Kara-Kerewe linguistic analysis Kara-Kerewe language use and attitudes: Conclusion

6.2.3 Kerewe linguistic results: Conclusion

It has been shown in the above sections that there are very few pronunciation and lexical stem differences between the three Kerewe villages interviewed. The greatest number of lexical stem differences occurred between Bukondo and the other two villages. When compared with Zinza, it was seen that tone was the primary pronunciation difference between the two languages. There were, however, a number of lexical stem differences. The lexical similarity between them was about 77–79. It was also seen that there are a number of differences between TAM markers, but the TAM elicitation was not conclusive to precisely articulate these differences.

6.3 Kara-Kerewe linguistic analysis

: Conclusion The Kara and Kerewe languages were examined briefly and compared to a closely related language in order to uncover similarities and differences between the languages. First, Kara was examined and it was seen that there are some pronunciation and lexical stem differences between the two Kara villages. It was also seen that while Kara has around 82 percent lexical similarity with Jita, there are some pronunciation differences between the two languages and class 910 markers are slightly different. It was also seen that there are some differences, primarily with negatives, between the TAM markers of Kara and Jita. Regarding Kerewe, it was seen that there was a high degree of similarity between the three Kerewe villages. When Kerewe was compared with Zinza, it was seen that the lexical similarity between the two languages is less than 80 but their pronunciation is fairly similar, with tone being the main pronunciation difference. When TAM markers for the languages were compared, it was seen that the past tense markers are similar, but present tenses and future tenses were quite varied and inconsistent. 7 Language variety relationships In every village, the team asked about speech varieties and notable differences. Following is a discussion concerning dialects of the Kara and Kerewe languages, and the awareness that speakers of each area have concerning other speech varieties. Language variety relationships in Kara will be discussed in section 7.1, followed by a discussion of Kerewe in section 7.2.

7.1 Language variety relationships in the Kara language

7.1.1 Where is the best Kara language perceived to be spoken? The following information was received from interviews conducted with the assistant to the ward executive officer in Bwisya and groups of people from each village. When asked to identify a village or area as heartland of the Kara language, all agreed that Nyang’ombe is the heartland of Kara. The group that was interviewed in Nansio earlier in the survey also mentioned Nyang’ombe as the heartland of Kara. Nyang’ombe was also the answer given to the question about where the best Kara language is spoken. The group from Bwisya, the other Kara village visited, agreed with this as well. However, the Bwisya speakers still thought that Bwisya would be a good place to learn good Kara. Interestingly, they believed that their own speech variety would be better to use for literature development because it is more similar to Jita. 7.1.2 What are the perceived differences between speech varieties? Linguistically, the Kara people consider that there are eight varieties of their language, corresponding to the eight villages in the Kara area. Both the group from Bwisya and the group from Nyang’ombe confirmed that speakers from the village of Nyang’ombe speak differently than speakers from Bwisya. However, they went on to say that speakers from each village can be identified by their speech variety. Kara speakers claimed the ability to tell, upon hearing the speech of another Kara speaker, which village that person was from. Nyang’ombe, according to Bwisya speakers, shows a greater difference than that which is found between the other varieties. However, we have data as to what the differences are from only two villages. Pronunciation was the primary reported difference. 7.1.3 What is the perceived comprehension between speech varieties? Groups were asked to identify differences in the way people from the other participating village speak, as well as differences between Kara and the nearby languages Jita and Kwaya. In other words, the Bwisya group was asked about the similarity of Nyang’ombe Kara and vice versa, but both were also asked about the similarity of Jita and Kwaya to Kara. Researchers named an area and asked those in the group interview about the differences or similarities of each speech variety, and whether they themselves, and also children, would be able to understand speakers from the other villages. Overall, the varieties spoken by the Kara people are perceived to be very similar to each other. Even though there are pronunciation differences between the speech varieties of Nyang’ombe and Bwisya, people reported that they are still able to understand each other. The groups interviewed claimed that even small children understand Kara speakers from the other villages. With regard to their understanding of the Jita language, both groups agreed that Jita is quite similar to Kara, that the main difference is in the pronunciation, and that even small children are able to understand it. Kwaya, on the other hand, is somewhat similar and somewhat understood by most, but there are differences in words and pronunciation, and Kara children do not understand it well. Table 12 summarizes how speakers of each variety perceive the other varieties according to responses from groups interviewed. The villages in which interviews took place are listed horizontally. Color has been added to aid in viewing the table. Table 12. Kara summary of perceived comprehension between varieties Perceived Similarity ↓ Kara Nyang’ombe Kara Bwisya Kara Nyang’ombe very similar Kara Bwisya very similar Jita similar similar Kwaya somewhat similar somewhat similar Other Kara villages very similar very similar

7.1.4 Kara

langugae varieties: Conclusion Nyang’ombe was seen as heartland of the Kara and as speaking the best, purest variety of Kara. However, each group recommended their own village as the place to learn good Kara and to use as a standard for literature development. There were certainly perceived differences between speech varieties, but within Kara the varieties are seen to be very similar. The Jita language is also considered quite similar.

7.2 Language variety relationships in the Kerewe language

7.2.1 Where is the best Kerewe language perceived to be spoken? The following information was received from interviews conducted with the ward executive officers and village executive officers we spoke with in various areas, and with groups of people from each research location. When the team asked participants to identify a village or area as the heartland of the Kerewe language, several different areas were mentioned, including Ngoma, Kagunguli, and Bukindo wards. These places are all located on the eastern part of Ukerewe Island, not far from Nansio. These same areas, as well as the village of Hamukoko, were again mentioned in answer to the question about where the best Kerewe language is spoken. Although they mentioned Kihungula and Hamukoko, the group from the village of Bukondo said that their variety is good as well. 7.2.2 What are the perceived differences between speech varieties? Linguistically, the Kerewe people divide their language into three main dialects corresponding to three geographical areas. The main dialect is spoken all over most of Ukerewe Island itself. The second dialect is spoken on Bwiro Island and the area across from it on Ukerewe Island, in the southwest of Ukerewe. The third is spoken on Irugwa Island, which is considerably to the northeast. The research team did not visit Irugwa Island due to its remoteness. Each of these varieties is considered part of the Kerewe language, but speakers pointed out a few differences, mainly in pronunciation. Kerewe speakers reported they are able to tell by listening which of the three dialect areas a Kerewe speaker comes from. 7.2.3 What is the perceived comprehension between speech varieties? Groups were asked to identify differences in the way people from the other Kerewe dialect areas speak, as well as differences between Kerewe and nearby languages such as Kara, Jita, and Zinza. Researchers named an area and asked those in the group interview about the differences or similarities of each speech variety, and whether they themselves, and also children from their village, would be able to understand speakers from that area. Overall, the varieties spoken by the Kerewe people are perceived to be very similar to each other. Even though there are pronunciation differences between the three speech varieties, speakers are still able to understand each other. The groups interviewed stated that even small children understand Kerewe speakers from the other speech varieties. With regard to their understanding of the Jita and Kara languages, groups agreed that Jita and Kara are more similar to each other than to Kerewe. They can be understood well by Kerewe adults because they are spoken relatively nearby, but children are not able to understand them. The Zinza language, on the other hand, is somewhat similar and somewhat understood by most, but mainly because of contact with Zinza speakers. There are differences in words and pronunciation, and children do not understand Zinza well. Table 13 summarizes how speakers of each variety perceive the other varieties according to responses from groups interviewed. Table 13. Kerewe summary of perceived comprehension between varieties Perceived Similarity ↓ Kerewe Nansio Kerewe Hamukoko Kerewe Mukunu Kerewe Bukondo Mumbuga Dialect I similar Bwiro Dialect II similar similar similar Irugwa Dialect III similar -- similar -- Zinza somewhat similar somewhat similar somewhat similar somewhat similar Jita not very similar -- not very similar not very similar Kara not very similar not very similar not very similar not very similar

7.2.4 Kerewe

langugae varieties: Conclusion There are three different perceived speech varieties within the Kerewe language. The dialect on the main island, spoken by most Kerewe speakers, is generally considered better and purer Kerewe and is also the origin of the language. It is unclear which specific village is seen as having the form of the language most suitable for standardized literature, but most people mentioned some village in the eastern part of Ukerewe, in Ngoma Ward. There were certainly perceived linguistic differences between speech varieties, which were verified by analysis, but within Kerewe the varieties are seen to be very similar. The Zinza language is also considered quite similar to Kerewe. 8 Language use and attitudes The information in this section was obtained from the group interviews and interviews with village executive officers and ward executive officers. Kara and Kerewe will be treated separately in this section, with Kara being discussed in section 8.1 and Kerewe in 8.2.

8.1 Kara language use and attitudes

8.1.1 How vital is the Kara language and how likely is it to be spoken in the future? When asked what language children speak before they enter school, both Bwisya and Nyang’ombe groups agreed that they speak Kara. Even as they get older, they continue to speak Kara most of the time, except that they are required to speak Swahili in school. Participants in both villages reported that the children speak Kara well, and the Bwisya group said the same for the youth, although the Nyang’ombe group said that their young people mix Kara with Swahili. In the Bwisya group, people felt that Kara would continue to be spoken by those who stay on Ukara Island. The Nyang’ombe group thought that Kara would become increasingly mixed with Swahili and eventually be taken over by it. Their children’s children might continue to speak Kara but it will be more and more mixed with Swahili, according to the Nyang’ombe group. The Bwisya group thought that their children’s children would keep speaking pure Kara as long as they stay on Ukara Island. All groups agreed on the importance of speaking Kara, because it is their “language of origin” and is seen as a way to keep their origins and customs alive and preserve their culture. It is also seen as important because it was handed down by their parents and because it gives them joy to speak it. 8.1.2 What attitudes do the Kara have about developing the Kara language? The research team asked a ward executive officer whether reading and writing in the Kara language would benefit the Kara people, to which he responded that it would benefit them. He commented that the Kara people would understand more when they read materials in Kara than in Swahili, especially for those in the community who do not know Swahili. He suggested that this would particularly be the case in matters having to do with the Bible. When asked whether they had previously heard of the language project in Mara, only one person in the Nyang’ombe group remembered hearing of it a few years ago. 8.1.3 What is the use of the Kara language in the church? Only the Nyang’ombe group was asked about the use of the Kara language in the church. They reported there are Christian songs in Kara and that they are sung in all the churches. However, they have not seen any written materials in their language.

8.1.4 Kara listening test results: Comprehension

Recorded stories in the Jita and Kwaya languages were tested in the Kara groups. Kara speakers seemed to understand both stories fairly well. Comprehension of the Jita story was especially good, and the group reported that small children would understand some of the story, but that they understood all. The Kwaya story was also retold well.

8.2 Kerewe language use and attitudes

8.2.1 How vital is the Kerewe language and how likely is it to be spoken in the future? When asked what language children speak before they enter school, all groups agreed that they speak Kerewe. Their answers were not quite as unanimous when it came to the question of the language of school-aged children, but most groups agreed that they speak Kerewe at home or in the village and Swahili when at school or in town. Most groups said that their children still speak Kerewe well, but the Bukondo group said they do not. The same is true for the young people; most groups said that they speak Kerewe well, but in Bukondo they are reported to use some Swahili words—often the words for modern things. With the exception of the group in Nansio, people felt that they would not possibly stop speaking Kerewe in the future. The Nansio group thought that it was possible that Kerewe would cease to be spoken, and the Bukondo group thought that Kerewe would become more mixed with Swahili. Their children’s children might continue to speak Kerewe, but most groups thought that it would be mixed depending on the languages of the parents. Interestingly, the Nansio group thought that their children’s children will speak the mother’s language, while the Mukunu group thought that they will speak the father’s language or both languages. All groups agreed on the importance of speaking Kerewe, because it is their “language of origin” and their home language, and speaking it is seen as an honor and a joy. 8.2.2 What attitudes do the Kerewe have about developing the Kerewe language? As to the question of whether reading and writing in the Kerewe language would benefit the Kerewe people, all the village executive officers and ward executive officers stated it would benefit them or benefit them greatly. Comments included that the old people and children would be able to understand the Kerewe language, that they would benefit because they would be able to read old materials in Kerewe, that it would be easier to join in church worship with Kerewe, and that they could learn new things better in Kerewe. When asked whether they had heard of the language project in Mara before, two of the groups in Nansio and Hamukoko included people who had heard of it. 8.2.3 What is the use of the Kerewe language in the church? According to all of the groups interviewed, there are Kerewe songs used in church services, with the Roman Catholic Church specifically mentioned as singing Kerewe songs. When asked about written materials in the Kerewe language, each group said they had seen at least two different books, including a dictionary, a history, a New Testament Simard 1946, a prayer book, a catechism, and a songbook. It can be very difficult to locate copies of these books rumored to be in existence. In two cases we were shown or lent the books discussed, but in most cases publication information was not available. Respondents unanimously reported that the Swahili Bible is used in church services and also at home. Some of the group in Nansio had used a Sukuma or Jita New Testament at some point, and one of the respondents in Bukondo was in possession of a Kerewe New Testament that he used.

8.2.4 Kerewe listening test results: Comprehension

Stories in the Jita, Kwaya, and Zinza languages were played among the groups of Kerewe speakers. The Jita story was understood very well by the Kerewe speakers. Some groups reported that this was because Jita people live among them and so they have an acquired understanding of Jita. The Kwaya story was confused with the Ruri language, and understanding varied quite a bit between the groups. They retold it quite well. The Zinza story was understood fairly well, but more so by those who were older or had traveled.

8.3 Kara-Kerewe language use and attitudes: Conclusion

With reference to the vitality of the Kara language, children are reported to still speak Kara first and to continue speaking it at home after starting school. One of the two groups thought that in the future the Kara language would be first mixed with Swahili and then lost altogether. However, the other group believed that Kara would continue to be spoken by future generations, if they stayed in the area. Although nobody had ever seen written materials in Kara, the groups reported that Kara Christian songs are often used in churches on Ukara Island. The groups agreed that it is important to continue speaking the Kara language, and the ward executive officer believed that the Kara people would benefit from language development. As to the vitality of the Kerewe language, all groups reported that children speak Kerewe first and continue to speak it at home even after starting school, although in one area Bukondo they are said to mix it with Swahili as they get older. Three of the four groups thought it would not be possible to leave Kerewe in the future, although the group in Nansio said that it might be possible. Quite a few people had seen some written materials in Kerewe, and all reported that Christian songs in Kerewe are used in the churches. The Bible used throughout the denominations is the Swahili Bible. All of the groups agreed that it is important to continue speaking the Kerewe language, and the ward executive officers and village executive officers all believed that the Kerewe people would benefit from language development. The language project in Mara had been heard of in a couple places. 9 Education and religion This section describes the level of education in the Kara and Kerewe communities. Also discussed is the religious situation and the presence of churches and church involvement among the community. Information was gathered from responses given during interviews with government leaders at the ward and village level. 9.1 How many and what types of schools are there in the Kara- and Kerewe-speaking areas?