PROS Sumardjono P, Adhi KM Agustin Self Disclosure and Assertive fulltext.o
Self Disclosure and Assertive Behavior Characteristics
Among Counseling Students at Satya Wacana University
Sumardjono Padmomartono
Adhi Krisna Maria Agustin
Guidance and Counseling Study Program, Satya Wacana Christian University
sumardionopm(5)staff. uksw.edu
ABSTRACT
This article describes self-disclosure characteristics among 83 guidance and counseling
students in the areas of their living concerns, namely: 1) 69, 9% students have opened about
their beliefs, thoughts and emotions on religion/ spirituality. 2) 68, 7% students are selfdisclosing about their interests, their likes, including views, feelings, and appreciation of a
person, place or thing. 3) 63, 9% students are frequently eager to reveal private truth about
themselves, are honest and seeking others to know them better. 4) 54,2% students are
frequently reveal their intimate matters such as sex and willingly discuss their sexual needs
and views as well as 22,9% high self-disclosing students who have shared themselves fully
and in details of their intimate matters. 5) 53,0% students have opened their thought and
feelings about their relationships with their friends as well as 30,1% high self-disclosing
students who have opened themselves in details and have the tendency to let themselves to
be known in their relationships. Within students assertive behavior: 1) 54,2% students is
categorized as high aggressive behavior, only the behavior of 26,5% students, is categorized
as very low as well as low aggressive behavior. 2) 51, 8% students are categorized having
low non-assertive behavior, whereas only 8, 4% students are categorized having very low
non-assertive behavior.
Keywords; self-disclosure, assertive behavior, psychological well-being
Introduction
Jourard
integrated self-disclosure with the concepts
of self, mental health and
communication, defining the "self" as the person's subjective side, his thoughts, feelings,
beliefs and wants, emphasizing the importance of self-disclosure, or letting another person
knows what one thinks, feels and wants as the most direct means of realistically knowing
one's self and thereby achieving a healthy personality integration. Jourard's thesis suggests
the degree of self-disclosure to significant others as important for psychological well-being
(Jourard, 1959)
A
Ifdil (2013) wrote that communication will be more effective whenever individuals
are capable and eager to express their ideas and feelings openly and smoothly. This
personal capabilities and eagerness were defined as self- disclosure. Furthermore, Ifdil
201
(2013) mentioned self-disclosure is to be developed continuously by counseling students in
order to facilitate their preparation as counselors. Besides, students' ability to perform selfdisclosure had an important contribution in achieving their academic success and effective
social interactions.
Alberti and Emmons (1982) viewed assertiveness as a skill and capacity in
interpersonal communications. Assertiveness improves students' assertive beliefs and
behaviors, which help them to change the way they view themselves and to establish selfconfidence, interpersonal communication and well-being (Hafshejani, Fatehizade, and
Vousefi, 2013). Assertive people feel free to express their feelings, thoughts and desires.
They are also able to initiate and maintain comfortable relationships with other people.
They know their rights and have control over their anger. However, this does not mean that
they repress feelings; instead they can control anger and talk about their feelings in a
reasoning manner. Assertive people are willing to compromise with others, rather than
always wanting their own way, and also they tend to have good self-esteem.
Review of Related Literature
Self-disclosure
Self-disclosure was defined by Sidney Jourard (1964), as "letting another person
know what you think, feel, or want".
Self-disclosure can be defined as intimate and/or
personal information disclosed by individuals concerning their past, present, or future that
is not readily available to anyone. A prime example of self-disclosure is when two people are
getting to know each other and the information communicated between them contains
facts or stories that are not readily available to others. Espana (2013) noted that the
purpose of self-disclosure in face-to-face communication is to exchange pieces of intimate
information about the self in order to further understand and get to know another in the
hope of formulating a relationship. The level and depth of self-disclosure between
individuals take place in a day, a week, a month, or even longer, depending on the individual
situation.
Billeter (2002) stated at a minimum self-disclosure is conceptualized as verbally
revealing thoughts, feelings, and experiences to others. But, self-disclosure is more than talk
that is personal and private. Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information to
another with the implicit or explicit understanding that it not be relayed further. "It is the
202
private nature of the information that distinguishes this sort of self-disclosure as a secret".
Through self-disclosure individuals let themselves are known to the other person. Selfdisclosure "reduces the mystery" between people (Jourard 1971a).
Billeter (2002) mentioned self-disclosure dimensions that have the strongest positive
correlation to relationship satisfaction are "disclosing one's feelings towards partner." Being
able to talk about the "feelings about the future of the relationship" is related to being
satisfied with the relationship. Another dimension was "one's feelings about money and
work." Given that the items in this dimension would seem on the surface to be less intimate
and thus easier to disclose, it was somewhat surprising that this item had such a strong
effect. For example, "disclosing feelings about partner's college major" and another was
"disclosing how the respondents feel about their own college major."
Fisher and Choi (2013) stated that several variables have been studied in relation to
self-disclosure. A great deal of self-disclosure literature has focused on determining the level
of self-disclosure based on the topic of information. Adolescents who choose certain topics
as low-to moderate-intimacy talk about those topics with more detail than topics that are
highly intimate. While students may be unwilling to seek out a counselor to discuss personal
problems, they may be more willing to do so when the problem is related to academics.
Further research has shown that those who possess an agreeableness trait and who are
socially skilled tend to be seen as high elicitors of self-disclosure. Women who disclose
information more readily are seen as more well-adjusted than women who do not disclose with tow disclosure in men indicating better adjustment than high disclosing men. Also,
women tend to rate themselves higher as elicitors of self-disclosure based on their
interactions with new people or strangers; whereas men's ratings were based on past
interactions with people they were close to.
Collins and Miller (1994, in Fisher and Choi, 2013) suggest that the level of disclosure
to the recipient is partly determined by how well-liked the recipient is and how much
intimate disclosure they themselves take part in. While individuals choose to self-disclose
for a variety of reasons, their impression of the recipient must also be taken into account;
this can include the recipient's outward physical display (e.g., being seen as "closed off" vs.
"open-to-talk"), the status of the recipient in relation to the discloser and the outcome of
past self-disclosure instances with the recipient.
203
Magno, Cuason and Figueroa (Nov 07, 2008) cited Jourard statements that persons
need to self-disclose to get in touch with their real-selves, to have intimate relationships
with people, to bond with others, in pursuit of the truth of one's being. The consequences
that follow after self-disclosure are manifested on its outcomes. The outcomes are; (1) We
learn the extent to which we are similar, one to the other, and to the extent to which we
differ from one another in thoughts, feelings, hopes and reactions to the past. (2) We learn
of the other man's needs, enabling them to help him or to ensure that his needs will not be
met. (3) We learn the extent to which a man accords with or deviates from moral and
ethical standards.
In a survey that Magno, Cuason and Figueroa (Nov 07, 2008) conducted, a person
after disclosing feels better (42.2%), happy (8.26%), free (B.51%), fine (4.6%), relaxed
(3.67%), peaceful (3.67%), okay (3.67%), lighter (2.75%), calm (2.75%), great (1.83%),
satisfied (1.83%), nothing (6.42%), and others (12.88%). Furthermore, it was reported that
on being transparent or open, individuals feel relieved that a burden was taken off their
shoulders; they experience peace of mind, and consequently happiness, contact with their
real- selves, and better able to direct their destiny on the basis of knowledge.
Assertive Behavior
Alberti and Emmons (1982) said assertiveness promotes equality in
human
relationships, enabling us to act in our own best interests, to stand up for ourselves without
undue anxiety, to express feelings honestly and comfortably, to exercise personal rights
without denying the rights of others. Some assertiveness skills include the ability to make
your own decisions about career, relationships, lifestyle and time schedule, taking initiative
in starting conversation, trusting your own judgment, setting goals and achieving them,
asking help from others, saying "no", setting limits on time and energy, expressing opinions
and defending them, ability to disagree, express agreement or support, show affection and
friendship, to respond to violations of one's rights, and expressing the above without fear of
unfair criticism from others, without hurtful behavior toward others, without name-calling
and intimidation, without manipulation and controlling others.
There are some distinctions between assertive behavior, non-assertive behavior and
aggressive behavior. Leopard and Wachowiaks (November 2003) stated assertive behavior
enables a person to say what he or she believes, to stand up for his or her rights in a way
204
that maximally facilitates communication and that indicates respect for the other person. It
is direct, honest and appropriate expression of one's feelings, opinions and beliefs. Assertive
behavior does not allow for violation of another's rights either. It is a way of standing up for
your rights without denying the rights of others. Whereas, non-assertive behavior allows
your personal rights to be violated in one of two ways: a) You violate your own rights by
inhibiting the honest expression of feelings and needs or, b) You allow someone else to
infringe upon your rights. For example, when asked at what kind of restaurant you would
like to eat, if you respond that it makes no difference, when it actually does, you are
violating your own right to have and state a preference. Non-assertive behavior does not
feel good, although it may feel safe. A nonassertive person will often feel used, hurt, anxious
or angry.
Aggressive behavior is when a person stands up for his or her rights in such a way
that the rights of another are violated. The motivation for aggressive behavior is to not only
achieve individual rights but to dominate, humiliate or "put down" the other person.
Aggression is an attack on another person, not an attack on his or her behavior. Often
aggressive behavior is a result of stored-up bad feelings. Stating bad feelings as they occur
can be assertive. Attacking and making someone else responsible for your bad feelings is
aggression.
Here are examples of assertive, aggressive and non-assertive responses borrowed
from "Your Perfect Right" by Alberti and Emmons (1974). These should help us understand
the distinctions between the three ways of responding.
*
"Dining Out"
Mr. and Mrs. A. are at dinner in a moderately expensive restaurant.
Mr. A. has ordered a rare steak, but when the steak is served, Mr. A. finds it
to be very well done, contrary to his order. His behavior is;
Non-assertive: Mr, A. grumbles to his wife about the "burned" meat, and
observes that he won't patronize this restaurant in the future. He says
nothing to the waitress, responding "Fine!" to her inquiry "Is everything all right?" His dinner and evening are highly unsatisfactory, and
he feels guilty for having taken no action. Mr. A's estimate of himself,
and Mrs. A's estimate of him are both deflated by the experience.
Aggressive; Mr. A. angrily summons the waitress to his table. He berates her
loudlyand unfairly for not complying with his order. His actions ridicule
the waitress and embarrass Mrs. A. He demands and receives another
steak, this one more to his liking. He feels in control of the situation,
but Mrs. A's embarrassment creates friction between them, and spoils
their evening. The waitress is humiliated and angry and loses her
poise for the rest of the evening.
205
Assertive: Mr. A. motions the waitress to his table. Noting that he had
ordered a rare steak, he shows her the well done meat, asking politely
but firmly that it be returned to the kitchen and replaced with the
rare-cooked steak he originally requested. The waitress apologizes for
the error, and shortly returns with a rare steak. The A's enjoy dinner,
tip accordingly, and Mr. A. feels satisfaction with himself. The waitress
is pleased with a satisfied customer and an adequate tip.
Methods
A total of 83 Guidance and Counseling students of Satya Wacana Salatiga completed
the 50 items taken from the Self-Disclosure Scale developed by Magno, Cuason and Figueroa
(Nov 07, 2008). The scale contains five factors extracted in the principal components
analysis, namely: beliefs, relationships, personal matters, intimate matters and interests.
Students also completed the 35 items of The Assertiveness Inventory designed by Albert!
and Emmons.
Results
Self-Disclosure
Factor 1 contains 10 items about the beliefs on religion, and ideas on a particular
topic and it is labeled as Beliefs. Beliefs cover religion, defined in self-disclosure as the ability
of an individual to share his thoughts and emotions toward his beliefs about God, conveying
spiritual direction.
Table 1. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Beliefs
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
17-25
10
12,0%
Average Frequency
26 - 35
58
69,9%
Fiigh Frequency
36-45
15
18,1%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 17
Range = 28
Maximum Score = 45
Mean = 31.10
Referring to Table 1. approximately 58 students (69,9%) have opened in general
terms about their beliefs such as their thoughts and emotions on religion and spirituality.
There are 15 high self-disclosing students (18, 1%) who have opened and shared themselves
fully and in complete details to others in the area of beliefs. These students will have the
tendency to let themselves to be known in their beliefs.
206
Factor 2 contains 10 items reflecting relationships with friends, was labeled as
relationships. Interpersonal relationship is defined as the range of relationships or bonding
formed within the outside the family, include peers, friends, and casual acquaintances.
Jourard (1971) proposed disclosure of relatively intimate information indicates movement
towards greater intimacy in interpersonal relationships. It is indicated self-disclosure
illuminate the process of developing relationship.
Table 2. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Relationships
Category
Score
Low Frequency
18-26
14
16,9%
Average Frequency
27-35
44
53,0%
High Frequency
36-44
25
30,1%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 26
Maximum Score = 44
Mean = 31.92
Examining Table 2., almost 44 students (53,0%) have opened their thought and
feelings about their relationships with their friends as well as 25 high self-disclosing students
(30,1%) who have opened and shared themselves fully and in complete details to others in
the area of relationships.
Factor 3 contains 10 items about a person's secrets and attitudes and most of the
items contain personal matters so it was labeled as Personal Matters.
Table 3. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Personal Matters
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
15-24
21
25,3%
Average Frequency
25-34
53
63,9%
High Frequency
35-44
9
10,8%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = ]L5
Range = 29
Maximum Score = 44
Mean = 28.13
Concerning Table 3. most participants (53 students/63,9%) are frequently eager to
reveal private truth about themselves, favorable or unfavorable, toward something or
someone and is exhibited in their though, feelings or intended behavior, students are honest
and seeking others to know them better by disclosing. However, there are 21 low disclosing
207
students (25, 3%) who never or rarely open up themselves toward others in the area of
personal matters.
Factor 4 contains feelings about oneself, problems, love, success, and frustrations, so
it was labeled as Intimate Matters. One of the most intimate topics as a content in selfdisclosure is sex that is usually embarrassing and hard to open to others. Maningas (1995)
stated sexuality is part of our natural capacity to relate to others, giving the necessary
qualities of sensitivity, warmth, mental respect in our interpersonal relationship and
openness.
Table 4. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Intimate Matters
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
18-25
19
22,9%
Average Frequency
26-34
45
54,2%
High Frequency
35-43
19
22,9%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 25
Maximum Score =43
Mean = 29.93
Table 4. Shows most participants (45 students/54, 2%) are frequently reveal their
intimate matters such as sex; they are willingly discussed their sexual needs and views.
There are 19 high self-disclosing students (22, 9%) who have opened and shared themselves
fully and in complete details to others in the area of intimate matters. These students will
have the tendency to let themselves to be known in their intimate matters. There are also
19 low disclosing students (22, 9%) who rarely open up themselves toward others in the
area of personal matters.
Factor 5 is a cluster of taste and perceptions so it was labeled as interests. Interests
were labeled as likes and dislikes of a person opened to other people, including views,
feelings, and appreciation of a person, place or thing.
Table 5. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Interests
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
13-23
15
18,1%
Average Frequency
24-34
57
68,7%
High Frequency
35-46
11
13,3%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 13
208
Range = 33
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
13-23
15
18,1%
Average Frequency
24-34
57
68,7%
High Frequency
35-46
11
13,3%
iMaximum Score =46
Mean = 27.99
Table 5. Indicates an estimate of 57 students (68, 7%) is self-disclosing their interests
concerning likes and dislikes, including views, feeling, and appreciation of a person, place or
thing. In addition, there are 15 low disclosing students (18, 1%) who rarely open up
themselves toward others in the area of interests.
Assertive Behavior
Assertive people are characteristically described as being open, flexible, selfenhancing, expressive, independent, interpersonally comfortable and genuinely concerned
with the rights of others (Alberti and Emmons, 1974).
Table 6. Assertiveness; Category of Nonassertive Behavior
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Very Low Nonassertive Behavior
18-28
7
8,4%
Low Nonassertive Behavior
29-40
43
51,8%
High Nonassertive Behavior
41-52
25
30,1%
Very High Nonassertive Behavior
53-64
8
9,6%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 46
Maximum Score = 64
Mean = 40.17
Referring to label 6. there are 43 students (51,8%) categorized having low
nonassertive behavior, whereas only 7 students (8,4%) having very low nonassertive
behavior. This result shows that most students are non-assertive, meaning that they inhibit
their honest, spontaneous reactions and typically feel hurt, anxious and sometimes angry as
a result of being non-assertive in various interpersonal situations.
Often, they relive the
situation in their minds pretending how they would do things differently if it happened
again.
Aggressive behavior is that type of interpersonal behavior in which a person stands
up for their own rights in such a way that the rights of others are also violated. Aggressive
behavior humiliates, dominates, or puts the person down rather than simply expressing one's
own emotions or thoughts. It is an attack on the person rather than on the person's behavior.
Aggressive behavior is quite frequently a hostile over-reaction or outburst, which results from
past pent-up anger.
Table 7. Assertiveness: Category of Aggressive Behavior
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Very Low Aggressive Behavior
9-14
6
7,2%
Low Aggressive Behavior
15-20
16
19,3%
High Aggressive Behavior
21-26
45
54,2%
Very High Aggressive Behavior
27-32
16
19,3%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 9
Maximum Score = 32
Range = 46
Mean = 22.92
From Table 7. Can be concluded the behavior of 45 students (54, 2%), is categorized
as high aggressive behavior. Only the behavior of 22 students (26, 5%), is categorized as very
low as well as low aggressive behavior. Whereas, Alberti and Emmons (1982) stated that
assertive behavior differs from aggressive behavior in the intent, effect, and social context in
which it is perceived. When a person's intent is perceived as trying to hurt or manipulate
the receiver with his or her ideas, opinions and feelings rather than to simply express them,
the behavior is aggressive. The effect of the assertion is based upon the receiver's reaction
to the assertion. When the assertion is positively accepted, the behavior is deemed
assertive but when the person takes offense to the assertion, it is judged as aggressive.
Finally, only when the behavior meets the expectations of the culture and is appropriate in
social context is it considered to be assertive behavior. Culturally, inappropriate assertions are
most frequently seen as aggressions.
Summary
The self-disclosure characteristics among 83 guidance and counseling students at
Satya Wacana University are: 1) Approximately 58 students (69,9%) have opened about
210
beliefs, thoughts and emotions on religion/spirituality. 2) An estimate of 57 students (68,7%)
are self-disclosing about their interests, their likes, including views, feelings, appreciation of a
person, place or thing. 3) Just about 53 students (63,9%) are frequently eager to reveal
private truth about themselves, are honest and seeking others to know them better. 4)
Around 45 students (54,2%) are frequently reveal their intimate matters such as sex and
willingly discuss their sexual needs and views as well as 19 high self-disclosing students
(22,9%) who have shared themselves fully and in details of their intimate matters. 5) Almost
44 students (53,0%) have opened their thought and feelings about their relationships with
their friends as well as 25 high self-disclosing students (30,1%) who have opened themselves
in details and have the tendency to let themselves to be known in their relationships.
Within students assertiveness: 1) More or less the behavior of 45 students (54,2%), is
categorized as high aggressive behavior, only the behavior of 22 students (26,5%), is
categorized as very low as well as low aggressive behavior. 2) Nearly 43 students (51,8%) are
categorized having low nonassertive behavior, whereas only 7 students (8,4%) are
categorized having very low nonassertive behavior.
References
Alberti, Robert E. and Emmons, Michael T. 1974. Your Perfect Right. San Luis Obispo, Ca.
Impact Press.
. 1982. Your Perfect Right: A Guide to Assertive Living.
Sciences Press.
San
Luis
Obsipo:
Human
. 2001. The Assertiveness Inventory. Office of Health Education and Promotion, Health
Services. Http://www.unh.edu/health-services. Accessed April 29, 2015.
Billeter, Courtney Bly. 2002. An Exploration of Eight Dimensions of Self-Disclosure with
Relationship Satisfaction. Thesis. Masters of Science in Sociology. Faculty of the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg, Virginia.
Espaha, Andrew Christopher, "Self-Disclosure and Self-Efficacy in Online Dating" (2013).
Dissertations and Theses. Portland State University. Dept. of Communication.
Http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_ access_etds/889. Accessed April 23, 2015.
Fisher, Nicole and Choi, Seong In. 2013. What Are College Students Afraid of Disclosing and
,
to Whom? An Adaptation and Extension of the Self-Disclosure Index. Journal of Asia
Pacific Counseling @ 2013 The Korean Counseling Association. 2013, Vol. 3, No.2,
113-130.
Jourard, Sidney M. 1959. "Healthy Personality and Self-Disclosure. "Mental
(October): 499-507.
Hygiene. 43
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. 1971a. The Transparent Self. New York: Van Nostrand.
. 1971b. Self-Disclosure: An Experimental Analysis of the Transparent Self. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Ifdil.
2013. Konsep Dasar Self-disclosure dan Pentingnya Bagi Mahasiswa Bimbingan dan
Konseling. Pedagogi, Jurnol llmioh llmu Pendidikan, Volume XIII No.l April 2013.
Hafshejani, Zohreh Amani, Fatehizade, Maryam and Yousefi, Zahra. 2013. The multiple
relations between attachment styles and big five personality traits with assertiveness
in a sample of Iranian girl. Journal of Education Research and Behavioral Sciences
Vol.
2(10),
pp.
161-166,
October,
2013.
Available
online
at
http://www.apexiournal.ore. Accessed April 29, 2015.
Leopard, Judy and Wachowiaks, Dale. November 2003. The Clearinghouse for Structured
Thematic Groups and Innovative Programs. Austin; Counseling and Mental Health
Center - The University of Texas at Austin.
Magno, Carlo, Cuason, Sherwin and Figueroa, Christine. Nov 07, 2008. The Development of
the Self-disclosure Scale. Manila: De La Salle University.
Maningas, I. 1995. Moral Theology. Manila: DLSU Press.
212
Among Counseling Students at Satya Wacana University
Sumardjono Padmomartono
Adhi Krisna Maria Agustin
Guidance and Counseling Study Program, Satya Wacana Christian University
sumardionopm(5)staff. uksw.edu
ABSTRACT
This article describes self-disclosure characteristics among 83 guidance and counseling
students in the areas of their living concerns, namely: 1) 69, 9% students have opened about
their beliefs, thoughts and emotions on religion/ spirituality. 2) 68, 7% students are selfdisclosing about their interests, their likes, including views, feelings, and appreciation of a
person, place or thing. 3) 63, 9% students are frequently eager to reveal private truth about
themselves, are honest and seeking others to know them better. 4) 54,2% students are
frequently reveal their intimate matters such as sex and willingly discuss their sexual needs
and views as well as 22,9% high self-disclosing students who have shared themselves fully
and in details of their intimate matters. 5) 53,0% students have opened their thought and
feelings about their relationships with their friends as well as 30,1% high self-disclosing
students who have opened themselves in details and have the tendency to let themselves to
be known in their relationships. Within students assertive behavior: 1) 54,2% students is
categorized as high aggressive behavior, only the behavior of 26,5% students, is categorized
as very low as well as low aggressive behavior. 2) 51, 8% students are categorized having
low non-assertive behavior, whereas only 8, 4% students are categorized having very low
non-assertive behavior.
Keywords; self-disclosure, assertive behavior, psychological well-being
Introduction
Jourard
integrated self-disclosure with the concepts
of self, mental health and
communication, defining the "self" as the person's subjective side, his thoughts, feelings,
beliefs and wants, emphasizing the importance of self-disclosure, or letting another person
knows what one thinks, feels and wants as the most direct means of realistically knowing
one's self and thereby achieving a healthy personality integration. Jourard's thesis suggests
the degree of self-disclosure to significant others as important for psychological well-being
(Jourard, 1959)
A
Ifdil (2013) wrote that communication will be more effective whenever individuals
are capable and eager to express their ideas and feelings openly and smoothly. This
personal capabilities and eagerness were defined as self- disclosure. Furthermore, Ifdil
201
(2013) mentioned self-disclosure is to be developed continuously by counseling students in
order to facilitate their preparation as counselors. Besides, students' ability to perform selfdisclosure had an important contribution in achieving their academic success and effective
social interactions.
Alberti and Emmons (1982) viewed assertiveness as a skill and capacity in
interpersonal communications. Assertiveness improves students' assertive beliefs and
behaviors, which help them to change the way they view themselves and to establish selfconfidence, interpersonal communication and well-being (Hafshejani, Fatehizade, and
Vousefi, 2013). Assertive people feel free to express their feelings, thoughts and desires.
They are also able to initiate and maintain comfortable relationships with other people.
They know their rights and have control over their anger. However, this does not mean that
they repress feelings; instead they can control anger and talk about their feelings in a
reasoning manner. Assertive people are willing to compromise with others, rather than
always wanting their own way, and also they tend to have good self-esteem.
Review of Related Literature
Self-disclosure
Self-disclosure was defined by Sidney Jourard (1964), as "letting another person
know what you think, feel, or want".
Self-disclosure can be defined as intimate and/or
personal information disclosed by individuals concerning their past, present, or future that
is not readily available to anyone. A prime example of self-disclosure is when two people are
getting to know each other and the information communicated between them contains
facts or stories that are not readily available to others. Espana (2013) noted that the
purpose of self-disclosure in face-to-face communication is to exchange pieces of intimate
information about the self in order to further understand and get to know another in the
hope of formulating a relationship. The level and depth of self-disclosure between
individuals take place in a day, a week, a month, or even longer, depending on the individual
situation.
Billeter (2002) stated at a minimum self-disclosure is conceptualized as verbally
revealing thoughts, feelings, and experiences to others. But, self-disclosure is more than talk
that is personal and private. Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information to
another with the implicit or explicit understanding that it not be relayed further. "It is the
202
private nature of the information that distinguishes this sort of self-disclosure as a secret".
Through self-disclosure individuals let themselves are known to the other person. Selfdisclosure "reduces the mystery" between people (Jourard 1971a).
Billeter (2002) mentioned self-disclosure dimensions that have the strongest positive
correlation to relationship satisfaction are "disclosing one's feelings towards partner." Being
able to talk about the "feelings about the future of the relationship" is related to being
satisfied with the relationship. Another dimension was "one's feelings about money and
work." Given that the items in this dimension would seem on the surface to be less intimate
and thus easier to disclose, it was somewhat surprising that this item had such a strong
effect. For example, "disclosing feelings about partner's college major" and another was
"disclosing how the respondents feel about their own college major."
Fisher and Choi (2013) stated that several variables have been studied in relation to
self-disclosure. A great deal of self-disclosure literature has focused on determining the level
of self-disclosure based on the topic of information. Adolescents who choose certain topics
as low-to moderate-intimacy talk about those topics with more detail than topics that are
highly intimate. While students may be unwilling to seek out a counselor to discuss personal
problems, they may be more willing to do so when the problem is related to academics.
Further research has shown that those who possess an agreeableness trait and who are
socially skilled tend to be seen as high elicitors of self-disclosure. Women who disclose
information more readily are seen as more well-adjusted than women who do not disclose with tow disclosure in men indicating better adjustment than high disclosing men. Also,
women tend to rate themselves higher as elicitors of self-disclosure based on their
interactions with new people or strangers; whereas men's ratings were based on past
interactions with people they were close to.
Collins and Miller (1994, in Fisher and Choi, 2013) suggest that the level of disclosure
to the recipient is partly determined by how well-liked the recipient is and how much
intimate disclosure they themselves take part in. While individuals choose to self-disclose
for a variety of reasons, their impression of the recipient must also be taken into account;
this can include the recipient's outward physical display (e.g., being seen as "closed off" vs.
"open-to-talk"), the status of the recipient in relation to the discloser and the outcome of
past self-disclosure instances with the recipient.
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Magno, Cuason and Figueroa (Nov 07, 2008) cited Jourard statements that persons
need to self-disclose to get in touch with their real-selves, to have intimate relationships
with people, to bond with others, in pursuit of the truth of one's being. The consequences
that follow after self-disclosure are manifested on its outcomes. The outcomes are; (1) We
learn the extent to which we are similar, one to the other, and to the extent to which we
differ from one another in thoughts, feelings, hopes and reactions to the past. (2) We learn
of the other man's needs, enabling them to help him or to ensure that his needs will not be
met. (3) We learn the extent to which a man accords with or deviates from moral and
ethical standards.
In a survey that Magno, Cuason and Figueroa (Nov 07, 2008) conducted, a person
after disclosing feels better (42.2%), happy (8.26%), free (B.51%), fine (4.6%), relaxed
(3.67%), peaceful (3.67%), okay (3.67%), lighter (2.75%), calm (2.75%), great (1.83%),
satisfied (1.83%), nothing (6.42%), and others (12.88%). Furthermore, it was reported that
on being transparent or open, individuals feel relieved that a burden was taken off their
shoulders; they experience peace of mind, and consequently happiness, contact with their
real- selves, and better able to direct their destiny on the basis of knowledge.
Assertive Behavior
Alberti and Emmons (1982) said assertiveness promotes equality in
human
relationships, enabling us to act in our own best interests, to stand up for ourselves without
undue anxiety, to express feelings honestly and comfortably, to exercise personal rights
without denying the rights of others. Some assertiveness skills include the ability to make
your own decisions about career, relationships, lifestyle and time schedule, taking initiative
in starting conversation, trusting your own judgment, setting goals and achieving them,
asking help from others, saying "no", setting limits on time and energy, expressing opinions
and defending them, ability to disagree, express agreement or support, show affection and
friendship, to respond to violations of one's rights, and expressing the above without fear of
unfair criticism from others, without hurtful behavior toward others, without name-calling
and intimidation, without manipulation and controlling others.
There are some distinctions between assertive behavior, non-assertive behavior and
aggressive behavior. Leopard and Wachowiaks (November 2003) stated assertive behavior
enables a person to say what he or she believes, to stand up for his or her rights in a way
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that maximally facilitates communication and that indicates respect for the other person. It
is direct, honest and appropriate expression of one's feelings, opinions and beliefs. Assertive
behavior does not allow for violation of another's rights either. It is a way of standing up for
your rights without denying the rights of others. Whereas, non-assertive behavior allows
your personal rights to be violated in one of two ways: a) You violate your own rights by
inhibiting the honest expression of feelings and needs or, b) You allow someone else to
infringe upon your rights. For example, when asked at what kind of restaurant you would
like to eat, if you respond that it makes no difference, when it actually does, you are
violating your own right to have and state a preference. Non-assertive behavior does not
feel good, although it may feel safe. A nonassertive person will often feel used, hurt, anxious
or angry.
Aggressive behavior is when a person stands up for his or her rights in such a way
that the rights of another are violated. The motivation for aggressive behavior is to not only
achieve individual rights but to dominate, humiliate or "put down" the other person.
Aggression is an attack on another person, not an attack on his or her behavior. Often
aggressive behavior is a result of stored-up bad feelings. Stating bad feelings as they occur
can be assertive. Attacking and making someone else responsible for your bad feelings is
aggression.
Here are examples of assertive, aggressive and non-assertive responses borrowed
from "Your Perfect Right" by Alberti and Emmons (1974). These should help us understand
the distinctions between the three ways of responding.
*
"Dining Out"
Mr. and Mrs. A. are at dinner in a moderately expensive restaurant.
Mr. A. has ordered a rare steak, but when the steak is served, Mr. A. finds it
to be very well done, contrary to his order. His behavior is;
Non-assertive: Mr, A. grumbles to his wife about the "burned" meat, and
observes that he won't patronize this restaurant in the future. He says
nothing to the waitress, responding "Fine!" to her inquiry "Is everything all right?" His dinner and evening are highly unsatisfactory, and
he feels guilty for having taken no action. Mr. A's estimate of himself,
and Mrs. A's estimate of him are both deflated by the experience.
Aggressive; Mr. A. angrily summons the waitress to his table. He berates her
loudlyand unfairly for not complying with his order. His actions ridicule
the waitress and embarrass Mrs. A. He demands and receives another
steak, this one more to his liking. He feels in control of the situation,
but Mrs. A's embarrassment creates friction between them, and spoils
their evening. The waitress is humiliated and angry and loses her
poise for the rest of the evening.
205
Assertive: Mr. A. motions the waitress to his table. Noting that he had
ordered a rare steak, he shows her the well done meat, asking politely
but firmly that it be returned to the kitchen and replaced with the
rare-cooked steak he originally requested. The waitress apologizes for
the error, and shortly returns with a rare steak. The A's enjoy dinner,
tip accordingly, and Mr. A. feels satisfaction with himself. The waitress
is pleased with a satisfied customer and an adequate tip.
Methods
A total of 83 Guidance and Counseling students of Satya Wacana Salatiga completed
the 50 items taken from the Self-Disclosure Scale developed by Magno, Cuason and Figueroa
(Nov 07, 2008). The scale contains five factors extracted in the principal components
analysis, namely: beliefs, relationships, personal matters, intimate matters and interests.
Students also completed the 35 items of The Assertiveness Inventory designed by Albert!
and Emmons.
Results
Self-Disclosure
Factor 1 contains 10 items about the beliefs on religion, and ideas on a particular
topic and it is labeled as Beliefs. Beliefs cover religion, defined in self-disclosure as the ability
of an individual to share his thoughts and emotions toward his beliefs about God, conveying
spiritual direction.
Table 1. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Beliefs
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
17-25
10
12,0%
Average Frequency
26 - 35
58
69,9%
Fiigh Frequency
36-45
15
18,1%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 17
Range = 28
Maximum Score = 45
Mean = 31.10
Referring to Table 1. approximately 58 students (69,9%) have opened in general
terms about their beliefs such as their thoughts and emotions on religion and spirituality.
There are 15 high self-disclosing students (18, 1%) who have opened and shared themselves
fully and in complete details to others in the area of beliefs. These students will have the
tendency to let themselves to be known in their beliefs.
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Factor 2 contains 10 items reflecting relationships with friends, was labeled as
relationships. Interpersonal relationship is defined as the range of relationships or bonding
formed within the outside the family, include peers, friends, and casual acquaintances.
Jourard (1971) proposed disclosure of relatively intimate information indicates movement
towards greater intimacy in interpersonal relationships. It is indicated self-disclosure
illuminate the process of developing relationship.
Table 2. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Relationships
Category
Score
Low Frequency
18-26
14
16,9%
Average Frequency
27-35
44
53,0%
High Frequency
36-44
25
30,1%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 26
Maximum Score = 44
Mean = 31.92
Examining Table 2., almost 44 students (53,0%) have opened their thought and
feelings about their relationships with their friends as well as 25 high self-disclosing students
(30,1%) who have opened and shared themselves fully and in complete details to others in
the area of relationships.
Factor 3 contains 10 items about a person's secrets and attitudes and most of the
items contain personal matters so it was labeled as Personal Matters.
Table 3. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Personal Matters
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
15-24
21
25,3%
Average Frequency
25-34
53
63,9%
High Frequency
35-44
9
10,8%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = ]L5
Range = 29
Maximum Score = 44
Mean = 28.13
Concerning Table 3. most participants (53 students/63,9%) are frequently eager to
reveal private truth about themselves, favorable or unfavorable, toward something or
someone and is exhibited in their though, feelings or intended behavior, students are honest
and seeking others to know them better by disclosing. However, there are 21 low disclosing
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students (25, 3%) who never or rarely open up themselves toward others in the area of
personal matters.
Factor 4 contains feelings about oneself, problems, love, success, and frustrations, so
it was labeled as Intimate Matters. One of the most intimate topics as a content in selfdisclosure is sex that is usually embarrassing and hard to open to others. Maningas (1995)
stated sexuality is part of our natural capacity to relate to others, giving the necessary
qualities of sensitivity, warmth, mental respect in our interpersonal relationship and
openness.
Table 4. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Intimate Matters
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
18-25
19
22,9%
Average Frequency
26-34
45
54,2%
High Frequency
35-43
19
22,9%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 25
Maximum Score =43
Mean = 29.93
Table 4. Shows most participants (45 students/54, 2%) are frequently reveal their
intimate matters such as sex; they are willingly discussed their sexual needs and views.
There are 19 high self-disclosing students (22, 9%) who have opened and shared themselves
fully and in complete details to others in the area of intimate matters. These students will
have the tendency to let themselves to be known in their intimate matters. There are also
19 low disclosing students (22, 9%) who rarely open up themselves toward others in the
area of personal matters.
Factor 5 is a cluster of taste and perceptions so it was labeled as interests. Interests
were labeled as likes and dislikes of a person opened to other people, including views,
feelings, and appreciation of a person, place or thing.
Table 5. Areas of Self-Disclosure: Category of Interests
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
13-23
15
18,1%
Average Frequency
24-34
57
68,7%
High Frequency
35-46
11
13,3%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 13
208
Range = 33
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Low Frequency
13-23
15
18,1%
Average Frequency
24-34
57
68,7%
High Frequency
35-46
11
13,3%
iMaximum Score =46
Mean = 27.99
Table 5. Indicates an estimate of 57 students (68, 7%) is self-disclosing their interests
concerning likes and dislikes, including views, feeling, and appreciation of a person, place or
thing. In addition, there are 15 low disclosing students (18, 1%) who rarely open up
themselves toward others in the area of interests.
Assertive Behavior
Assertive people are characteristically described as being open, flexible, selfenhancing, expressive, independent, interpersonally comfortable and genuinely concerned
with the rights of others (Alberti and Emmons, 1974).
Table 6. Assertiveness; Category of Nonassertive Behavior
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Very Low Nonassertive Behavior
18-28
7
8,4%
Low Nonassertive Behavior
29-40
43
51,8%
High Nonassertive Behavior
41-52
25
30,1%
Very High Nonassertive Behavior
53-64
8
9,6%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 18
Range = 46
Maximum Score = 64
Mean = 40.17
Referring to label 6. there are 43 students (51,8%) categorized having low
nonassertive behavior, whereas only 7 students (8,4%) having very low nonassertive
behavior. This result shows that most students are non-assertive, meaning that they inhibit
their honest, spontaneous reactions and typically feel hurt, anxious and sometimes angry as
a result of being non-assertive in various interpersonal situations.
Often, they relive the
situation in their minds pretending how they would do things differently if it happened
again.
Aggressive behavior is that type of interpersonal behavior in which a person stands
up for their own rights in such a way that the rights of others are also violated. Aggressive
behavior humiliates, dominates, or puts the person down rather than simply expressing one's
own emotions or thoughts. It is an attack on the person rather than on the person's behavior.
Aggressive behavior is quite frequently a hostile over-reaction or outburst, which results from
past pent-up anger.
Table 7. Assertiveness: Category of Aggressive Behavior
Category
Score Range Frequency Percentages
Very Low Aggressive Behavior
9-14
6
7,2%
Low Aggressive Behavior
15-20
16
19,3%
High Aggressive Behavior
21-26
45
54,2%
Very High Aggressive Behavior
27-32
16
19,3%
83
100%
Total
Minimum Score = 9
Maximum Score = 32
Range = 46
Mean = 22.92
From Table 7. Can be concluded the behavior of 45 students (54, 2%), is categorized
as high aggressive behavior. Only the behavior of 22 students (26, 5%), is categorized as very
low as well as low aggressive behavior. Whereas, Alberti and Emmons (1982) stated that
assertive behavior differs from aggressive behavior in the intent, effect, and social context in
which it is perceived. When a person's intent is perceived as trying to hurt or manipulate
the receiver with his or her ideas, opinions and feelings rather than to simply express them,
the behavior is aggressive. The effect of the assertion is based upon the receiver's reaction
to the assertion. When the assertion is positively accepted, the behavior is deemed
assertive but when the person takes offense to the assertion, it is judged as aggressive.
Finally, only when the behavior meets the expectations of the culture and is appropriate in
social context is it considered to be assertive behavior. Culturally, inappropriate assertions are
most frequently seen as aggressions.
Summary
The self-disclosure characteristics among 83 guidance and counseling students at
Satya Wacana University are: 1) Approximately 58 students (69,9%) have opened about
210
beliefs, thoughts and emotions on religion/spirituality. 2) An estimate of 57 students (68,7%)
are self-disclosing about their interests, their likes, including views, feelings, appreciation of a
person, place or thing. 3) Just about 53 students (63,9%) are frequently eager to reveal
private truth about themselves, are honest and seeking others to know them better. 4)
Around 45 students (54,2%) are frequently reveal their intimate matters such as sex and
willingly discuss their sexual needs and views as well as 19 high self-disclosing students
(22,9%) who have shared themselves fully and in details of their intimate matters. 5) Almost
44 students (53,0%) have opened their thought and feelings about their relationships with
their friends as well as 25 high self-disclosing students (30,1%) who have opened themselves
in details and have the tendency to let themselves to be known in their relationships.
Within students assertiveness: 1) More or less the behavior of 45 students (54,2%), is
categorized as high aggressive behavior, only the behavior of 22 students (26,5%), is
categorized as very low as well as low aggressive behavior. 2) Nearly 43 students (51,8%) are
categorized having low nonassertive behavior, whereas only 7 students (8,4%) are
categorized having very low nonassertive behavior.
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