22. Naturalistic Evaluation . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
McCormick, R. and James, M. (1988) Curriculum Bass, 73–84.
Evaluation in Schools (second edition). London: Linn, R.L. (ed.) (1993) Educational Measurement
Croom Helm.
(third edition). Phoenix, AZ: American Council on McEneaney, J. E. and Sheridan, E. M. (1996) A Education and the Oryx Press.
survey-based component for programme assessment Lipsey, M. W. (1992) Juvenile delinquency treatment: a
in undergraduate pre-service teacher education. meta-analytic inquiry into the variability of effects. In
Research in Education , 55, 49–61. T. D. Cook, H. Cooper, D. S. Cordray, H. Hartmann,
McGaw, B. (1997) Meta-analysis. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) L. V. Hedges, R. J. Light, T. A. Louis and F. Mosteller
(eds) Meta-analysis for Explanation. New York: Russell Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement: An International Handbook Sage Foundation. (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 371–80.
Lissack, M. R. (2000) Complexity Metaphors McHugh, J. D. (1994) The Lords’ will be done:
interviewing the powerful in education. In G. Walford http://lissack.com/writings/proposal.htm. Retrieved
and the Management of a Knowledge Based
Enterprise: An
(ed.) Researching the Powerful in Education. London: 10 November 2001.
UCL Press, 51–66.
Littleton, K., Ashman, H., Light, P., Artis, J., Roberts, McIntyre, D. and Macleod, G. (1978) The characteris- T. and Oosterwegel, A. (1999) Gender, task contexts,
tics and uses of systematic classroom observation. In and children’s performance on a computer-based task.
R. McAleese and D. Hamilton (eds) Understanding European Journal of Psychology of Education , 14 (1),
Classroom Life . Windsor: NFER, 102–31. 129–39.
McKernan, J. (1991) Curriculum Action Research. Loevinger, J. (1957) Objective tests as instruments
London: Kogan Page.
of psychological theory. Psychological Review, 72, McLaren, P. (1995) Critical Pedagogy and Predatory 143–55.
Culture . London: Routledge. Loewenthal, K. M. (2001) An Introduction to
McLoughlin, T. (2002) The use of repertory grid analysis Psychological Tests and Scales . Hove: Psychology Press.
in studying students’ conceptual frameworks in Lofland, J. (1970) Interactionist imagery and analytic
science. Paper presented at the European Conference interrupts. In T. Shibutani (ed.) Human Nature and
on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, Collective Behaviour: Papers in Honour of Herbert
11–14 September.
Blumer . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 35–45. McNiece, R. and Jolliffe, F. (1998) An investigation into Lofland, J. (1971) Analysing Social Settings. Belmont,
regional differences in educational performance in CA: Wadsworth.
the National Child Development Study. Educational Lonkila, M. (1995) Grounded theory as an emerging
Research , 40 (1), 13–30.
paradigm for computer-assisted qualitative data McNiff, J. (1988) Action Research: Principles and Practice. analysis. In U. Kelle (ed.) Computer-Aided Qualitative
London: Macmillan.
Data Analysis . London: Sage, 41–51. McNiff, J., with Whitehead, J. (2002) Action Research: MacDonald, B. (1987) Research and Action in the
Principles and Practice (second edition). London: Context of Policing . Paper commissioned by the Police
RoutledgeFalmer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 619
Bibliography
McNiff, J., Lomax, P. and Whitehead, J. (1996) leadership. Leadership and Organization Development
You and your Action Research Project . London:
Journal , 25 (5–6), 435–51.
Routledge in association with Hyde Publications, Mauthner, M., Birch, M., Jessop, J. and Miller, T. (eds) Bournemouth.
(2002) Ethics in Qualitative Research. London: Sage. McQuitty, L. L. (1957) Elementary linkage analysis
Maxwell, J. A. (1992) Understanding and validity in for isolating orthogonal and oblique types and
qualitative research. Harvard Educational Review, 62 typal relevancies. Educational and Psychological
Measurement , 17, 207–29. Mayall, B. (1999) Children and childhood. In S. Hood, McTaggart, R. (1996) Issues for participatory action
B. Mayall and S. Oliver (eds) Critical Issues in Social researchers. In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New Directions
Research: Power and Prejudice . Philadelphia, PA: Open in Action Research . London: Falmer, 243–55.
University Press, 10–24.
Madge, J. (1963) The Origin of Scientific Sociology. Maynard, A. and Chalmers, I. (eds) (1997) Non-random London: Tavistock.
Reflections on Health Service Research . London: BMJ Madge, J. (1965) The Tools of Social Science.
Publishing Group.
London: Longman. Mayring, P. (2004) Qualitative content analysis. In Mager, R. F. (1962) Preparing Instructional Objectives.
U. Flick, E. von Kardoff and I. Steinke (eds) A Belmont, CA: Fearon.
Companion to Qualitative Research . London: Sage. Magnusson, D. (1971) An analysis of situational
Mead, G. H. (ed. Charles Morris) (1934) Mind, Self and dimensions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 32, 851–67. Society . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Malinowski, B. (1922) Argonauts of the Western Pacific:
An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in Medawar, P. B. (1972) The Hope of Progress.
the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea . New
London: Methuen.
York: Dutton. Medawar, P. B. (1981) Advice to a Young Scientist. Mannheim, K. (1936) Ideology and Utopia. London:
London: Pan.
Routledge & Kegan Paul. Medawar, P. B. (1991) Scientific fraud. In D. Pike (ed.) Marcinkiewicz, H. R. and Clariana, R. B. (1997) The
The Threat and the Glory: Reflections on Science and performance effects of headings within multi-choice
Scientists . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 64–70. tests. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67,
Megarry, J. (1978) Retrospect and prospect. In R. 111–17.
McAleese (ed.) Perspectives on Academic Gaming Marris, P. and Rein, M. (1967) Dilemmas of Social
and Simulation 3: Training and Professional Education . Reform: Poverty and Community Action in the United
London: Kogan Page, 187–207. States . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Mehrens, W. and Kaminski, J. (1989) Methods for Marsh, H. W. and Yeung, A. S. (1998) Longitudinal
improving standardized test scores: fruitful, fruitless structural equation models of academic self-
or fraudulent? Educational Measurement: Issues and concept and achievement: gender differences in
Practice , 8 (1), 14–22.
the development of math and English constructs. Meinefeld, W. (2004) Hypotheses and prior knowledge American Educational Research Journal , 35 (4),
in qualitative research. In U. Flick, E. von Kardoff and 705–38.
I. Steinke (eds) A Companion to Qualitative Research. Maslow, A. H. (1954) Motivation and Personality. New
London: Sage, 153–8.
York: Harper & Row. Melrose, M. J. (1996) Got a philosophical match? Does Mason, J. (2002) Qualitative Researching (second
it matter? In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New Directions edition). London: Sage.
in Action Research . London: Falmer. Mason, M., Mason, B. and Quayle, T. (1992) Illuminat-
Menzel, H. (1978) Meaning – who needs it? In M. ing English: how explicit language teaching improved
Brenner, P. Marsh and M. Brenner (eds) The Social public examination results in a comprehensive school.
Contexts of Method . London: Croom Helm, 140–71. Educational Studies , 18 (3), 341–54.
Mercer, N., Wegerif, R. and Dawes, L. (1999) Children’s Masschelein, J. (1991) The relevance of Habermas’s
talk and the development of reasoning in the communicative turn. Studies in Philosophy and
classroom. British Educational Research Journal, 25 Education , 11 (2), 95–111.
Mastrangelo, A., Eddy, E. R. and Lorenzet, S. J. Merriam, S. B. (1988) Case Study Research in Education. (2004) The importance of personal and professional
San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
620 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Merry, U. (1998) Organizational Lifespan LO17822. An International Handbook (second edition). Oxford: http://www.learning-org.com/98.04/0206.html.
Elsevier Science, 361–70. Retrieved 14 November 2000.
Miller, R. L. (1999) Researching Life Stories and Family Merton, R. K. (1949) Social Theory and Social Structure.
Histories . London: Sage.
Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Miller, T. and Bell, L. (2002) Consenting to what? Issues Merton, R. K. (1967) On Theoretical Sociology. New
of access, gatekeeping and ‘informed consent’. In M. York: The Free Press.
Mauthner, M. Birch, J. Jessop and T. Miller (eds) Merton, R. K. and Kendall, P. L. (1946) The
Ethics in Qualitative Research . London: Sage, 53–69. focused interview. American Journal of Sociology, 51,
Millmann, J. and Greene, J. (1993) The specification 541–57.
and development of tests of achievement and Merton, R. K., Fiske, M. and Kendall, P. L. (1956) The
ability. In R. Linn (ed.) Educational Measurement Focused Interview . Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
(third edition). Phoenix, AZ: American Council on Messick, S. (1993) Validity. In R. Linn (ed.) Educational
Education and the Oryx Press, 147–200. Measurement (third edition). Phoenix, AZ: American
Mishler, E. G. (1986) Research Interviewing: Context and Council on Education and the Oryx Press, 13–103.
Narrative . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Michaels, M. (1995) The chaos network on-
Mishler, E. G. (1990) Validation in inquiry-guided line. The Chaos Network, http://www.prairienet.org/
research: the role of exemplars in narrative studies. business.ptech. Retrieved 14 November 2000.
Harvard Educational Review , 60 (4), 415–42. Mickelson, R. A. (1994) A feminist approach to
Mishler, E. G. (1991) Representing discourse: the researching the powerful in education. In G. Walford
rhetoric of transcription. Journal of Narrative and Life (ed.) Researching the Powerful in Education. London:
History , 1, 225–80.
UCL Press, 132–50. Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. (1988) Research Design Miedama, S. and Wardekker, W. L. (1999) Emergent
Explained . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. identity versus consistent identity: possibilities for a
Mitchell, R. G. (1993) Secrecy in Fieldwork. London: postmodern repoliticization of critical pedagogy. In
Sage.
T. Popkewitz and L. Fendler (eds) Critical Theories in Mixon, D. (1972) Instead of deception. Journal for the Education: Changing Terrains of Knowledge and Politics .
Theory of Social Behaviour , 2, 146–77. Mixon, D. (1974) If you won’t deceive, what can you do?
London: Routledge, 67–83. In N. Armistead (ed.) Reconstructing Social Psychology. Mies, M. (1993) Towards a methodology for feminist Harmondsworth: Penguin, 72–85. research. In M. Hammersley (ed.) Social Research:
Monge, D. and Contractor, N. (2003) Theories of Philosophy, Politics and Practice . London: Sage in
Communication Networks . Oxford: Oxford University association with the Open University Press, 64–82.
Press.
Miles, M. and Huberman, M. (1984) Qualitative Data Mooij, T. (1998) Pupil-class determinants of aggressive Analysis . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
and victim behaviour in pupils. British Journal of Miles, M. and Huberman, M. (1994) Qualitative Data
Educational Psychology , 68, 373–85. Analysis (second edition). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Morgan, C. (1999) Personal communication. University Milgram, S. (1963) Behavioral study of obedience.
of Bath, Department of Education. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 67,
Morgan, C. (2005) Cultural validity. Personal 371–8.
communication. University of Bath, Department of Milgram, S. (1974) Obedience to Authority. New York:
Education.
Harper & Row. Morgan, D. L. (1988) Focus Groups as Qualitative Millan, R., Gallagher, M. and Ellis, R. (1993) Surveying
Research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. adolescent worries: development of the ‘Things I
Morris, L. L., Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. and Lindheim, E. Worry About’ scale. Pastoral Care in Education, 11
(1987) How to Measure Performance and Use Tests. (1), 43–57.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Miller, C. (1995) In-depth interviewing by telephone: Morris, P. (1983) Teachers’ perceptions of their pupils: some practical considerations. Evaluation and Research
a Hong Kong case study. Research in Education, 29, in Education , 9 (1), 29–38.
Miller, P. V. and Cannell, C. F. (1997) Interviewing Morrison, K. R. B. (1993) Planning and Accomplishing for social research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.)
School-Centred Evaluation . Dereham, UK: Peter Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement:
Francis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 621
Bibliography
Morrison, K. R. B. (1995a) Habermas and the school Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks,
curriculum. Unpublished PhD thesis, School of
CA: Sage, 220–35.
Education, University of Durham. Mortimore, P., Sammons, P., Stoll, L., Lewis, D. and Morrison, K. R. B. (1995b) Dewey, Habermas and
Ecob, R. (1988) School Matters: The Junior Years. reflective practice. Curriculum, 16 (2), 82–94.
London: Open Books.
Morrison, K. R. B. (1996a) Developing reflective Moser, C. and Kalton, G. (1977) Survey Methods in practice in higher degree students through a learning
Social Investigation . London: Heinemann. journal. Studies in Higher Education, 21 (3), 317–32.
Mouly, G. J. (1978) Educational Research: The Art Morrison, K. R. B. (1996b) Structuralism, postmoder-
and Science of Investigation. Boston, MA: Allyn & nity and the discourses of control, Curriculum, 17 (3),
Bacon.
164–77. Moyles, J. (2002) Observation as a research tool. In Morrison, K. R. B. (1996c) Why present school
M. Coleman and A. J. Briggs (eds) Research Methods inspections are unethical. Forum, 38 (3), 79–80.
in Educational Leadership . London: Paul Chapman, Morrison, K. R. B. (1997) Researching the need for
multicultural perspectives in counsellor training: a Muijs, D. (2004) Doing Quantitative Research in critique of Bimrose and Bayne. British Journal of
Education with SPSS. London: Sage. Guidance and Counselling , 25 (1), 135–42.
Munn, P., Johnstone, M. and Holligan, C. (1990) Morrison, K. R. B. (1998) Management Theories for
Pupils’ perceptions of effective disciplinarians. British Educational Change . London: Paul Chapman.
Educational Research Journal , 16 (2), 191–8. Morrison, K. R. B. (2001a) The open society and
Murphy, J., John, M. and Brown, H. (eds) (1984) education in Macau. Public sapientia lecture presented
Dialogues and Debates in Social Psychology . London: at the Inter-University Institute of Macau, October.
Erlbaum.
Morrison, K. R. B. (2001b) Randomised controlled Musch, J. and Br¨oder, A. (1999) Test anxiety versus trials for evidence-based education: some problems academic skills: a comparison of two alternative in judging ‘what works’. Evaluation and Research in
models for predicting performance in a statistics Education , 15 (2), 69–83.
Morrison, K. R. B. (2002a) School Leadership and exam. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, Complexity Theory . London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Morrison, K. R. B. (2002b) Education for the open, Nash, R. (1976) Classrooms Observed. London: democratic society in Macau. Paper presented to the
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Catholic Teachers’ Association, Macau, April. National Education Association of the United States: Morrison, K. R. B. (2003) Complexity theory and
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel- curriculum reforms in Hong Kong. Pedagogy, Culture
opment (1959) Learning about Learning from Ac- and Society , 22 (2), 279–302.
tion Research . Washington, DC: National Education Morrison, K. R. B. (2005a) Schooling for conformity
Association of the United States. in Macau. Conference paper for the conference
Naylor, P. (1995) Adolescents’ perceptions of teacher ‘Implementation and Rethinking of Educational
racism. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Loughborough Reforms in Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
University of Technology.
and Macau’. University of Macau, 29 May. Neal, S. (1995) Researching powerful people from a Morrison, K. R. B. (2005b) Improving teaching and
feminist and anti-racist perspective: a note on gender, learning in higher education: metaphors and models
collusion and marginality. British Educational Research for partnership consultancy. Evaluation and Research
Journal , 21 (4), 517–31.
in Education , 17 (1), 31–44. Nedelsky, L. (1954) Absolute grading standards Morrison, K. R. B. (2006) Sensitive educational research
for objective tests. Educational and Psychological in small states and territories: the case of Macau.
Measurement , 14, 3–19.
Compare , 36 (2), 249–64. Neimeyer, G. J. (1992) Personal constructs in career Morrison, K. R. B and Tang, F. H. (2002) Testing to
counselling and development. Journal of Career destruction: a problem in a small state. Assessment
Development , 18 (3), 163–73.
in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice , 9 (3), Nesfield-Cookson, B. (1987) William Blake: Prophet of 289–317.
Universal Brotherhood. London: Crucible. Morse, J. M. (1994) Design in funded qualitative
Nias, J. (1989) Primary Teachers Talking. London: research. In N. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds)
Routledge.
622 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nias, J. (1991) Primary teachers talking: a reflexive Oppenheim, A. N. (1992) Questionnaire Design, account of longitudinal research. In G. Walford
Interviewing and Attitude Measurement . London: (ed.) Doing Educational Research. London: Routledge,
Pinter.
147–65. Osborne, J. I. (1977) College of education students’ Nisbet, J. and Watt, J. (1984) Case study. In J. Bell,
perceptions of the teaching situation. Unpublished T. Bush, A. Fox, J. Goodey and S. Goulding (eds)
MEd dissertation, University of Liverpool. Conducting Small-Scale Investigations in Educational
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. S. and Tannenbaum, P. H. Management . London: Harper & Row,79–92.
(1957) The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana, IL: Nixon, J. (ed.) (1981) A Teacher’s Guide to Action
University of Illinois.
Research . London: Grant McIntyre. Overett, S. and Donald, D. (1998) Paired reading: Noack, P. (1998) School achievement and adolescents’
effects of a parental involvement programme in a interactions with their fathers, mothers, and friends.
disadvantaged community in South Africa. British European Journal of Psychology of Education , 13 (4),
Journal of Educational Psychology , 68, 347–56. 503–13.
Pallant, J. (2001) SPSS Survival Manual. Maidenhead: Noah, H. J. and Eckstein, M. A. (1988) Trade-offs in
Open University Press and McGraw-Hill Education. examination policies: an international comparative
Palys, T. S. (1978) Simulation methods and social perspective. In P. Broadfoot, R. Murphy and H.
psychology. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, Torrance (eds) Changing Educational Assessment.
London: Routledge, 84–97. Papasolomoutos, C. and Christie, T. (1998) Using Noffke, S. E. and Zeichner, K. M. (1987) Action
national surveys: a review of secondary analyses with research and teacher thinking. Paper presented at
special reference to schools. Educational Research, 40 the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, Washington, DC. Parker, H. J. (1974) View from the Boys. Newton Abbot: Norris, N. (1990) Understanding Educational Evaluation.
David & Charles.
London: Kogan Page. Parker, I. (1992) Discourse Dynamics: Critical Analysis for Nuttall, D. (1987) The validity of assessments. European
Social and Individual Psychology . London: Routledge. Journal of Psychology of Education , 11 (2), 109–18.
Parlett, M. and Hamilton, D. (1976) Evaluation Oakley, A. (1981) Interviewing women: a contradiction
as illumination. In D. Tawney (ed.) Curriculum in terms. In H. Roberts (ed.) Doing Feminist Research.
Evaluation Today: Trends and Implications . London: London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 30–61.
Macmillan, 84–101. Parsons, E., Chalkley, B. and Jones, A. (1996) The role
Oakley, A. (1998) Gender, methodology and people’s of Geographic Information Systems in the study of ways of knowing. Sociology, 34 (4), 707–31. parental choice and secondary school catchments. Oja, S. N. and Smulyan, L. (1989) Collaborative Action Evaluation and Research in Education , 10 (1), 23–34. Research: A Developmental Approach . Lewes: Falmer.
Parsons, J. M., Graham, N. and Honess, T. (1983) A Okagaki, L. and Frensch, P. A. (1998) Parenting
teacher’s implicit model of how children learn. British and school achievement: a multiethnic perspective. Educational Research Journal , 9 (1), 91–101. American Educational Research Journal , 35 (1),
Parsons, M. and Lyons, G. (1979) An alternative 123–44.
approach to enquiry in educational management. Oldroyd, D. (1986) The Arch of Knowledge: An
Educational Management and Administration , 8 (1), Introductory Study of the History of the Philosophy and
Methodology of Science. New York: Methuen. Paterson, L. (1991) An introduction to multilevel Olejnik, S. and Algina J. (2000) Measures of effect size
modelling. In S. W. Raudenbush and J. Willms (eds) for comparative studies: applications, interpretations,
Schools, Classrooms and Pupils: International Studies of and limitations. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
Schooling from a Multilevel Perspective . San Diego, CA: 25, 241–86.
Academic Press, 13–24.
O’Neill, B. and McMahon, H. (1990) Opening New Paterson, L. and Goldstein, H. (1991) New Windows with Bubble Dialogue . Language Develop-
statistical methods for analysing social structures: an ment and Hypermedia Research Group, Faculty of
introduction of multilevel models. British Educational Education, University of Ulster at Coleraine.
Research Journal , 17 (4), 387–93. Oppenheim, A. N. (1966) Questionnaire Design and
Patrick, J. (1973) A Glasgow Gang Observed. London: Attitude Measurement . London: Heinemann.
Eyre Methuen.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 623
Bibliography
Patton, M. Q. (1980) Qualitative Evaluation Methods. Pope, M. L. and Keen, T. R. (1981) Personal Construct
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Psychology and Education . London: Academic Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research
Press.
Methods (second edition). London: Sage. Popper, K. (1968) The Logic of Scientific Discovery Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. (1993) OXO, Tide brand X
(second edition). London: Hutchinson. and new improved evaluation. Paper presented at the
Potter, J. and Wetherall, M. (1987) Discourse and British Sociological Association Annual Conference,
Social Psychology: Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour . University of Essex.
London: Sage.
Payne, G., Dingwall, R., Payne, J. and Carter, M. (1980) Prein, G., Kelle, U. and Bird, K. (1995) An overview of Sociology and Social Research . London: Routledge &
software. In U. Kelle (ed.) Computer-Aided Qualitative Kegan Paul.
Data Analysis . London: Sage.
Peak, D. and Frame, M. (1994) Chaos under Control: Preisler, G. M. and Ahstr¨om, M. (1997) Sign language The Art and Science of Complexity . New York:
for hard of hearing children – a hindrance or a benefit W. H. Freeman.
for their development? European Journal of Psychology Peevers, B. H. and Secord, P. F. (1973) Developmental
of Education , 12 (4), 465–77.
changes in attribution of descriptive concepts to Pring, R. (1984) The problems of confidentiality. In M. persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
Skilbeck (ed.) Evaluating the Curriculum in the Eighties. 27 (1), 120–8.
Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton, 38–44. Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos. London: Pan.
Prior, L. (2003) Using Documents in Social Research. Phillips, R. (1998) Some methodological and ethical
London: Sage.
dilemmas in ´elite-based research. British Educational Prosser, M. and Trigwell, K. (1997) Relations between Research Journal , 24 (1), 5–20.
perceptions of the teaching environment and Pike, D. (ed.) (1991) The Threat and the Glory: Reflections
approaches to teaching. British Journal of Educational on Science and Scientists . Oxford: Oxford University
Psychology , 67, 25–35.
Press. Punch, K. F. (2003) Survey Research: The Basics. London: Pilliner, A. (1973) Experiment in Educational Research. E
Sage.
341. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Quantz, R. A. (1992) On critical ethnography (with Pitman, M. A. and Maxwell, J. A. (1992) Qualitative
some postmodern considerations). In M. LeCompte, approaches to evaluation: models and methods. In
W. L. Millroy and J. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy and J. Preissle (eds)
Qualitative Research in Education . London: Academic The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education .
Press, 447–506.
London: Academic Press, 729–70. Raffe, D., Bundell, I. and Bibby, J. (1989) Ethics and Platt, J. (1981) Evidence and proof in documentary
tactics: issues arising from an educational survey. In research: some specific problems of documentary
R. G. Burgess (ed.) The Ethics of Educational Research. research. Sociological Review, 29 (1), 31–52.
Lewes: Falmer, 13–30.
Plewis, I. (1985) Analysing Change: Measurement and Ramsden, C. and Reason, D. (1997) Conversa- Explanation Using Longitudinal Data . Chichester:
tion – discourse analysis in library and information John Wiley.
services. Education for Information, 15 (4), 283–95. Plewis, I. (1991) Using multilevel models to link
Rapoport, R. N. (1970) Three dilemmas in action educational progress with curriculum coverage. In
research. Human Relations, 23 (6), 499–513. S. W. Raudenbush and J. Willms (eds) Schools,
Rasmussen, D. M. (1990) Reading Habermas. Oxford: Classrooms and Pupils: International Studies of Schooling
Basil Blackwell.
from a Multilevel Perspective . San Diego, CA: Ravenette, A. T. (1977) Personal construct theory: Academic Press, 53–65.
an approach to the psychological investigation of Plewis, I. (1997) Statistics in Education. London:
children and young people. In D. Bannister (ed.) New Arnold.
Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory . London: Plummer, K. (1983) Documents of Life: An Introduction
Academic Press, 251–80.
to the Problems and Literature of a Humanistic Method . Redline, C. D., Dillman, D. A., Carley-Baxter, L. London: Allen & Unwin.
and Creecy, R. (2002) Factors that influence Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School.
reading and comprehension in self-administered Eastbourne: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
questionnaires. Paper presented at the Workshop
624 BIBLIOGRAPHY
on Item-Nonresponse and Data Quality, Basle, Robson, J. and Collier, K. (1991) Designing ‘‘Sugar ‘n’ Switzerland, 10 October.
Spice’’ – An anti-sexist simulation. Simulation/Games Reips, U.-D. (2002a) Internet-based psychological
for Learning , 21 (3), 213–19. experimenting: five dos and don’ts. Social Science
Roderick, R. (1986) Habermas and the Foundations of Computer Review , 20 (3), 241–9.
Critical Theory . London: Macmillan. Reips, U.-D. (2002b) Standards for Internet-based
Rodrigues, D. and Rodrigues, R. (2000) The Research experimenting. Experimental Psychology, 49 (4),
Paper and the World Wide Web. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 243–56.
Prentice Hall.
Renzetti, C. M. and Lee, R. M. (1993) Researching Rogers, C. R. (1942) Counselling and Psychotherapy. Sensitive Topics . London: Sage.
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Rex, J. (ed.) (1974) Approaches to Sociology: An
Rogers, C. R. (1945) The non-directive method as a Introduction to Major Trends in British Sociology .
technique for social research. American Journal of London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Sociology , 50, 279–83.
Reynolds, P. D. (1979) Ethical Dilemmas and Social Rogers, C. R. (1969) Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Science Research . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merrill.
Ribbens, J. and Edwards, R. (1997) Feminist Dilemmas Rogers, C. R. and Stevens, B. (1967) Person to Person: in Qualitative Research: Public Knowledge and Private
The Problem of Being Human . London: Souvenir. Lives . London: Sage.
Rogers, V. M. and Atwood, R. K. (1974) Can we Rice, J. M. (1897) The futility of the spelling grind. Cited
put ourselves in their place? Yearbook of the National in G. de Landsheere (1997) History of educational
Council for Social Studies , 44, 80–111. research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research,
Roman, L. G. and Apple, M. (1990) Is Naturalism a Methodology, and Measurement: An International
move away from positivism? Materialist and feminist Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science,
approaches to subjectivity in ethnographic research. 8–16.
In E. Eisner and A. Peshkin (eds) Qualitative Inquiry Richardson, J. T. E. (1996) Measures of effect size.
in Education: The Continuing Debate . New York: Behavior Research Methods Instruments and Computers ,
Teachers College Press, 38–73. 28, 12–22.
Rose, D. and Sullivan, O. (1993) Introducing Data Ridgway, J. (1998) The Modeling of Systems and
Analysis for Social Scientists . Buckingham: Open Macro-Systemic Change: Lessons for Evaluation from
University Press.
Epidemiology and Ecology . Research Monograph 8. Rosenthal, R. (1991) Meta-analysis Procedures for Social University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI: National
Research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Institute for Science Education.
Rosier, M. J. (1997) Survey research methods. In J. Riecken, H. W. and Boruch, R. F. (1974) Social
P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology Explanation: A Method for Planning and Evaluating
and Measurement: An International Handbook (second Social Intervention . New York: Academic Press.
edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 154–62. Rigby, K. (1999) Peer victimisation at school and the
Ross, K. N. and Rust, K. (1997) Sampling in survey health of secondary school students. British Journal of
research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Educational Psychology , 69, 95–104.
Methodology and Measurement: An International Riley, M. W. (1963) Sociological Research 1: A
Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Case Approach . New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World. Ross, K. N. and Wilson, M. (1997) Sampling Robinson, B. (1982) Tutoring by Telephone: A Handbook.
error in survey research. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement: Robinson, P. and Smithers, A. (1999) Should the sexes
An International Handbook (second edition). Oxford: be separated for secondary education – comparisons
Elsevier Science, 663–70. of single-sex and co-educational schools? Research
Roszak, T. (1970) The Making of a Counter Culture. Papers in Education , 14 (1), 23–49.
London: Faber & Faber.
Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research. Oxford: Roszak, T. (1972) Where the Wasteland Ends. London: Blackwell.
Faber & Faber.
Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research (second edition). Rozeboom, W. W. (1997) Good science is abductive, Oxford: Blackwell.
not hypothetico-deductive. In L. L. Harlow, S. A.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 625
Bibliography
Muliak and J. H. Steiger (eds) What if There Were No Scheurich, J. J. (1995) A postmodernist critique of
Significance Tests? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 335–92. research interviewing. Qualitative Studies in Education, Roztocki, N. and Lahri, N. A. (2002) Is the ap-
plicability of web-based surveys for academic Scheurich, J. J. (1996) The masks of validity: a research limited to the field of information tech-
deconstructive investigation. International Journal of nology? Proceedings of the Thirty-sixth Hawaii
Qualitative Studies in Education , 9 (1), 49–60. International Conference on System Sciences.
Schofield, J. W. (1990). Generalizability in qualitative http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/
research. In E. Eisner and A. Peshkin (eds) Qualitative 2003/1874/08/187480262a.pdf.
26 Inquiry in Education . New York: Teachers College February 2005.
Retrieved
Press, 201–32.
Ruane, J. M. (2005) Essentials of Research Methods: A Schofield, W. (1996) Survey sampling. In R. Sapsford Guide to Social Science Research . Oxford: Blackwell.
and V. Jupp (1996) (eds) Data Collection and Analysis. Ruddock, J. (1981) Evaluation: A Consideration of
London: Sage and the Open University Press, Principles and Methods . Manchester Monographs 10.
Manchester: University of Manchester. Sch¨on, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Ruspini, E. (2002) Introduction to Longitudinal Research.
Professionals Think in Action . London: Temple Smith. London: Routledge.
Sch¨on, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. Ryle, A. (1975) Frames and Cages: The Repertory Grid
San Francisco, CA Jossey-Bass.
Approach to Human Understanding . Brighton: Sussex University Press.
Schutz, A. (1962) Collected Papers. The Hague: Nijhoff. Sacks, H. (1992) Lectures on Conversation, edited G.
Schwarz, S. and Reips, U.-D. (2001) CGI versus Jefferson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Javascript: a web experiment on the reversed Sacks, P. (1999) Standardized Minds. Cambridge, MA:
hindsight bias. In U.-D. Reips and M. Bosnjak (eds) Perseus.
Dimensions of Internet Science . Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science, 75–90.
Sagor, R. (2005) The Action Research Guidebook: A Four-Step Process for Educators and Teams . Thousand
Scott, J. (1990) A Matter of Record. Cambridge: Polity Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Press.
Sainsbury, M., Whetton, C., Mason, K. and Schagen, Scott, S. (1985) Feminist research and qualitative I. (1998) Fallback in attainment on transfer at
methods: a discussion of some of the issues. In R. G. age 11: evidence from the summer literacy schools
Burgess (ed.) Issues in Educational Research: Qualitative evaluation. Educational Research, 40 (1), 73–81.
Methods . Lewes: Falmer, 67–85. Salmon, P. (1969) Differential conforming of the
Sears, R., Maccoby, E. and Levin, H. (1957) Patterns developmental process. British Journal of Social and
of Child Rearing . Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Clinical Psychology , 8, 22–31.
Press.
Sanday, A. (1993) The relationship between educa- Sears, R. R., Rau, L. and Alpert, R. (1965) Identification tional research and evaluation and the role of the
and Child Rearing . Stanford, CA: Stanford University local education authority. In R. G. Burgess (ed.) Edu-
Press.
cational Research and Evaluation for Policy and Practice . Secord, P. F. and Peevers, B. H. (1974) The London: Falmer, 32–43.
development and attribution of person concepts. In Santonus, M. (1998) Simple, Yet Complex. http://www.
T. Mischel (ed.) On Understanding Persons. Oxford: cio.com/archive/enterprise/041598
Basil Blackwell.
qanda content.html. Retrieved 10 November 2000. Seidel, J. and Kelle, U. (1995) Different functions Sapsford, R. (1999) Survey Research. London: Sage.
of coding in the analysis of textual data. In U. Schagen, I. and Sainsbury, M. (1996) Multilevel analysis
Kelle (ed.) Computer-aided Qualitative Data Analysis: of the key stage 1 national curriculum data in 1995.
Theory, Methods and Practice . London: Sage, 52–61. Oxford Review of Education , 22 (3), 265–72.
Seifert, T. L. (1997) Academic goals and emotions: Schatzman, L. and Strauss, A. L. (1973) Field Research:
results of a structural equation model and a cluster Strategies for a Natural Sociology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, Prentice Hall.
626 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selleck, R. W. J. (1991) The Manchester Statistical Sikes, P. and Troyna, B. (1991) True stories: a case Society and the foundation of social science research.
study in the use of life histories in teacher education. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for
Educational Review , 43 (1), 3–16. Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
Sikes, P., Measor, L. and Woods, P. (1985) Teacher Falmer, 291–304.
Careers . Lewes: Falmer.
Sellitz, C., Wrightsman, L. S. and Cook, S. W. (1976) Silverman, D. (1985) Qualitative Methodology and Research Methods in Social Relations . New York: Holt,
Sociology: Describing the Social World . Brookfield, Rinehart & Winston.
VT: Gower.
Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data. Dutton, J. and Kleiner, A. (2000) Schools that Learn.
London: Sage.
London: Nicholas Brealey. Simon, H. A. (1996) The Sciences of the Artificial (third Serafini, A. (ed.) (1989) Ethics and Social Concern. New
edition). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. York: Paragon House.
Simon, J. L. (1978) Basic Research Methods in Social Severiens, S. and ten Dam, G. (1998) A multilevel
Science . New York: Random House. meta-analysis of gender differences in learning
Simons, H. (1982) Conversation piece: the practice orientations. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
of interviewing in case study research. In R. 68, 595–618.
McCormick (ed.) Calling Education to Account. Shapiro, B. L. (1990) A collaborative approach to
London: Heinemann, 239–46. help novice science teachers reflect on changes
Simons, H. (1989) Getting to Know School in a in their construction of the role of the science
Democracy . London: Falmer. teacher. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 36 (3),
Simons, H. (1996) The paradox of case study. Cambridge 203–22.
Journal of Education , 26 (2), 225–40. Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B. and Zechmeister,
Simons, H. (2000) Damned if you do, damned if you J. S. (2003) Research Methods in Psychology (sixth
don’t: ethical and political dilemmas in education. edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
In H. Simons and R. Usher (eds) Situated Ethics Shavelson, R. J. and Berliner, D. C. (1991) Erosion of
in Educational Research . London: RoutledgeFalmer, 39–55.
the education research infrastructure: a reply to Finn. Simons, H. and Usher, R. (2000) Introduction: ethics in In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Knowledge for the practice of research. In H. Simons and R. Usher Policy: Improving Education through Research . London:
Falmer, 79–84. (eds) Situated Ethics in Educational Research. London: RoutledgeFalmer, 1–11.
Shaw, E. L. (1992) The influence of methods instruction Simons, H. and Usher, R. (eds) (2000) Situated Ethics in on the beliefs of preservice elementary and secondary Educational Research . London: RoutledgeFalmer. science teachers: preliminary comparative analyses. Slavin, R. E. (1984a) Meta-analysis in education: how School Science and Mathematics , 92, 14–22. has it been used? Educational Researcher (American Shuy, R. W. (2003) In-person versus telephone
Educational Research Association), 13 (8), 6–15 interviewing. In J. A. Holstein and J. F. Gubrium
Slavin, R. E. (1984b) A rejoinder to Carlberg (eds) Inside Interviewing: New Lenses, New Concerns.
et al. Educational Researcher (American Educational Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 173–193.
Research Association), 13 (8), 24–7. Sideris, G. (1998) Direct classroom observation.
Smith, H. W. (1975) Strategies of Social Research: The Research in Education , 59, 19–28.
Methodological Imagination . London: Prentice Hall. Sieber, J. E. (1992) Planning Ethically Responsible
Smith, H. W. (1991) Strategies of Social Research (third Research: A Guide for Students and Internal Review
edition). Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Boards . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Smith, L. M. (1987) Kensington Revisited. Lewes: Falmer. Sieber, J. E. and Stanley, B. (1988) Ethical and
Smith, M. and Leigh, B. (1997) Virtual subjects: using professional dimensions of socially sensitive research.
the Internet as an alternative source of subjects and American Psychologist , 43, 49–55.
research environment. Behavior Research Methods, Siegel, H. (1987) Relativism Refuted. Dordrecht,
Instruments and Computers , 29, 496–505. Netherlands: D. Reidel.
Smith, M. L. and Glass, G. V. (1977) Meta- Siegel, S. (1956) Nonparametric Statistics for the
analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies. American Behavioral Sciences . New York: McGraw-Hill.
Psychologist , 32, 752–60.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 627
Bibliography
Smith, M. L. and Glass, G. V. (1987) Research Spradley, J. P. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. New
and Evaluation in Education and the Social Sciences . York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Spradley, J. P. (1980) Participant Observation. New York: Smith, S. and Leach, C. (1972) A hierarchical measure
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
of cognitive complexity. British Journal of Psychology, Stables, A. (1990) Differences between pupils from 63 (4), 561–8.
mixed and single-sex schools in their enjoyment of Smyth, J. (1989) Developing and sustaining critical
school subjects and in their attitude to science in reflection in teacher education. Journal of Teacher
school. Educational Review, 42 (3), 221–30. Education , 40 (2), 2–9.
Stacey, J. (1988). Can there be a feminist ethnography? Smyth, J. D., Dillman, D. A., Christian, L. M. and Stern,
Women’s Studies International Forum , 11 (1), M. J. (2004) How visual grouping influences answers
to Internet surveys. Paper presented at the American Stake, R. E. (1978) The case study method Association for Public Opinion Research, Phoenix,
in social inquiry. Educational Researcher, 7 (2), AZ.
Social and Community Planning Research (1972) Stake, R. E. (1994) Case studies. In N. K. Denzin and Questionnaire Design Manual No. 5 . Available from
Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research. 16 Duncan Terrace, London, N1 8BZ.
London: Sage, 236–47.
Social Research Association (2003) Ethical Guidelines. Stake, R. E. (1995) The Art of Case Study Research. http://www.the-sra.org.uk/ethics03.pdf. Retrieved 15
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
May 2005. Stenbacka, C. (2001) Qualitative research requires Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of
quality concepts of its own. Management Decision, Canada (1981) Ethical Guidelines for the Institutional
Review Committee for Research with Human Subjects . Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Solomon, D. J. (2001) Conducting web-based surveys
Research and Development . London: Heinemann. ERIC Digest. ED458291 ERIC Clearinghouse on
Stenhouse, L. (1979) What is action research? (mimeo). Assessment and Evaluation, College Park, MD. http://
Norwich: Classroom Action Research Network. www.ericdigests.org/2002–2/surveys.htm. Retrieved
Stenhouse, L. (1985) Case study methods. In T. 14 April 2004.
Husen and T. N. Postlethwaite (eds) International Solomon, R. L. (1949) An extension of control group
Encyclopaedia of Education (first edition). Oxford: design. Psychological Bulletin, 46, 137–50.
Pergamon, 640–6.
Somekh, B. (1995) The contribution of action research Stewart, I. (1990) Does God Play Dice? Harmondsworth: to development in social endeavours: a position paper
Penguin.
on action research methodology. British Educational Stewart, J. and Yalonis, C. (2001) Internet-based Research Journal , 21 (3), 339–55.
surveys and sampling issues. Communique Partners. Southgate, V., Arnold, H. and Johnson, S. (1981)
http://www.communiquepartners.com/white papers/ Extending Beginning Reading . London: Heinemann
sampling issues and the internet briefing paper.pdf. Educational Books for the Schools Council.
Retrieved 26 January 2005.
Spector, P. E. (1993) Research designs. In M. Stewart, M. (2001) The Co-Evolving Organization. L. Lewis-Beck (ed.) Experimental Design and
Rutland, UK: Decomplexity Associates. http://www. Methods . International Handbook of Quantitative
decomplexity.com/Coevolving%20Organization%20 Applications in the Social Sciences, Volume 3.
VU.pdf. Retrieved 14 November 2001. London: Sage, 1–74.
Stiggins, R. J. (2001) Student-Involved Classroom Spencer, J. R. and Flin, R. (1990) The Evidence of
Assessment (third edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Children . London: Blackstone.
Merrill Prentice Hall.
Spindler, G. (ed.) (1982) Doing the Ethnography of Stillar, G. F. (1998) Analysing Everyday Texts: Schooling . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Discourses, Rhetoric, and Social Perspectives . London: Spindler, G. and Spindler, L. (1992) Cultural process
Sage.
and ethnography: an anthropological perspective. In Strand, S. (1999) Ethnic group, sex and economic M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy and J. Preissle (eds)
disadvantage: associations with pupils’ educational The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education .
progress from Baseline to the end of Key Stage 1. London: Academic Press, 53–92.
British Educational Research Journal , 25 (2), 179–202.
628 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Strauss, A. L. (1987) Qualitative Analysis for Social power in fieldwork accounts. International Journal of Scientists . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Social Research Methodology , 7 (5), 363–81. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative
Thissen, D. (1990) Reliability and measurement Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques .
precision. In H. Wainer (ed.) Computer Adaptive Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Testing: A Primer . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 161–86. Strauss, A. L. and Corbin, J. (1994) Grounded theory
Thody, A. (1997) Lies, damned lies – and storytelling. methodology: an overview. In N. Denzin and Y.
Educational Management and Administration , 25 (3), Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 273–85. Thomas, G. and Pring, R. (2004) Evidence-Based Practice Strike, K. A. (1990) The ethics of educational
in Education . Maidenhead: Open University Press. evaluation. In J. Millman and L. Darling-Hammond
Thomas, J. B. (1992) Birmingham University and (eds) A New Handbook of Teacher Evaluation.
teacher training: day training college to department Newbury Park, CA: Corwin, 356–73.
of education. History of Education, 21 (3), 307–21. Stronach, I. and Morris, B. (1994) Polemical notes on
Thomas, L. F. (1978) A personal construct approach educational evaluation in an age of ‘policy hysteria’.
to learning in education, training and therapy. In F. Evaluation and Research in Education , 8 (1–2), 5–19.
Fransella (ed.) Personal Construct Psychology. London: Stubbs, M. and Delamont, S. (eds) (1976) Explorations
Academic Press, 45–58.
in Classroom Observation . Chichester: John Wiley. Thomas, P. (1991) Research models: insiders, gadflies, Sturman, A. (1997) Case study methods. In J. P. limestone. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle (eds) Keeves (ed.) Educational Research, Methodology and Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Measurement: An International Handbook (second Research edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, 61–6. . London: Falmer, 225–33.
Sturman, A. (1999) Case study methods. In J. P. Keeves Thomas, S., Sammons, P., Mortimore, P. and Smees, and G. Lakomski (eds) Issues in Educational Research.
R. (1997) Differential secondary school effectiveness: Oxford: Elsevier Science, 103–12.
comparing the performance of different pupil groups. Sudman, S. and Bradburn, N. M. (1982) Asking
British Educational Research Journal , 23 (4), 351–69. Questions: A Practical Guide to Questionnaire Design .
Thomas, W. I. (1923) The Unadjusted Girl. Boston, MA: San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Little Brown.
Sutherland, G. (1969) The study of the history of Thomas, W. I. (1928) The Child in America. New education. History, 54 (180).
York: Knopf.
Swantz, M. (1996) A personal position paper on Thomas, W. I. and Znaniecki, F. (1918) The participatory research: personal quest for living
Polish Peasant in Europe and America . Chicago, IL: knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 2 (1), 120–36.
University of Chicago Press. Sykes, W. and Hoinville, G. (1985) Telephone
Thompson, B. (1994) Guidelines for authors. Interviewing on a Survey of Social Attitudes . London:
Educational and Psychological Measurement , 54, Social and Community Planning Research.
Task Group on Assessment and Testing (1988) Thompson, B. (1996) AERA editorial policies regarding National Curriculum: Testing and Assessment: A Report .
statistical significance testing: three suggested London: HMSO.
reforms. Educational Researcher, 25 (2), 26–30. Tatar, M. (1998) Teachers as significant others: gender
Thompson, B. (1998) In praise of brilliance: where differences in secondary school pupils’ perceptions.
that praise really belongs. American Psychologist, 53, British Journal of Educational Psychology , 68, 255–68.
Taylor, J. L. and Walford, R. (1972) Simulation in the Thompson, B. (2001) Significance, effect sizes, stepwise Classroom . Harmondsworth: Penguin.
methods, and other issues: strong arguments more the Terry, A. A. (1998) Teachers as targets of bullying by
field. Journal of Experimental Education, 70, 80–93. their pupils: a study to investigate incidence. British
Thompson, B. (2002) What future quantitative social Journal of Educational Psychology , 68, 255–68.
science research could look like: confidence intervals Tesch, R. (1990) Qualitative Research: Analysis Types
for effect sizes. Educational Researcher, April, 25–32. and Software Tools . London: Falmer.
Thompson, B. and Snyder, P. A. (1997) Statistical Thapar-Bj¨orket, S. and Henry, M. (2004) Reassessing
significance testing practices in the Journal of the research relationship: location, position and
Experimental Education , 66, 75–83.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 629
Bibliography
Thorne, B. (1994) Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School. Research . London: Routledge, 120–42.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Usher, R. and Scott, D. (1996) Afterword: the politics Thurstone, L. L. and Chave, E. J. (1929) The
of educational research. In D. Scott and R. Usher Measurement of Attitudes . Chicago, IL: University
(eds) Understanding Educational Research. London: of Chicago Press.
Routledge, 175–80.
Ticehurst, G. W. and Veal, A. J. (2000) Business Valadines, N. (1999) Formal reasoning performance Research Methods . Frechs Forest, NSW: Pearson.
of higher secondary school students: theoretical Tombari, M. and Borich, G. (1999) Authentic Assessment
and educational implications. European Journal of in the Classroom . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Psychology of Education , 14 (1), 109–17. Tones, K. (1997) Beyond the randomized controlled
Van Etten, S., Pressley, M., Freebern, G. and trial: a case for ‘judicial review’. Health Education
Echevarria, M. (1998) An interview study of college Research , 12 (2), i–iv.
freshmen’s beliefs about their academic motivation. Torres, C. A. (1992) Participatory action research and
European Journal of Psychology of Education , 13 (1), popular education in Latin America. International
Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 5 (1), Van Ments, M. (1978) Role-playing: playing a part or a 51–62.
mirror to meaning? Sagset Journal, 8 (3), 83–92. Travers, R. M. W. (1969) An Introduction to Educational
Van Ments, M. (1983) The Effective Use of Role-Play: A Research . London: Collier-Macmillan.
Handbook for Teachers and Trainers . London: Croom Tripp, D. H. (1985) Case study generalisation: an agenda
Helm.
for action. British Educational Research Journal, 11 (1), Van Meter, K. M. (2000) Sensitive topics – sensitive 33–43.
questions: overview of the sociological research Tripp, D. H. (1994) Teachers’ lives, critical incidents
literature. Bulletin de Methodologie Sociologique, 68 and professional practice. International Journal of
(October), 59–78.
Qualitative Studies in Education , 7 (1), 65–72. Vasta, R. (1979) Studying Children: An Introduction Troyna, B. and Hatcher, R. (1992) Racism in Children’s
to Research Methods . San Francisco, CA: W. Lives: A Study in Mainly White Primary Schools .
H. Freeman.
London: Routledge. Verma, G. K. and Mallick, K. (1999) Researching Edu- Tuckman, B. W. (1972) Conducting Educational
cation: Perspectives and Techniques . London: Falmer. Research . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Verma, G. K. and Beard, R. M. (1981) What is Tweddle, S., Avis, P., Wright, J. and Waller, T.
Educational Research? Aldershot: Gower. (1998) Towards evaluating web sites. British Journal
Vermunt, J. D. (1998) The regulation of constructive of Educational Technology , 29 (3), 267–70.
learning processes. British Journal of Educational Tyler, R. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Psychology , 68, 149–71.
Instruction . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Virtual Surveys Limited (2003) How to Do Online Tymms, P. (1996) Theories, models and simulations:
Research . Virtual Surveys Limited. http://www. school effectiveness at an impasse. In J. Gray, D.
virtualsurveys.com/papers/paper 3.asp. Retrieved 6 Reynolds, C. T. Fitz-Gibbon and D. Jesson (eds)
January 2003.
Merging Traditions: The Future of Research on School Von Eye, A. (1990) Statistical Methods in Longitudinal Effectiveness and School Improvement . London: Cassell,
Research . New York: Academic Press. 121–35.
Vulliamy, G. (1990) The potential of qualitative Tymms, P. B. (1999) Baseline Assessment and Monitoring
educational research in developing countries. In in the Primary Schools . London: David Fulton.
G. Vulliamy, K. Lewin and D. Stephens (1990) UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within.
Doing Educational Research in Developing Countries: Paris: UNESCO.
Qualitative Strategies . London: Falmer, 7–25. US Dept of Health, Education and Welfare, Public
Vulliamy, G., Lewin, K. and Stephens, D. (1990) Health Service and National Institute of Health
Doing Educational Research in Developing Countries: (1971) The Institutional Guide to D.H.E.W. Policy
Qualitative Strategies . London: Falmer. on Protecting Human Subjects , DHEW Publication
Wainer, H. (ed.) (1990) Computerized Adaptive Testing: (NIH): 2 December, 72–102.
A Primer . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Usher, P. (1996) Feminist approaches to research. In D.
Wainer, H. and Mislevy, R. J. (1990) Item response Scott and R. Usher (eds) Understanding Educational
theory, item calibration and proficiency estimation.
630 BIBLIOGRAPHY
In H. Wainer (ed.) Computerized Adaptive Testing: A Wedeen, P., Winter, J. and Broadfoot, P. (2002) Primer . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 65–102.
Assessment: What’s in it for Schools? London: Waldrop, M. M. (1992) Complexity: The Emerging
RoutledgeFalmer.
Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos . Harmonds- Weems, G. H., Onwuegbuzie, A. J. and Lustig, D. (2003) worth: Penguin.
Profiles of respondents who respond inconsistently to Walford, G. (1994a) A new focus on the powerful. In G.
positively- and negatively-worded items on rating Walford (ed.) Researching the Powerful in Education.
scales. Evaluation and Research in Education, 17 (1), London: UCL Press, 2–11.
Walford, G. (1994b) Ethics and power in a study Weisberg, H. F., Krosnick, J. A. and Bowen, B. D. (1996) of pressure group politics. In G. Walford (ed.)
An Introduction to Survey Research, Polling, and Data Researching the Powerful in Education . London: UCL
Analysis (third edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Press, 81–93.
Weiskopf, R. and Laske, S. (1996) Emancipatory Walford, G. (1994c) Reflections on researching the
action research: a critical alternative to personnel powerful. In G. Walford (ed.) Researching the Powerful
development or a new way of patronising people? in Education . London: UCL Press, 222–31.
In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New Directions in Action Walford, G. (ed.) (1994d) Researching the Powerful in
Research . London: Falmer, 121–36. Education . London: UCL Press.
Weiss, C. (1991a) The many meanings of research Walford, G. (2001) Doing Qualitative Educational
utilization. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle Research: A Personal Guide to the Research Process .
(eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through London: Continuum.
Research . London: Falmer, 173–82. Walker, R. (1980) Making sense and losing meaning:
Weiss, C. (1991b) Knowledge creep and decision problems of selection in doing case study. In H.
accretion. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle Simons (ed.) Towards a Science of the Singular.
(eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education,
Research . London: Falmer, 183–92. University of East Anglia, 222–35.
Wheatley, M. (1999) Leadership and the New Science: Walker R. and Adelman, C. (1976) Strawberries. In
Discovering Order in a Chaotic World (second edition). M. Stubbs and S. Delamont (eds) Explorations in
San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Classroom Research . London: Wiley, 133–50.
Whitehead, J. (1985) An analysis of an individual’s Wardekker, W. L. and Miedama, S. (1997) Critical
educational development: the basis for personally pedagogy: an evaluation and a direction for
oriented action research. In M. Shipman (ed.) reformulation. Curriculum Inquiry, 27 (1), 45–61.
Educational Research: Principles, Policies and Practices. Warnock, M. (1970) Existentialism. London: Oxford
Lewes: Falmer, 97–108.
University Press. Whiteley, P. (1983) The analysis of contingency tables. Watt, J. H. (1997) Using the Internet for quantitative
In D. McKay, N. Schofield and P. Whiteley (eds) survey research. Quirk’s Marketing Research Review,
Data Analysis and the Social Sciences . London: Frances July,
http://www.swiftinteractive.com.white1.asp.
Pinter, 72–119.
Retrieved 6 January 2003. Whitty, G. and Edwards, A. D. (1994) Researching Watts, M. and Ebbutt, D. (1987) More than the sum
Thatcherite policy. In G. Walford (ed.) Researching of the parts: research methods in group interviewing.
the Powerful in Education . London: UCL Press, 14–31. British Educational Research Journal , 13 (1), 25–34.
Whyte, J. (1986) Girls Into Science and Technology: The Webb, G. (1996) Becoming critical of action research
Story of a Project . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. for development. In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New
Whyte, W. F. (1949) Street Corner Society: The Social Directions in Action Research . London: Falmer,
Structure of an Italian Slum (second edition). Chicago, 137–61.
IL: University of Chicago Press. Webb, L. M., Walker, K. L. and Bollis, T. S. (2004)
Whyte, W. F. (1955) Street Corner Society: The Feminist pedagogy in the teaching of research
Social Structure of an Italian Slum (enlarged edition). methods. International Journal of Social Research
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Methodology , 7 (5), 415–28.
Whyte, W. F. (1982) Interviewing in field research. In Weber, R. P. (1990) Basic Content Analysis (second
R. Burgess (ed.) Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Manual . London: Allen & Unwin, 111–22.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 631
Bibliography
Whyte, W. F. (1993) Street Corner Society: The Social quantitative research. The Qualitative Report, 4 (3–4),
Structure of an Italian Slum (fourth edition). Chicago, March. www.nova.edu/sss/QR/QR4–3/winter.html. IL: University of Chicago Press.
Retrieved 29 October 2005.
Wickens, P. (1987) The Road to Nissan: Flexibility, Winter, R. (1982) Dilemma analysis: a contribution to Quality, Teamwork . London: Macmillan.
methodology for action research. Cambridge Journal Wiggins, G. (1998) Educative Assessment. San Francisco,
of Education , 12 (3), 161–74.
CA: Jossey-Bass. Winter, R. (1996) Some principles and procedures Wilcox, R. R. (1997) Simulation as a research
for the conduct of action research. In O. Zuber- technique. In J. P. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research,
Skerritt (ed.) New Directions in Action Research. Methodology and Measurement: An International
London: Falmer.
Handbook (second edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Witmer, D. F., Colman, R. W. and Katzman, S. L. 150–4.
(1999) From paper-and-pencil to screen-and- Wild, P., Scivier, J. E. and Richardson, S. J. (1992)
keyboard: toward a methodology for survey research Evaluating information technology-supported local
on the Internet. In S. Jones (ed.) Doing Internet management of schools: the user acceptability audit.
Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 145–61. Educational Management and Administration , 20 (1),
Witte, J. C., Amoroso, L. M. and Howard, P. E. N. 40–8.
(1999) Method and Representation in Internet–based Wiles, J. and Bondi, J.C. (1984) Curriculum
Survey Tools: Mobility, Community, and Cultural Development: A Guide to Practice (second edition).
Identity in Survey2000 . Evanston, IL: Department of Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Sociology, Northwestern University. Wiliam, D. (1996) Standards in examinations: a matter
Wittgenstein, L. (1974) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, of trust. The Curriculum Journal, 7 (3), 293–306.
trans. D. Pears and B. McGuiness. London: Routledge Wilkinson, J. (2000) Direct observation. In G. M.
& Kegan Paul.
Breakwell, S. Hammond and C. Fife-Shaw (eds) Wolcott, H. F. (1973) The Man in the Principal’s Office. Research Methods in Psychology (second edition).
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. London: Sage, 224–238.
Wolcott, H. F. (1992) Posturing in qualitative research. Wilkinson, L. and the Task Force on Statistical
In M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy and J. Preissle (eds) Inference, APA Board of Scientific Affairs (1999)
The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education . Statistical methods in psychology journals: guidelines
London: Academic Press, 3–52. and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594–604.
F. M. (1986) Meta-analysis: Quantitative Willis, P. E. (1977) Learning to Labour. Farnborough,
Wolf,
Methods for Research Synthesis . Newbury Park, CA: UK: Saxon House.
Sage. Wolf, R. M. (1994) The validity and reliability of
Willms, J. D. (1992) Pride or prejudice? Opportunity structure and the effects of Catholic schools in
outcome measure. In A. C. Tuijnman and T. Scotland. In A. Yogev (ed.) International Perspectives
N. Postlethwaite (eds) Monitoring the Standards of on Education and Society: A Research and Policy Annual
Education . Oxford: Pergamon, 121–32.
Volume 2. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Wolff, S. (2004) Ways into the field and their variants. In U. Flick, E. von Kardoff and I. Steinke (eds)
Wilson, M. (1996) Asking questions. In R. Sapsford and A Companion to Qualitative Research . London: Sage, V. Jupp (eds) Data Collection and Analysis. London:
Sage and the Open University Press, 94–120.
195–202. Wood, P. (1995) Meta-analysis. In G. M. Breakwell, S.
Wilson, N. and McLean, S. (1994) Questionnaire Hammond and C. Fife-Shaw (eds) Research Methods Design: A Practical Introduction . Newtown Abbey,
in Psychology . London: Sage, 396–99. Co. Antrim: University of Ulster Press.
Woods, P. (1979) The Divided School. London: Routledge Wineburg, S. S. (1991) The self-fulfilment of the self-
& Kegan Paul.
fulfilling prophecy. In D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle Woods, P. (1983) Sociology and the School. London: (eds) Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Research . London: Falmer, 276–90. Woods, P. (1986) Inside Schools: Ethnography in Winkley, D. (1995) Diplomats and Detectives: LEA
Educational Research . London: Routledge & Kegan Advisers and Work . London: Robert Royce.
Paul.
Winter, G. (2000) A comparative discussion of Woods, P. (1989) Working for Teacher Development. the notion of ‘validity’ in qualitative and
Dereham, UK: Peter Francis.
632 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Woods, P. (1992) Symbolic interactionism: theory Young, J. (1971) The Drugtakers. London: Paladin. and method. In M. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy
Youngblood, M. (1997) Life at the Edge of Chaos. Dallas, and J. Preissle (eds) The Handbook of Qualitative
TX: Perceval.
Research in Education . London: Academic Press, Youngman, M. B. (1984) Designing questionnaires. In J. 337–404.
Bell, T. Bush, A. Fox, J. Goodey and S. Goulding (eds) Woods, P. (1993) Managing marginality: teacher
Conducting Small-Scale Investigations in Educational development through grounded life history. British
Management . London: Harper & Row, 156–76. Educational Research Journal , 19 (5), 447–88.
Zechmeister, E. B. and Shaughnessy, J. J. (1992) A Wooldridge, M. and Jennings, N. R. (1995) Intelligent
Practical Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology . agents: theory and practice. Knowledge Engineering
New York: McGraw-Hill. Review , 10 (2), 115–52.
Zimbardo, P. C. (1984) On the ethics of intervention in Worrall, L. (ed.) (1990) Geographic Information Systems: human psychological research with specific reference Developments and Applications . London: Belhaven to the ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’. In J. Murphy, Press.
Wragg, E. C. (1994) An Introduction to Classroom M. John and H. Brown (eds) Dialogues and Debates Observation . London: Routledge.
in Social Psychology . London: Erlbaum in association Wragg, E. C. (2002) Interviewing. In M. Coleman and
with the Open University Press. A. R. J. Briggs (eds) Research Methods in Educational
Znaniecki, F. (1934) The Method of Sociology. New York: Leadership . London: Paul Chapman, 143–58.
Farrar & Rinehart.
Wright, D. B. (2003) Making friends with your Zuber-Skerritt, O. (1996a) Introduction. In O. Zuber- data: improving how statistics are conducted and
Skerritt (ed.) New Directions in Action Research. reported. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73,
London: Falmer, 3–9.
123–36. Zuber-Skerritt, O. (1996b) Emancipatory action Yan, S. U. (2005) Development in infants and its
research for organisational change and management implications for parenting education: a review and
development. In O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New case study. Unpublished MSc dissertation. Macau,
Direct-ions in Action Research . London: Falmer, People’s Republic of China: School of Arts, Letters
and Sciences, Macau Inter-University Institute. Zuzovsky, R. and Aitkin, M. (1991) Curriculum Yin, R. K. (1984) Case Study Research: Design and
change and science achievement in Israel elementary Methods . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
schools. In S. W. Raudenbush and J. Willms (eds) Yorke, D. M (1978) Repertory grids in educational
Schools, Classrooms and Pupils: International Studies of research: some methodological considerations. British
Schooling from a Multilevel Perspective . San Diego, CA: Educational Research Journal , 4 (2), 63–74.
Academic Press, 25–36.
INDEX
Absolutism 51, 61–2 Access 51, 55–8, 65, 100, 109–10, 121–4, 178–80, 237 accounts 171, 197–8, 384–95; characteristics of 384–5;
examples of 385–8; problems with 392–3; procedures in 385–8 see also discourse analysis; ethogenic method; network analysis; speech acts; stories
achievement tests 417 action research 29, 30, 34, 45, 65–6, 69–70, 85,
296–313; as critical praxis 302–4; emancipatory 302–4; models of 306; nature of 296–302; planning of 304–10; principles of 296–302; problems in 311–12; reflexivity in 310; stages of 304–10 see also collaborative action research; Delphi techniques; Nominal Group Technique
advocacy 54 alpha 519, 552–3, 555 see also Cronbach’s alpha alternative hypothesis 83, 515 American Psychological Association 60, 63, 72, 414,
417, 520 analysis of variance 546–52, 585, 592 analytic induction 86, 134, 178, 472–3 anonymity 64–5, 75, 126, 318 ANOVA see analysis of variance anthropological methods see ethnographic methods applied research 41 aptitude tests 417 AQUAD 488 Assessment 86 association, concepts of see correlation assumptions of statistical tests 592 ATLAS 488
beneficence 58–61, 71, 72 see also ethics beta weighting 539–42 betrayal 65–6, 74 bias 68, 129, 151, 157, 196, 214, 410–11; in historical
research 196; in interviewing 129 biographies 86, 170 Blumer, H. 20, 224, 167 Boids 247 British Educational Research Association 72
case studies 34, 85, 170, 253–63; defined 253–8; examples of 258–60; observation in 260; planning of 261–2;
catalytic validity see validity, kinds of causal research 34, 272, 505 causal-comparative research 269 Central Limit Theorem 106–7, 246 children 53–4, 69, 154, 374–6, 390 chi-square 101, 523–8, 580–3, 592 cluster analysis 584–5 cluster sampling see sampling, kinds of Cochrane Collaboration 290 Code-A-Text 488 codes of practice 51, 53, 57, 63, 70, 71–4, 76–7 coding 86, 145, 184, 348, 477–81, 483–7, 492–3 cognitive mapping 86 cohort studies 211–12, 213–18, 219–21 collaborative action research 296–304 complexity theory 31, 33–4, 246–7, 249 computerized adaptive testing 162, 433–4 computers, see AQUAD; ATLAS; Boids; Code-A-Text;
computerized adaptive testing; CROSSTABS; ETHNOGRAPH; ethnographic methods; Geographical Information Systems; HyperQuad2; HyperRESEARCH; Hypersoft; internet; interviews; NUD.IST;
N-Vivo; QUALPRO; simulations; SphinxSurvey; SPSS Comte, A. 9–10 conceptions of social reality 7–10 concurrent validity see validity, kinds of confidence intervals 103, 522 confidence levels 103 confidentiality 64–5, 72, 73, 74, 126, 175, 181, 231, 318 consequential validity see validity, kinds of consistency, see reliability constant comparison 86, 116–17, 473, 493–4 constructs, personal see personal constructs construct validity see validity, kinds of content analysis, 86, 197, 462–6, 470–3, 475–91;
defined 475–6; example of 483–7; procedures in 476–83; reliability in 490–1
634 INDEX
content validity see validity, kinds of contingency tables see crosstabulations continuous variable 528 convenience sampling see sampling, kinds of convergent validity see validity, kinds of Cooley, J. 172 correlational studies 102 core variables 494 correlation 516–19, 528–9, 530–3; co-efficients
534–6; explained 51; interpretation of 535–6; see also curvilinearity; effect size; Pearson product moment correlation; Spearman
rank-order correlation; statistical significance; Type I errors; Type II errors cost/benefits ratio 51–2, 58, 63, 67, 126 covering letters 339–41 covert research 53, 68, 73, 124–5, 174–5, 180, 408–10 criterion-referenced tests see tests, kinds of criterion-related validity see validity, kinds of critical educational research 26–33 critical ethnography 187–9 critical pedagogy 32 critical theory 18, 26–33, 35, 139 Cronbach’s alpha 148, 162, 506 cross sectional studies 213 CROSSTABS 488 crosstabulations 508–15 cultural validity see validity, kinds of curriculum research 30–2 curvilinearity 533–4
data analysis 86–7, 91–2, 184–6, 459–592; in accounts 200; in observation 258–62; in qualitative research 184–6, 462–500; in quantitative research 501–592
data collection, 80, 181–4; in ethnographic methods
181–4; 261–2; in historical research 193–4 data reporting see reporting Data Protection Act 72 deception 66–9, 72, 450–2 see also ethics deduction 6 ‘definition of the situation’ 21, 24, 168, 189, 500 degrees of freedom 527–8 Delphi techniques 309–10 dependability of data 158 dependent variable 156, 265–6, 269, 272–3, 504–5 descriptive statistics 503–4 descriptive validity see validity, kinds of determinism 8, 11, 33 diagnostic tests see tests dichotomous questions 322–3 difference testing 523–8 542–58 discourse analysis 86, 389–92 see also speech acts distribution of sample means 106–7 documentary research 171, 183, 191–204
domain analysis 184 domain referencing 162 see also tests duration recording 402–3
ecological validity see validity, kinds of effect size 520–5 eigenvalues 563 elementary linkage analysis 559–60, 588 emancipation 29, 38, 140, 302–4, 305 emancipatory interest 27–8, 32 emic approaches 169 empiricism 11 empowerment 29, 36, 139, 302–4 episodes 391 epistemology 5, 7, 31, 47, 169 equality 32, 35, 36, 38, 71 errors, see Type I; Type II eta 522–3 ethical codes 53, 57, 59, 70, 71–4, 76–7 ethics 39, 51–77, 98, 231; in evaluative research 51,
70–1; in experiments 273–4; in interviews 382–3; in observation 408–10; in questionnaires 317–18; in role play 450–2; in sensitive research 120, 124–7; in testing 432–3 see also covert research
ETHNOGRAPH 488 ethnographic methods 39, 55, 78, 84, 135–6, 167–90,
384; characteristics of 167–71; critical 187–9; ethics in 174–5; planning 173–87; problems in 189–90; sampling in 175–8 see also naturalistic research
ethnomethodology 22–6 ethogenic method 20, 384–5, 392–4 etic approaches 169 evaluating web sites 245 evaluative research 41–6, 70–1 evaluative validity see validity, kinds of event-history analysis 224–5 event sampling 400–1 evidence-based research 290–6 see also Cochrane
Collaboration; randomized controlled trials existential phenomenology 17 experience-sampling method 177 experiments and quasi-experiments 33, 84, 272–96,
521; and ex post facto research 264–71, 272; conduct of 286–7; designs of 269–71, 272–90; examples of 284–6, 287–90; internet-based 239–41; quasi-experiments 282–6; reliability and validity in 155–7; single-case research 284–6; true 275–82, 289–90 see also Cochrane Collaboration; meta-analysis; pre-test; post-test; randomized controlled trials
exploratory data analysis 506–15 ex post facto research 264–71, 272; characteristics of
266–8; planning 269–71 external validity see validity, kinds of
INDEX 635
Index
face validity see validity, kinds of
inference 170, 185, 483
factor analysis 560–76, 587, 592; examples of 563–70,
inferential statistics 503–4
570–6 informal interview see interview, types of factorial designs in experiments 280–1
informants see ethnographic methods; gatekeepers factor loadings 567–70
informed consent 51, 52–5, 60, 61, 62, 72, 125, 174, fairness 139, 318
false consciousness 26
instantaneous sampling 401–2
feminist research 34–41, 129, 140 interactionism see ethnographic methods; naturalistic fidelity 72, 134
research
field notes 171, 182, 260–1, 404–8 see also accounts;
interaction effect 156
case studies; computers; documentary research; interests see knowledge-constitutive interests observation
internal validity see validity, kinds of fitness for purpose 39, 78, 98, 165, 181, 424
internet 226–45; internet-based experiments 239–41; focus groups 376–7
internet-based interviews 241–2; internet-based focused interview see interviews
surveys 226–39; internet searching 242–5 Frankfurt School 18, 34
interpretive paradigm 20–26, 47, 384 see also freedom, degrees of 527–8
naturalistic methods
frequencies 506–15 interpretive validity see validity, kinds of Friedman test 527, 557–8, 587
inter-rater reliability see reliability, kinds of interval recording 402
Garfinkel, H. 23–4
interval scale 502, 586–90
gatekeepers 109–10, 123–4, 128, 139, 179 interviews 129, 130, 131, 150–5, 171, 218–22, 349–83; generalizability 135, 137, 169, 190
analysis of 155, 368–72; children 374–6; conduct of Geographical Information Systems 251–2
361–5, 366–7; ethical issues 382–3; focused 376–9; Goffman, E. 175
group 373–6; internet 241–2; nature of 349–50; grid technique see personal construct theory
non-directive 377–9; kinds of 349–51; planning of grounded theory 117, 168, 170, 491–500; defined
129, 356–61; purposes of 351–2; questions in 491–2; example of 495–9; procedures in 492–5
357–61; reliability and validity in 150–5; response group interviewing 373–6 see also focus groups
modes in 359–61; telephone 153, 222–3, 379–82; Guttman scales 325
transcription of 155, 365–8; 370; types of 352–6 see also focus groups; questions; triangulation
Habermas, J. 18, 26–32
item analysis see tests
halo effect 18–19
item difficulty see tests
Hawthorne effect 144, 156, 160, 189
item discriminability see tests
hermeneutic interest 27, 32
item response theory see tests
hermeneutics 18, 26, 29 historical research 191–204 see also biographies; life
jury validity see validity, kinds of
histories; stories humanistic psychology 19
Kelly, G. 435–7
HyperQuad2 488
Kendall’s tau 528, 529
Hypersoft 488 knowledge-constitutive interests 27–30, 31–2 hypothesis 6, 14–15, 82–3, 168, 169–70, 173, 195,
Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance 527, 554–6, 592 207, 469; alternative 83, 515; null 83, 515, 526
Kuder-Richardson formula for reliability 162 hypothesis testing 519–20
laddering, see personal constructs
ideology 26–9, 31
leading questions 151
ideology critique 28–30, 34, 35, 37
legitimacy 26–7
idiographic approach to human behaviour 8, 19, 168
levels of data see scales of data
illuminative approaches see ethnographic methods
Levene test 523, 543–5
independent variable 265–6, 269, 272–3, 280–1,
life histories 86, 164, 198–9
504–5 Likert scales see questions, Likert scales indexicality 24
linear regression 537–9
induction 6, 134, 168 linkage analysis see elementary linkage analysis inductive-deductive reasoning 6
longitudinal studies 170, 211–13, 214–18, 219–21
636 INDEX
Mann-Whitney U-test 527, 552–4, 592
organizational culture 95–8
Marxism 27, 39
ownership of research 175
matched pairs design in experiments 279–80 matrix planning 87–93, 95 Mead, G.H. 24
panel studies 211–12, 213–18, 219–21 Mean 503, 592
parametric data 503, 589, 591 McNiff, J. 305, 308
parametric designs in experiments 281 median scores 503, 592
parametric tests 589
meta-analysis 291–6
parsimony, principle of 11
Milgram, S. and role-playing 53, 67, 451–2 participant observation 54, 69, 171, 179, 258–60, modal scores 503, 592
404–8 see also case studies, covert research, multidimensional measurement 559–92 see also cluster
ethnographic methods
analysis; elementary linkage analysis participatory research 34 see also collaborative action multidimensional scaling 576–80
research
multilevel modelling 583–4 Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient 528, multi-phase sampling see sampling, kinds of
multiple choice questions see questions, multiple choice Percentages 506–15, 529–30 multiple regression 539–42, 588, 592
Permission 54, 55–6 see also ethics personal constructs 435–47; characteristics of 435–6;
narrative 198–9 elicited and provided 436–7; examples of 443–5; grid naturalistic research 19, 134, 136–7, 167–90;
analysis of 439–43, 446–7; laddering 439; procedures characteristics of 167–71; data analysis in 184–6;
for 437–8; pyramid constructions in 439; repertory data collection in 181–4, 258–60; ethics in 174–5;
grids 440–5
interviews in 182; observation in 404–8; planning of phenomenology 22–5, 167–71 see also definition of the 173–87; problems in 189–90; sampling in 175–8 see
situation; ethnographic methods; interpretive also ethnographic methods
paradigm; naturalistic research negotiation 24
piloting 341–2
network analysis 388–9 planning educational research 78–99 Nominal Group Technique 309
policy-making and research 46–7 nominal scale 502, 586–90
politics 30, 44, 46–7, 126
nominalism 9
population see sampling
nomothetic approach to human behaviour 9–11, 168 positivism 7–11, 17–19, 21, 33, 35, 37, 47, 136, 143, non-directive interview see interviews
non-maleficence 58–61, 66, 72, 75, 174 see also ethics postal questionnaire 345–6, 347 non-parametric data 503, 589
post-test 272–3, 276–9, 282–4, 287, 432 non-parametric tests 589, 590
power 26–9, 35, 38, 39, 43, 46, 120, 127–30, 151–2 non-participant observation 258–60, 397–403
power of a test 522
non-probability sampling see sampling, kinds of powerful people 127–30, 151–2, 154 normative paradigm 21–2, 47
practical interest 27 see also hermeneutic interest norm-referenced tests see tests
prediction 27
NUD.IST 488 predictive validity see validity, kinds of null hypothesis 83, 515, 526
pre-test 272–3, 276–9, 282–4, 287, 432 N-vivo 488
primary source of data 193–4 principal components analysis see factor analysis privacy 61, 63–4, 65–6, 71, 72, 73, 120, 125 see also
objectivity 11, 18
ethics
observation 169–70, 394, 396–413; critical incidents probability sampling see sampling, kinds of 404; duration of 402–3; ethics of 408–10; kinds of
progressive focussing 184
179; naturalistic 169, 258–60, 404–8; reliability and purposive sampling see sampling, kinds of validity in 158–9, 412–3; structured 397–403 see also
accounts; case studies; covert research; field notes; non-participant observation; participant observation
QSR 488
one-tailed tests 504 qualitative data analysis 461–500; content analysis in ontology 5, 7
470–3; examples of 462–6; grounded theory in open-ended interviews see interviews
491–5; introduction to 461–2; presenting data in opportunity sampling see sampling, kinds of
467–72; systematic approaches to 468–72; tabulating ordinal scale 502, 586–90
data in 462–6
INDEX 637
Index
qualitative research 19–24, 39, 40, 134, 148–9, respondent validation 66, 92, 134, 149
right to know 59, 66 see also ethics
QUALPRO 488 right to privacy 59, 66 see also ethics quantitative data analysis 500–92
role 171, 179–80 see also access; ethnographic methods; quantitative research 14–19, 39, 40, 134, 146, 355
gatekeepers; naturalistic research quasi-experimental designs 282–6
role-playing 68, 448–57; ethics in 450–2; examples of questionnaires 56, 317–48; administration of 344–6;
455–7; in educational settings 448–50, 452–3; computer usage in 226–39; construction and design
procedures for 453–4; uses of 455–7 see also Milgram, 320–39; ethical issues in 317–8; internet in 226–39;
S and role playing; Stanford Prison Experiment layout 338–9; operationalization 318–21; piloting
rotation in factor analysis see factor analysis 341–2; planning 318–21, 342–3; postal 345–6, 347;
R-squared 541
practical considerations in 342–4; reliability and validity in 157–8; sequence in 336–7 see also
sample 60 see sampling, kinds of
interviews; questions; sensitive research; surveys
sample, access to 55–8, 109–10
questions 130–1, 151, 153–4, 320–37, 357–61, 362–5, sample mortality 144, 175, 215 380–1; closed 321; constant sum 328–9; contingency sample size 100–5, 106, 113, 118, 162, 237, 527 332–3; dichotomous 322–3; filters 332–3; Guttman
sampling 78, 90, 97, 100–18, 121–4; in internet surveys scales 325; Likert scales 325–8; matrix 331–2;
236–9; sampling error 106–8; sampling frame 117; multiple choice 323–4; open-ended 329–31, 357;
sampling, kinds of: boosted 115; cluster 112; rank ordering 325; rating scales 325–8, 331–2, 402;
convenience 114, 176; critical case 176; dimensional ratio 329; semantic differential scales 325–8;
115; event 400–1; extreme case 176; instantaneous sensitive 333–4; sequencing 336–7; Thurstone scales
401–2; matched 279–80; multi-phase 113; 325, 327; wording 334–6 see also interviews; sensitive
non-probability sample 113–17; 237; opportunity research
114, 176; probability 110–13, 151; purposive115–77; quota sampling see sampling, kinds of
quota 114; random 102–3, 110–11; reputational case 176; snowball 116, 122, 176; stage 112–3; stratified
randomization 276–7 109; 111–2; 177; systematic111, 114–5; theoretical randomized controlled trials 277–8
116–7, 176, 177–8, 492; typical case 176; unique random sampling see sampling, kinds of
case 176; volunteer 116, 157, 237 see also case studies ranking response 325
sampling, representativeness of 100, 102–3, 108–9 rating scales 325–32
scales of data 207, 322, 360, 502–3, 586–91 ratio scale 329, 502–3, 586–90
Schutz, A. 22–3
reactivity 156, 160, 189 see also Hawthorne effect scientific method 5, 6, 11–19, 35, 42 records 183 see also documentary research; field notes;
scree plot 564–5
historical research
secondary sources of data 193–4
reflective practice 302–4 self-completion questionnaires 344–5 reflexivity 23, 35–6, 90, 171–2, 310
semantic differential scales 325–8
regression 536–42, 588, 592 see also multiple regression semi-structured interviews see interviews, kinds of relativism 51, 61–2
sensitive research 62, 65, 75, 109–10, 119–32, 318 reliability 133–64, 234; consistency 161; equivalence
significance, statistical see statistical significance; see also 147; in experiments 155–7; in interviews 150–5; in
effect size
life histories 164, 203–4; in observation 158–8; in
simulations 60, 245–51
qualitative research 181, 189, 490–1; in quantitative
single-case research 284–6
research 506; in questionnaires 157–8; internal
situated ethics 61, 69, 74, 127, 132
consistency 147–8; inter-rater 148, 411; in tests
skewed data 504
159–64; parallel forms 148; stability 146–7, 148 see snowball sampling see sampling, kinds of also triangulation
social episodes 391
repeated measures experiments 281–2
sociology of knowledge 31–2
repertory grid, see personal constructs Solomon design of experiments 278 reporting 87, 186, 195–6, 372–3
Spearman-Brown formula for reliability 147–8, 162, reputational case sampling see sampling, kinds of
research 41–2; design 78–99; methodology 36–7, Spearman rank-order correlation 517, 529, 587, 592 47–8, 78, 83–6, 89–91, 95; operationalization 81–3;
speech acts 389–91, 498
purposes 93, 94, 95; reporting of 87, 92; research
SphinxSurvey 488
questions 80, 95, 468; sponsorship 41–7, 74–5;
SPSS 500–85
timing of 95, 98, 180
stability see reliability
638 INDEX
stage sampling see sampling, kinds of thick description 21, 134, 169, 405 standard deviation 504, 512–14
Thurstone scales see questions standard error of mean 106–8, 504
transcription see case studies; ethnographic methods; standard error of proportions 107–8
field notes; interviews; naturalistic research Stanford Prison Experiment 61, 450
transformative research 26–7, 29 statistical significance 515–19 see also effect size
trend studies 213–18, 219–21 statistical tests 586–592
triangulation 37, 141–14, 158; defined 141–4; types of stories 394–5
142–4
stratified sampling see sampling, kinds of
t-test 543–6, 587, 592
stress 483–7
two-tailed test 504
structured interview see interview, kinds of
Tukey test 548–50, 588
structured observation see observation
Type I error 145, 520
subjectivity 8, 17, 25, 162, 294
Type II error 145, 520
surveys 84, 205–25; cross-sectional 213, 214–18, typical case sampling see sampling, kinds of 219–21; internet 226–39; longitudinal 211–13, 214–18, 219–21; planning 208–11; postal 218;
unique case sampling see sampling, kinds of sampling 211; telephone 218–23; trend studies 213,
unstructured interview see interview, kinds of 214–18, 219–21 see also questionnaires, sampling
unstructured observation see observation symbolic interactionism 22–6 see also ethnographic methods
validity 133–64; defined 133–5; in experiments 155–7; systematic sampling see sampling, kinds of
in interviews 150–5; in life histories 164, 203–4; in systemic validity see validity, kinds of
observation 158–9, 412–13; in questionnaires 157–8; in tests 159–64
technical interest 27, 31 validity, kinds of: catalytic 139–40; concurrent 140–1, telephone interviewing 153, 379–82
163; consequential 140, 152, 163; construct 138, 163; test/re-test 146–7, 162
content 137–8, 162–3; convergent 138; tests 86, 414–34; achievement 417; aptitude 417;
criterion-related 140–1, 163; cultural 139; commercially produced 416–18; computerized
descriptive 135; discriminant 138; ecological 138–9, adaptive testing 433–4; construction of 418–32;
157; evaluative 135; external 136–7, 156–7, 158; criterion-referenced 415–6; diagnostic 418;
face 163; internal 135–6, 155–6, 214; interpretive domain-referenced 415–6; ethics of 432–3; format
135; jury 163; predictive 140–1, 163; systemic 163; 426; item analysis 418–29; item difficulty 418–21;
theoretical 135
item discriminability 418, 421, 422–3; item response variables: dependent 156, 265–6, 269, 272–3, 504–5; theory 422–3; item writing 426–9; layout of 429;
independent 265–6, 269, 272–3, 280–1, 504–5; in non-parametric 424–5; norm-referenced 415–6;
experimental research 265–6, 272; kinds of 504–5, one-tailed 504; parametric 414–5; power of 522;
528
pre-test 432; post-test 432; purposes of 414, 418–9; varimax rotation see factor analysis reliability and validity in 159–64; scoring 430–2;
verstehen approaches 27
timing of 429–30; two-tailed 504 see also questions
voluntarism 8, 52
Textbase Alpha 488 theoretical validity see validity, kinds of
web sites, evaluation of 245
theory 12–14, 36; grounded 178, 491–5; theory Wilcoxon test 527, 554, 587, 592 generation 185–6, 491–5
writing research reports see reporting