AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ON PERSON DEIXIS IN BARACK OBAMA’S WINNING SPEECH AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
Student Number: 064214089
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
GHESTY ALFIKASARI
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ON PERSON DEIXIS IN BARACK OBAMA’S WINNING SPEECH AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
Student Number: 064214089
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
GHESTY ALFIKASARI
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise to God that I finally finished my thesis. First of all, my highest gratitude is to God. His plan is so beautiful that I can finish this thesis on time.
I would like to thank my advisor, Adventina Putranti S.S, M. Hum., for the guidance, suggestions, precious times, and patience during the making of this thesis. And to my co advisor, Anna Fitriati S.Pd., M.Hum., for several essential inputs in finishing this thesis.
I would also say thanks to all of the staff of English Letters Faculty and the
Library of Sanata Dharma University for the big help in finishing my thesis. I thank
them for all the facility that helps me to make this thesis until I can finish it. I also thank them for all the help during my years of study in this university.
I would also say my gratitude to my uncle and my aunty. Without their support I am sure that I would not finish my thesis this soon. I would also give a very special thanks to Bagas Arifin Dwi Putra who gives me supports and always encourages me to finish the thesis soon. Thank you my dear beloved one.
My special thanks are also dedicated to my best friends, Arina Krisnawati,
Inkan Dewi Pravianti, Sr. Kharita SND and Elsa Maria Oktaviani Kellen. They are
the best friends ever during my study in English Letters Sanata Dharma University.Thank you again to those who I cannot mention one by one. I would be nothing without them. for my beloved mother in heaven my uncle and my aunty and my Bagas Arifin Dwi Putra ^^
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
MOTTO
Life is too short to stress ourselves with people who don't even deserve
to be an issue in our life. Live, Love, Laugh! #ihatequotesEverything is beautiful in God’s way. Have faith and trust Him.
Remember: “Where God guides, God supplies!” #ihatequotesNever let haters drag you down by rumors. Trust yourself, go with
what you believe in, and never give up! #ihatequotesMenjadi diri sendiri itu jauh lebih sulit daripada menjadi diri
orang lain. fika ^^ (29052011)PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE ......................................................................................... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. iv
MOTTO ……………………………………………………………………… v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................ vii
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................1 A. Background of Study ............................................................................
1 B. Problem Formulation .........................................................................
4 C. Objectives of the Study .........................................................................
4 D. Definition of Terms ..............................................................................
4 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ...............................................
6 A. Review of Related Studies ..................................................................
6 B. Review of Related Theories ................................................................
9 C. Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 22
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ............................................................. 24
A. Object of the Study .............................................................................. 24 B. Approach of the Study ........................................................................... 24 C. Method of the Study ............................................................................. 25CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 29
A. Person Deixis Used in the Speech ……………………………………... 29 B. Two Types of Person Deixis .................................................................. 42CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 53 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………… 55PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN DAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI
KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Ghesty Alfikasari No Mahasiswa : 06 4214 089 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma skripsi/karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul: A Descriptive Study on Person Deixis in Barack Obama’s Winning Speech Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasaikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal : 29 April 2011 Yang menyatakan (Ghesty Alfikasari) PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRACT
GHESTY ALFIKASARI. Descriptive Analysis Study on Person Deixis in Barack
Obama’s Winning Speech. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.This undergraduate thesis analyses the usage of person deixis in Barack Obama’s winning speech. This thesis uses pragmatic and stylistic approach to do the analysis. It is text analysis so the analysis is focused on the script of the speech text.
The writer formulated two problem formulations in the thesis. They are: (1) What are person deixis used in Barack Obama’s winning speech? (2) Stylistically, how are the person deixis used in the speech text?
There are three steps used in this analysis. First, the writer identified the person deixis which are mentioned on the text by reading and examining the text closely. Second, the writer collected the data needed to do the analysis research. Last, the writer analyzed the data and the writer chose descriptive analysis method. Descriptive research involves a collection of techniques used to specify, delineate, or describe naturally occurring phenomena without experimental manipulation.
As a result, the writer found out that that there are one hundred and seventy eight person deixis used in Barack Obama winning speech. Seventy four of them are exophoric reference, eighty three of them are endophoric in anaphoric reference, and twenty one of them are endophoric in cataphoric reference. And the researcher also found that in these one hundred and seventy eight person deixis, there are one hundred and fifty four primary deixis and twenty four secondary deixis. In this speech, Barrack Obama tries to convince Americans that he will be a good President by telling the honest situation that they are approaching. It is one of his ways to make sure that America believes him. He also does it by mentioning America as you and we. It is very clear why Barack Obama’s speech using more primary deixis. By doing so, he makes a familiarity situation to the American people. The secondary deixis itself is used to emphasize the primary deixis that is mentioned before. It gives the effect to dramatize the speech. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRAK
GHESTY ALFIKASARI. Descriptive Analysis Study on Person Deixis in Barack
Obama’s Winning Speech. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.Skripsi ini membahas penggunaan person deixis dalam pidato kemenangan Barack Obama. Pendekatan yang digunakan adalah pendekatan pragmatik dan stilistik untuk menganalisis objek analisis. Skripsi ini menitikberatkan pada analisis teks sehingga analisis pada skripsi ini lebih kepada analisis teks pidatonya saja.
Penulis skripsi ini memformulasikan dua permasalahan yang akan dibahas dalam skripsi ini. Mereka adalah: (1) Apa saja person deixis yang digunakan dalam teks pidato kemenangan Barack Obama? (2) Secara stylistik, bagaimana penggunaan person deixis tersebut dalam teks pidato?
Ada tiga langkah melakukan analisis dalam skripsi ini. Pertama, penulis mengidentifikasi person deixis yang ada pada teks pidato dengan cara membaca dan meneliti dengan seksama teks pidato tersebut. Yang kedua, penulis mengumpulkan data yang diperlukan untuk melakukan analisis. Yang terakhir adalah analisis data. Penulis memilih untuk menggunakan metode analisis deskripsi. Metode ini melibatkan beberapa teknik yang dipakai untuk menspesifikasikan, menggambarkan, atau mendeskripsikan fenomena yang terjadi secara natural tanpa adanya eksperimen manipulasi.
Sebagai hasil dari analisis tersebut, penulis menemukan ada seratus tujuh puluh delapan person deixis yang digunakan dalam pidato kemenangan Barack Obama. Tujuh puluh empatnya adalah exophoric reference, delapan puluh tiganya adalah endophoric
reference yang berkategori anaphoric reference, dan dua puluh satunya adalah endoporic
reference yang berkategori cataphoric reference. Penulis juga menemukan dalam seratus
tujuh puluh delapan person deixis ini ada seratus lima puluh empat primary deixis dan dua puluh empat secondary deixis. Dalam pidatonya, Barack Obama mencoba untuk meyakinkan rakyat Amerika bahwa dia akan menjadi Presiden yang baik dengan membeberkan segala fakta yang ada. Ini adalah salah satu cara agar rakyat Amerika percaya padanya. Dia juga melakukannya dengan cara mengganti Amerika dengan kata
you dan we. Jadi, sangatlah jelas mengapa teks pidato Barack Obama memakai lebih
banyak primary deixis. Dengan melakukan hal tersebut, dia menciptakan suasana kekeluargaan di antara warga Amerika dengan dirinya. Secondary deixis-nya sendiri hanya dipakai untuk penekanan dalam penggunaan primary deixis yang disebutkan sebelumnya. Mereka memberi kesan lebih dramatis pada primary deixis-nya. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of Study Language is important in human’s world. Language can be defined as the
communications and thoughts. According to Chomsky, linguistic knowledge can be characterized by using the concepts of competence and performance.
“Competence is a person’s implicit knowledge of the rules of a language that make the production and understanding of indefinitely large number of utterances possible while performance is the actual use of language in real situations” (Chomsky in Katamba, 1993: 8).
Linguistics, said William G. Moulton, is the branch of learning which studies the languages of any and all human societies: how each language is constructed; how it varies through space and changes through time; how it is related to other languages; and how it is used by its speakers. Linguistics has six branches. They are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The writer of this thesis uses one of these linguistics branches, which is pragmatics, to analyze the object of the study.
1. Pragmatics itself is described as the study of meaning in relation to speech situations (Leech, 1983: 6). There are so many parts that are discussed in pragmatics. One of them is deixis. The term deixis, taken from The Encyclopedia
, the Greek word for pointing, refers to a
of Language and Linguistics volume 2 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
or indexticals) is dependent on the context in which they are produced or interpreted. For example, I refers to the person currently speaking, You to the intended recipients or addressees, now to the time of speaking, here to the place of speaking, this finger to the currently indicated finger, and so on. These deictic expressions introduce a fundamental relativity of interpretation: uttering I am here
now will express quite different proportions on each occasion of use. This
relativity makes clear the importance of the distinction between sentence-meaning and utterance-meaning or interpretation: in large part because of deixis, one cannot talk about sentences expressing proportions—only the use of an affirmative sentence in a context expresses a determinate proposition. (Asher: 853, 1994)
This thesis also wants to discuss about person deixis such as mentioned before, so to make the analysis narrower, the writer chooses to use person deixis only. Person deixis is a referring expression which involves the speaker and the addressee. The traditional grammatical category of person, as respected, e.g., in pronouns and verb agreements, involves the most basic deictic notions. First person, for example, encode the participation of the speaker, and temporal and spatial deixis are organized primarily around the location of the speaker at the time of speaking. All languages have first and second person pronouns (though sometimes, as in Japanese, these may derive from third person titles), but not all have third person pronouns (Asher: 855, 1994).
Many other features are often encoded in person systems, whether in pronominal paradigms or predicate agreements, including gender (e.g., masculine, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
feminine, neuter, or further classes) and honorific distinctions (which are intrinsically deictic on a separate deictic parameter). In languages with predicate agreement, most sentences will obligatorily carry person deictic specification, ensuring the prominence of this deictic parameter (Asher: 855, 1994).
The writer chooses to study person deixis because each language has its own person deixis that makes each of them special including English. The writer chooses Barack Obama’s winning speech as the object of the study. The writer analyzes the usage of person deixis as an aspect to make the speech become unity.
The reason why the writer chooses Barack Obama’s winning speech to be the main source of the study is because in recent days people speaking up crowdedly about his winning campaign as the President of the United States of America. It is still becoming a hot issue among people in the world nowadays.
This speech also has various samples of person deixis that makes the writer easier to analyze the function and the usage of person deixis.
The analysis scope is to analyze the script of the speech text, Barack Obama’s winning speech text, and the writer analyzes further on person deixis.
The writer analyzes the meaning and the kinds of person deixis in stylistics scope and also its usage stylistically that are mentioned in Barack Obama’s winning speech, as it says in the problem formulation.
The advantages of this study is to clarify the usage and the kinds of person deixis in Barack Obama’s winning speech so that the hearer or the reader of this speech can understand more about the speech which is delivered by Barack Obama in his winning occasion. Hopefully, people who read this thesis will also PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
understand the kinds of person deixis in stylistics scope of the person deixis mentioned through the whole speech of Barack Obama.
B. Problem Formulation
The problems that will be discussed in this study are:
1. What are person deixis used in Barack Obama’s winning speech?
2. What are person deixis in primary deixis and secondary deixis used in the speech text?
C. Objectives of the Study There are two objectives of the study that will be discussed in this study.
The writer first considers what kind of person deixis are in the Barack Obama’s winning speech. The other is that the writer considers about the kinds of person deixis mention in the text that is categorized as primary and secondary deixis and its use in the text.
D. Definition of Terms
1. Deixis : the pointing or specifying function of some words (as definite articles and demonstrative pronouns) whose denotation changes from one discourse to another (Rooney, 2006: 477).
2. Person deixis : a referring expression which involves the speaker and the addressee. The traditional grammatical category of person, as respected, e.g., in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
pronouns and verb agreements, involves the most basic deictic notions. First person, for example, encode the participation of the speaker, and temporal and spatial deixis are organized primarily around the location of the speaker at the time of speaking. As far as is known all languages have first and second person pronouns (though sometimes, as in Japanese, these may derives from third person titles), but not all have third person pronouns (Perkins, 1992: ).
Speech : a public address; a discourse (Read, 1996: 1205) PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review on Related Studies The writer finds out several studies about person deixis that have been done by other scholars. They are also talking about person deixis. Yael-Janette Zupnik wrote an article on Journal of Pragmatics titled A
. He stated
Pragmatic Analysis of The Use of Person Deixis in Political Discourse
that several discourse analysts have focused on the significant role of first-person plural deictic pronouns in political discourse.
The term ‘deixis’ refers to the ways in which language encodes features of the context of utterance, such as in the case of person deixis (first and second- person pronouns: (‘I’/‘we’,‘you’), or spatial deixis (e.g. the adverbials ‘here’ and ‘there’). As it concerns the relationship between the structure of languages and the contexts in which they are used, deixis is a pragmatic phenomenon. Specifically, the referents of deictic expressions cannot be identified without an understanding of the actual context in which they are uttered. His project, however, attempts to delineate such ‘spaces’ within political discourse, where the ‘outer reality’ is not always constrained in this manner. This makes for a far more complex task.
(Zupnik, 1994: 339, 341).
In the end of the article analysis he concludes that the purpose of this study has been to develop a descriptive framework in which to analyze the use of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
indexical in political discourse. It has been found that particular relationships that hold among discourse spaces, participation frameworks and roles are key factors in the analysis of vague deixis, and the consequent persuasive functions of such usage. A speaker’s power of persuasion, for example, may stem from an ability to shift in and out of various roles within and across discourse spaces. Such role manipulation may be both complicated and enhanced in cases where the speaker has recourse to multiple identities, such as in cases of multicultured individuals. The study has also demonstrated the applicability of the notions of face- threatening acts and cultural models to the analysis of the solidarity-building functions of deixis in political discourse (Zupnik, 1994: 376)
The links among the employment and functions of deixis, discourse spaces, and participation roles could only be uncovered by means of the fine- grained analysis undertaken here. These results seem to indicate that any attempt at a pragmatic analysis of deictic usage must undertake similarly explicit analyses.
It is hoped that the present study contributes to such understanding of the pragmatics of deixis in political discourse, and suggests new areas of research for discourse analysis in general (Zupnik, 1994: 376-377)
The writer also found another related study in Asian Social Science ( www.ccsenet.org/journal.html , Yuanyuan Li) <accessed at 29 August 2010>, a scholar who wrote an analysis about the second person deixis, you. Her name is Yuanyuan Li and she is the student of School of Foreign Languages, Huaiyin Normal University, China. Her thesis title is A Social and Pragmatic Analysis of
the Second Person Deixis You. In her thesis abstract, she said that this paper PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI focuses on a social and pragmatic analysis of the second person deixis English.
The results of this analysis are applicable to adequate translation of you. (Li, 2009: 130)
She wrote many European languages have two forms of second person deixis. The so-called T-form is used to address intimate friends and relatives; while V-form is the plural form which is used for people one does not know or whom one treats with respect and deference. In Old English, there were a V form and a T form for the addressee, which contrast revealed much of the social information about the two parties in communication. Brown (1965) (in Yuanyuan Li, 2009) also notes that the choice of just one single word (thou or you) tells everyone about the addresser's status and familiarity relative to the other person and communicates something about the closeness or social distance of relationship between addresser and addressee. You is thus used to address a person superior to oneself in status. Thou is reserved for those of status lower than oneself. Besides, thou was also used as an insult indicating moral distance or inferiority when two persons wore otherwise socially equal. On contrary, the V- form you call is used to satirize the addressee of a lower status. (Li, 2009: 131, 132)
In the end of her abstract she stated that this study will help English learners improve the translation skills on the lexical level. She concludes that in translating you we should keep in mind that a correct understanding and proper translation of you cannot be achieved if context clues for the social and pragmatic PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
meanings of you in a source language are not taken into consideration (Li 2009: 132, 133).
B. Review on Related Theories
The writer here will discuss about the theories needed to accomplish the analysis on person deixis’ function and its contextual meaning in this thesis.
1. Theories of Reference
People might think of reference as an act in which a speaker or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader to identify something. Those linguistic forms to identify something called referring expressions, which can be proper nouns (for example, ‘Shakespeare’, ‘Cathy Revuelto’, ‘Hawaii’), noun phrase which are definite (for example, ‘the author’, ‘the singer’, ‘the island’), or indefinite (for example, ‘a man’, ‘a woman’, ‘a beautiful place’), and pronouns (for example, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘it’, ‘them’). The choice of one type referring expression rather than another seems to be based, to a large extent, on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows. In shared visual contexts, those pronouns that function as deictic expressions (for example, ‘Take this’; ‘Look at him!’) may be sufficient for successful reference, but where identification seems more difficult, more elaborate noun phrases may be used (for example, ‘Remember that the old foreign guy with the funny hat?’).
Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals (for example, to identify something) and the speaker’s beliefs (i.e. can the listener be expected to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
know that particular something?) in the use of language. For successful reference to occur, we must also recognize the role of inference. Because there is no direct relationship between entities and words, the listener’s task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression. It is not unusual for people to want to refer to some entity or person without knowing exactly which ‘name’ would be the best word to use (Pragmatics
with courtesy of Ms. Adventina Putranti, SS, M.Hum 2009: 12-13)
There are exophora (situational) reference and endophora (textual) reference. It can be called as an exophoric reference when there is no previous mention of the referent in the text, dependent on the context outside the text for its meaning. When we find pronouns refer to items within the same text, we can call it endohoric reference. The endophora reference is divided again into two, they are anaphora (to preceding text) and cataphora (to following text). Anaphora is a link back to something that went before in the preceding text. And cataphora is the opposite—pronouns link forward to a referent in the text that follows (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 31-37).
There are three types of reference, they are personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference.
1. Personal Reference
Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation. The category of personal includes the three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners (usually called ‘possessive adjectives’), and possessive pronouns. speaker only I speaker speech roles speaker plus we addressee (s) you male he human person female she singular non-human it specific other roles plural they generalized human one
Diagram 1. Personal Reference (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 44)
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI In tabular form :
Table 1. Personal Reference (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 44)
Speech roles Other roles Speaker Addressee Specific Generalized Human Non- Human Human
One I me You you he him it it one one Mine my Yours his his [its] its - one’s your she her hers her
More than we us they them one ours our theirs their These items are all reference items; they refer to something by specifying its function or role in the speech situation. This system of reference is known as person, where ‘person’ is used in the special sense of ‘role’; the traditionally recognized categories are first person, second person and third person, intersecting with the number categories of singular and plural (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 43- 44).
The significance of person system is that it is the means of referring to relevant persons and objects, making use of a small set of options centering around the particular nature of their relevance to the speech situation. The principal distinction is that between the persons defined by their roles in the communication process, on the one hand, and all other entities on the other. The former we shall call speech roles; they are the roles of speaker and addressee. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
These are the two roles assigned by the speaker; and we use ‘addressee’ in preference to ‘hearer’ or ‘listener’ in order to suggest the meaning ‘person designated by the speaker as recipient of the communication’—as distinct from one who chooses to listen or happens to hear. The latter, which we shall call simply other roles, include all other relevant entities other than speaker or addressee. In terms of the traditional categories of person, the distinction is that between first and second person on the one hand (I, you, we) and third person on the other (he, she, it, they, one).
2. Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity.
The circumstantial (adverbial) demonstratives here, there, now, and then refer to the location of a process in space or time, and they normally do so directly, not via the location of some person or object that is participating in the process; hence they typically function as Adjuncts in the clause, not as elements within the nominal group. They have a secondary function as Qualifier, as in that
man there. The remaining (nominal) demonstratives this, these, that, those, and
the refer to the location of some thing, typically some entity—person or object—
that is participating in the process; they therefore occur as elements within the nominal group. They belong to the class of determiners, and have the experiential function of Deictic; in the logical structure they function either as Modifier or as a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Head, with the exception of the which is a Modifier only (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 58-75)
3. Comparative Reference
This Comparative Reference will not be used in the analysis. So, the writer will not discuss it further.
2. Theories of Deixis
Lyons said: By deixis is meant the location and identification of persons, objects, events, processes and activities being talked about, or referred to, in relation to the spatiotemporal context created and sustained by the act of utterance and the participation in it, typically, of a single speaker and at least one addressee (Lyons in Perkins, 1992: 100)
Deixis may be understood as linguistics pointing to relevant portions of the context of an utterance and is often accompanied by extra-linguistic gesturing or indication by a turn of the head or a nod in a particular direction.
Deixis is expressed in linguistic forms called deictics and comprises an important part of the grammatical systems of all languages. There are several classes of linguistic forms that are basically deictic in nature. In English they include the personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, demonstrative adverbs and tense whether marked on the verb or adverbially (Perkins, 1992: 100-101)
According to Typological Studies in Language (TSL) Deixis, Grammar,
and Culture , there are 5 (five) deictic categories. They are: Person, Dual PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Distinction, Inclusive / exclusive Distinction, Demonstratives, and Tense. The writer of this thesis only discusses the first category which is person category.
1. Person .
In this point, the writer will discussed more about person deixis theory that will be used to do the major analysis in chapter IV.
Person in personal pronouns and person affixes is a deictic category. As in other deictics the deictic component of the meaning of such terms is often combined with other distinctions so that some analysis is required before the deictic nature of the form is evident.
Person deixis is a referring expression which involves the speaker and the addressee. The traditional grammatical categories of person, as respected, e.g., in pronouns and verb agreements, involve the most basic deictic notions. First person, for example, encode the participation of the speaker, and temporal and spatial deixis are organized primarily around the location of the speaker at the time of speaking. As far as is known all languages have first and second person pronouns (though sometimes, as in Japanese, these may derives from third person titles), but not all have third person pronouns (Perkins, 1992: 101-102).
Many other features are often encoded in person systems, whether in pronominal paradigms or predicate agreements, including gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, or further classes) and honorific distinctions (which are intrinsically deictic on a separate deictic parameter, see below). In languages with predicate agreement, most sentences will obligatorily carry person deictic PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
specification, ensuring the prominence of this deictic parameter. (Asher, 1994: 855).
Revere D. Perkins stated that the personal pronoun system in English is conventionally analyzed as consisting of two numbers, singular and plural: three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter; and three persons, first, second and third. ‘I’ is the first person singular form; ‘he’ is the third person masculine singular; and ‘we’ is the first person plural. Gender is only relevant in the third person singular and number is not relevant for the second person form ‘you’ in current standard English. (Perkins, 1992: 101)
The first person singular pronoun is used by the speaker to designate him/her as the intended referent and the second person pronoun is used to designate the addressee. Plural first person pronouns refer to the group of which the speaker is a part. Other persons are referred to using the third person pronouns. All of these depend on the concept of participant role in the utterance oriented around the speaker and on an axis that includes the addressee (Lyons in Perkins, 1992: 101). Other distinctions that are frequently used in conjunction with person in languages other than English include a dual number and an inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person plural.
This theory will be very useful to accomplish the analysis in this thesis. The writer needs this theory to help the writer to answer the first problem formulation. This theory answers the kinds of person deixis used in Barack Obama’s winning speech. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3. Theory of Speech
Most experts include both imitation and reinforcement as being of great importance in language development. People learned how to speak by imitating those around. And the most important factor in regard to people’s ability to communicate is the image or concept that people have of themselves. How people see themselves is directly related to people’s ability to communicate. The better people’s self-concept, the more likely people will communicate positively and confidently.
The process of communication begins with a speaker who wishes to communicate an idea or some ideas. The image that the audience has of the speaker affects the message. Those people in the audience who perceive a speaker as being a person of competence, integrity, and goodwill are most likely to believe what the speaker says. In order to make sure that the audience attends to the message and understands it, the speaker must encode it in language that is both interesting and clear. Emphasis, variety and descriptive language help make material interesting. Words that are specific and familiar help to make message clear. (Koch, 1995: 1-8) The next step is to determine the purpose and the subject of the speech.
According to Koch in his book Speaking with a Purpose, he said that when somebody clearly understand the general purpose of the speech, they are ready to choose a subject. There will undoubtedly be times when somebody will be asked to deliver a speech on a topic that has already been determined. However, more often than not, they will need to select their own subject. When doing so, their decision should be based on a number of considerations:
1. Is the subject suited to my purpose?
c. to amaze my audience with a demonstration of magic
d. to report the results of a recent experiment
c. to show how to take an effective snapshot
b. to demonstrate how to make an omelet
a. to explain the art of tree dwarfing
2. General purpose: to inform Specific purposes:
d. to fascinate my audience with a story about my first parachute jump
b. to hold my audience in suspense while telling of the time I was robbed.
2. Is the subject interesting to me?
1. General purpose: to entertain Specific purposes: a. to amuse my audience by explaining how to wash a bull elephant.
This formulation indicates in more detail exactly what they hope to accomplish. Koch’s (Koch, 1995: 17-19) examples are:
6. Is my subject sufficiently restricted? After choosing the subject, they are ready to formulate a specific purpose.
5. Will my audience find this subject useful?
4. Will my audience find this subject interesting?
3. Am I qualified to speak on this subject?
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3. General purpose: to persuade Specific purposes:
a. to motivate my audience to contribute to care
b. to prove to my audience that my new plan for ending the arms race will work c. to increase my audience’s reverence for our flag
d. to modify my audience’s attitude about socialized medicine (Koch, 1995: 17-19)
As preparing the content of the speech, they have to consider who are in the audience. The boss or teacher, the co-workers or classmates, even if there is only one male or female in an otherwise all-female or all-male audience, people must consider this person when they prepare their speech. A surprising number of communications fail because the sender has been unclear as to the composition of their audience
Considering what the listeners already know about the subject is an important part of audience analysis. A technical approach could leave them thoroughly confused; repeating what they already know is sure to bore them (Koch, 1995: 22-28).
The next step is finding the supporting idea of the speech. One of the best ways to improve the effectiveness as a speaker is to learn how to select and use supporting materials. Supporting materials are necessary to make the ideas clear and persuasive to the listener. Although there are different lists of supporting materials, most experts in the speech field agree on these six: examples, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
explanation, statistics, testimony, comparison/contrast, and visual aids. The first place to start when somebody is gathering information and material for a speech is with their own knowledge and experience. They may be amazed at the amount of information they can come up when brainstorming a topic with which they are familiar. People should be able to get a good start listing data and ideas right from their own memory and imagination. Then do some research to add to the materials that they already have (Koch, 1995: 31-36).
Now is how to organize the speech. First is introduction. This introduction should capture the attention of the audience, give them a reason to listen, and clearly state the central idea of the speech. Second is the body. The body should comprise from 75 to 85 percent of the speech. That is where the speaker’s message is presented. The body consists of the main points of the speech, along with the supporting materials necessary to develop each point, and clear transitions from each point to next. The last is conclusion. A conclusion should be short and to the point. It should comprise from 5 to 10 percent of the total speech and include one or any combination of the following: a summary of the main points, a restatement of the central idea, a question, a call to action, or a vision of the future (Koch, 1995: 56-65)
4. Primary and Secondary Deixis
Deixis refers generally to all those features of language which orientate or ‘anchor’ our utterances in the context of proximity of space (here v. there; this v. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
that ), and of time (now v. then), relative to the speaker’s viewpoint (Wales, 1990:
99) In dramatic discourse such deictic elements help to create the world of the play, re-contextualizing real speech behavior. In poetry also a situation can be inferred which the reader watches, as it were, or is made to participate in, e.g.:
Say what you will, there is not in the world A nobler sight than from this upper down.
No rugged landscape here… (Blunt: Chanclebury Ring in Wales, 1990: 99)
The indicative elements themselves are often called deictics, and include the first and second person pronouns I, we and you; the demonstrative this and
that ; adverbs of place and time; and tense (present v. past).
Since text occupied time and space, it is also possible to have textual or secondary deixis: words like this and that, or the former and the latter, for example locating items, or facts, or even linguistics structures themselves, in the co-text, anaphorically or cataphorically: This is a true story. A certain king had a
son and a daughter. The former was idle, the latter was hardworking …
Another kind of secondary deixis involves a metaphorical, expressive displacement in terms of emotional nearness and distance. So that is commonly used to indicate dislike, e.g.: Get that dog out of here! Whereas this indicates, e.g.: familiarity: There was this tiny elephant… (in joke telling).
Some grammarians (e.g.: Halliday 1985; Sinclair 1972) have used the term deictic(s) to refer to a class of ‘identifying’ modifiers of the noun, which are more PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
usually called determiners. In this sense, the articles the and a, as well as the possessive his, her, etc., would be deictics (Wales, 1990: 99-100).