t bing 0808632 chapter 3

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter outlines the methodology used in this research that includes purpose of the study and research questions, research settings and participants, Research design and research method, data collection and data analysis.

3.1Aims of the Study

As mentioned in Chapter I, the study was conducted with the aims to:

1. find out types of grammatical metaphor which are used in students’ assignments; and 2. investigate the impact of the use of grammatical metaphor on the written characteristics

of the texts.

3.2Research Questions

In line with the aims above, the study addressed the following research questions. 1. What types of grammatical metaphor are used in students’ assignments?

2. How does the use of grammatical metaphor contribute to the written characteristics of the texts?

3.3Research Method and Research Design

This study uses a case study qualitative research design, the method of text analysis in particular due to the similarities in the nature of the present study with the description of case studies proposed by research experts. First of all, researchers of qualitative study are not interested in making generalizations of phenomena under investigation (Dawson, 2009) and this is not what this study was attempting to do either. Secondly, the present study used a case study method since its aim is in line with that pointed out by McMillan and Schumacher (2001) that case is

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chosen not “for representativeness but because of its uniqueness or that it can be used to illustrate an issue”. Thirdly, this study focused on one single entity occurring in its natural environment without manipulation and this is one characteristic of case study in qualitative research as indicated by Merriam (1991). Finally, the study investigated one single, low-scale case but provided an in-depth analysis, which is another feature of case study as proposed by Bordens and Abbott (2008), Conolle, et. al. (1990), Nunan and Bailey (2009), and Stake (in Silverman, 2005). All these characteristics indicate that the present study fall under the category of case study.

More specifically, this study used text analysis due to its focus of investigation, i.e. on written texts (Merriam, 1991; Travers, 2001). As pointed out by Travers (ibid), the procedure of textual analysis in case study follows the procedures laid out in the related theory. For this purpose, this study incorporated Grammatical Metaphor developed by Halliday (1994), Halliday and Mathiessen (2004) and Martin (1992) in analyzing the texts under investigation. Regarding Functional Grammar, the framework in which grammatical metaphor originated, Freebody (cited in Emilia, 2007), states that it is “one of a variety of linguistic approaches that have been well developed in the area of education”.

3.4 Research Settings and Participants

The study investigated nine writing assignments of three students of a state postgraduate school in Bandung. Thus, three assignments were taken from each participant, each of which was written for assignment in their first three semesters at the university. The three participants were chosen based on their GPAs, each of whom representing low-achievers with the GPA of 2.95 (low achiever GPA ranges between 2.80-3.00); average-achievers with the GPA of 3.30 (mid achiever GPA ranges between 3.15 – 3.45), and high-achievers with the GPA of 3.62 (high achiever GPA ranges between 3.50 and 3.80).

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The nature of participants’ involvement in this study was voluntary. Bordens and Abbott (2008) suggest that voluntary-based participants have two major disadvantages, these are: (1) volunteer bias, and (2) the ungeneralizable nature of the research findings. These disadvantages were not issues in the study because: (1) the object of the study was the texts written by the participants, not the participants who wrote them, for their course assignments -- not for the study; and (2) as stated previously that case study, the type of qualitative study this study belongs to, is not intended to make generalization but to investigate one particular case (Hood, 2009).

The limitation of nine research articles in the study was for the purpose of comprehensive analysis since larger amount of data would not allow such comprehensiveness. In addition, the rationale behind the involvement of the written work of the three participants in this study was the fact that they were products of adult writers whose exposure to the mature scientific written work through their education entails likelihood of grammatical metaphor incorporation in their texts (Christie, 2002; Christie and Derewianka, 2008; Halliday, 1993) which was the main interest of this study.

3.5 Data Collection

Even though data collection and data analysis in qualitative research are conducted simultaneously (Hood, 2009; Merriam, 1991), the two processes will be described separately in this chapter for purposes of clear description.

The study incorporated document analysis as the technique for data collection. The main data source for this purpose was nine research articles written by three postgraduate school students, from each of whom three writing assignments were collected. The assignments were written by these students as assignments in their first three semesters studying at the university.

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Thus, the texts used in the study possess high degree of objectivity and stability since they were produced in the absence of the researcher’s intrusion (Lazaraton, 2009; Merriam, 1991).

However, as suggested by Merriam (ibid), there are two major problems of data collection in document analysis, namely of authenticity and objectivity. These problems may arise due to the fact that the data in such process “are subject to purposeful and nonpurposeful deception”. Of these two constraints, the main issue encountered in this study was that regarding authenticity in form of plagiarism. This is due to the closely-relatedness of academic writing with referencing and quoting sources (Tweddle, 2009). Incorrect ways in doing these may lead to the infringement of plagiarism (ibid). Due to time and software constraints in conducting a thorough selection to guarantee plagiarized-free research articles inclusion into the study, the articles were included without any such process.

Despite enrolling in the same year at the postgraduate school, the Field of the texts written by the participants in the study might widely differ. This was due to the voluntary nature of this research in which the participants were free to submit the assignment from each semester to this study on their own accord. To illustrate, there were five courses taken by the participants each semester and they were free to submit any research article of any course from each semester to be involved in this study. The texts used in this study, along with the course for which each was written are presented in Table 3.1 below, while a full sample text can be seen in Appendix 3.5.

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Table 3.1 Texts Used in the Present Study Students Semester 1

Title, Course

Semester 2 Title, Course

Semester 3 Title, Course Low achiever Title: The Effectiveness of Using

Pictures in Descriptive Writing: A Case Study at the Second Year Students of SMA Islam al Musyawarah Lembang in Academic Year 2008/2009 Course: EFL Methodology

Title: Indonesian EFL Curriculum and Malaysian ESL Curriculum

A Comparative Study of Primary School and Secondary School English Curriculum Course: EFL Curriculum Analysis

Title: Identifying the Types of Teacher’s Questions Asked in the Teaching and Learning

Course: Language Testing and Evaluation

Mid-achiever Title: English Learning Motivation Score and Its Correlation with Integrativeness and Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation

Course: EFL Methodology

Title: Flouting of Conversational Maxims Found in the Movie Kung

Fu Panda

Course: Language in Use

Title: The Functions of Teacher’s Questions in Learning process: A case Study at SMU 1 CIsarua Course: Language Testing and Evaluation

High-achiever Title: Grouping by Learning Style: a Comparison with Unpremediated Grouping Schemes in EFL Classroom Course: EFL Methodology

Title: Comparing

Educational-Unit-Based Curriculum (KTSP) for English as Local Content in

State and Private

Elementary Schools

Course: EFL Curriculum Analysis

Title:

Teacher-Student Cultural Congruence as Reflected in the Usage of Teaching Media Course: Language Testing and Evaluation

Coding is one important aspect in qualitative data analysis (Hood, 2009; Merriam, 1991; Seidel, 1998) in which each piece of data important for the purpose of the study is assigned a unique, either textual or alphanumeric, marker system (Hood, ibid). The writing assignment collected was coded SA1.A, SA1.B, and SA1.C; SA2.A – SA3.C This labeling is configured as follows: SA stands for Student’s Assignment; number following SA indicates the writer of the assignment, Student 1 – Student 3; and the letter following the number indicates the semester from which the assignment was taken, e.g. A refers to the first semester, B refers to the second semester and C refers to the third semester. So, for example a text coded SA1.A is the assignment written by Student 1 as his/her first semester assignment; SA1.B is the assignment written by Student 1 of his/her second semester assignment; SA1.C is the assignment of Student 1 of his/her third semester assignment, etc. The detail of this labeling is illustrated in the following table.

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Table 3.2 Writing Assignment Labeling

Writer Semester Coding

Student 1 1 SA1.A

2 SA1.B

3 SA1.C

Student 2 1 SA2.A

2 SA2.B

3 SA2.C

Student 3 1 SA3.A

2 SA3.B

3 SA3.C

3.6 Data Analysis

The study investigated grammatical metaphor in the participants’ research articles and the written characteristics contributed by the use of the metaphor in their writings that include lexical density, abstraction, nominalization, implicit internal logical relations; impersonal constructions; and clear text structures. Data analysis in the study involved the theory of grammatical metaphor, especially that developed by Halliday (1998) for ideational metaphor; that by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) for Interpersonal Metaphor, and that by Martin (1992) for textual metaphor.

For ease of analysis, abstracts and texts in tables or figures found in the research articles were not analysed. In addition, due to the concern of the study which was on the participants’ writings, excerpts of (video/audio) recorded observation/interviews and direst quotation from data were not analysed.

The method used to analyse the grammatical metaphor investigated in this study is elaborated in the following.

3.6.1 Ideational Metaphor

Due to time constraints, the analysis of ideational metaphor was only conducted on the metaphorical realization at the structural configuration level, leaving aside the metaphorical

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realization at the rank level. Since meaning realization at both levels are closely interrelated, meaning that a metaphorical realization at the rank level also affects the clause configuration at the structural level (Halliday, 1998; Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004), the metaphorical realization at the structural level was inevitably identified during the analysis.

Clause was the unit of analysis as is the tradition in systemic functional linguistics. With regard to rank movement, each clause was analysed whether it (figure) was a metaphorical realization of clauses (sequence), and further down, whether groups or phrases or words (elements) within that clause metaphorically realize clause (figure). As for structural configuration, the study uses Halliday’s (1998) taxonomy of Ideational grammatical metaphor as illustrated in the following table.

Table 3.3 Ideational Metaphor (Halliday, 1998)

No Semantic Type Class Shift

Congruent Metaphorical

1 Quality Entity Adjective noun

2 Process Entity Verb noun

3 Circumstance[minor process]

Entity Prepositional phrase noun

4 Relator Entity Conjunction noun

5 Process Quality Verb adjective

6 Circumstance Quality Adverb adjective; prepositional phrase

adjective; prepositional phrase noun modifier

7 Relator Quality Conjunction adjective

8 Circumstance Process Be/go + preposition verb

9 Relator Process Conjunction verb

10 Relator Circumstance Conjunction prepositional phrase

11 0 Entity 0 noun

12 0 Process 0 verb

13 Entity Modifier (of entity) Noun various

The metaphorical realizations of conjunctions were used to identify logical metaphor, i.e. types 4, 7, 9, and 10; while the remaining realizations, i.e. types 1-3, 5, 6, 8, and 13, were used to identify experiential metaphor. Types 11-12 were not taken into account in the analysis since these metaphorical forms do not have congruent forms.

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On analyzing a clause, type(s) of ideational metaphor occurring in a clause was first identified with notation. Then, the number of each type of ideational metaphor was totaled. An example of analysis on ideational metaphor at a clause level is presented in excerpt [3.1] below.

[3.1] His research found that integrative reasons for second language learning are most significant 13 2 5 4 13 2

among the respondents, which are 234 Korean 9th graders 6

The analysis of ideational metaphor on all clauses from each research article was then totaled as exemplified to that on a clause and presented in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4 Sample Analysis of Ideational Metaphor

Ideational Metaphor Types/total

Experiential/Types Total

1 2 3 5 6 8 13

- 2 - - 1 - 2

Logical/Types Total

4 7 9 10 - - -

1 - - - -

More example of ideational metaphor analysis can be seen in Appendix 3.6.1.

3.6.2 Interpersonal Metaphor

Since interpersonal metaphor covers areas of Modality and Mood, these two resources of interpersonal metaphor were also analysed in this study.

There are three points to note regarding the analysis of interpersonal metaphor in this study. First of all, since projection is a characteristic of interpersonal metaphor that is manifested in the metaphors of mood and modality (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004); the unit of analysis for cases of interpersonal metaphor involving projection was both the projecting and the projected clauses (see excerpts [3.2] to [3.4] below). Secondly, the projected propositions were then further analysed to classify to which interpersonal metaphor type the metaphorical clause belongs: 1) projection that manifests the writer’s assessment was classified as modality metaphor (see excerpt [3.3]) ; 2) projection that manifests the writer’s detachment from the proposition or

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proposal and assigns it to others including manifestation through a) “dummy it” construction, sources of authority and others that render evidence to the proposition (Halliday and Mattihessen, 2004) – see excerpt [3.2]. Thirdly, incongruent realization of speech functions of statement, question, offer and command as another was classified as a case of mood metaphor (see excerpt [3.3]).

A sample analysis of interpersonal metaphor is exemplified in excerpts [3.2] through [3.4] below.

[3.2] During the first three meetings, observation showed that students respond well in any of the groupings on student’s initiatives, indicating the higher level of receptiveness among these upper intermediate students (SA.3A)

[3.3] it is clear that the nature of the learning situation will influence a student’s level of motivation. (SA.2A) [3.4] To avoid doing so, teachers are recommended to help these learner. (SA.3A)

Projection is present in both excerpt [3.2] and [3.3] but that in [3.2] is used by the writer to strengthen her proposition through reference to source of evidence, i.e. observation, shifting modal responsibility from herself to the observation. This shift in modal responsibility is a case of mood metaphor and thus interpersonal metaphor in [3.2] was classified as a case of mood metaphor. In contrast, despite similar writer detachment from the proposition, the projection in [3.3] denotes the writer’s certainty regarding the proposition that the nature of the learning

situation will influence a student’s level of motivation; hence a case of modality metaphor. On

the other hand, the indicative mood of excerpt [3.4] realizes a proposal which is congruently realized by imperative. Such incongruent realization of mood function was classified as mood metaphor.

A more comprehensive example of interpersonal metaphor analysis in the study can be seen in Appendix 3.6.2.

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3.6.3 Textual Metaphor

There are two types of unit of analysis for textual metaphor in this study. First, related to hyper-theme, the unit of analysis was paragraph (Martin, 1992). Second, the units of analysis for macro-Theme were headings and subheadings (Martin, ibid).

For identifying hyper-Theme, each paragraph in the study was read closely whether or not the first sentence of the paragraph encapsulates the overall paragraph development. For identifying macro-Theme however, the first paragraph of each heading/subheading and the paragraphs following this first paragraph were analysed to see whether or not the development in that particular heading/subheading followed the idea encapsulated in the first paragraph.

More detail example of textual metaphor analysis in the study can be seen in Appendix 3.6.3.

3.6.4 How Grammatical Metaphor Contributes to the Written Language Characteristics of the Texts

After classifying the types of grammatical metaphor used in the texts, the next analysis was conducted to the impact of these types of grammatical metaphor on making the text more written-like. This analysis involved the scrutiny on how the use of grammatical metaphor in the text: (a) helps structure the clause in ways that allow more information and technicality to be packaged using experiential metaphor; (b) creates greater logical reasoning and conciseness in the text through the occurrence of logical metaphor; (c) helps the orientation of objectivity through impersonal constructions through the occurrence of interpersonal metaphor; and (d) helps create clear text structuring through textual metaphor. For these purposes, the analysis mainly employed the concept of ideational and interpersonal metaphor formulated by Halliday (1994) and textual metaphor developed by Martin (1992).

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The analysis at this stage was conducted to both clause and text levels. At the clause level, the analysis was conducted to clauses in which the grammatical metaphor occurs and the impact of such use on making the text more written. Particularly for textual metaphor, the analysis was conducted at a wider scope which included the paragraphs in which the particular metaphor is located. In addition, for textual metaphor functioning in text structuring, the analysis of the textual metaphor effect was also conducted to the “neighbouring” paragraphs, i.e. paragraphs prior to and following the occurrence of the metaphor. The analysis was even conducted to the text as a whole for textual metaphor serving as macro-Theme.

To strengthen the data analysis at this stage, the use of grammatical metaphor was also contrasted to the congruent realizations in the text.

An example of the analysis at this stage is illustrated below using excerpt [3.5].

[3.5] In conducting the study of Error Analysis, there are few things that should be *concerned [considered] by the researcher. One of the important things that should be noted is the steps in EA research proposed by Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994): collection of a sample of learner language, identification of errors, description of errors, explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors. Therefore, the next discussion will

talk about the steps taken in this study based on Corder’s. (SA3.C)

Analysis:

There are two types of grammatical metaphor in the above paragraph: textual metaphor (bold-underlined) and experiential metaphor (underlined) each of which contributes to clear text structuring and information packaging, as well as abstraction and lexical density (Halliday, 1994; Martin, 1991; Thibault, 2008).

The organizing vocabulary few things in the first clause complex (sentence) in the above paragraph is textual metaphor serving as hyper-Theme (Martin, 1992) that predicts what will be discussed in the paragraph, i.e. things that anyone conducting the study of error analysis should consider. These few things are mentioned in the following sentence

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preceded by the internal conjunction (Martin, 1992) One of the important things. This paragraph is closed with another textual metaphor the steps that sum up what has been discussed previously. This whole paragraph further predicts what to be discussed in the paragraphs that follow, serving the function of macro-Theme albeit positioned not at the beginning of the text. This function of prediction is consistently adhered to by the writer in which the steps taken in the study of error analysis as suggested by Corder are further elaborated in the coming paragraphs.

The only experiential metaphor are phrases in underlined collection of a sample of learner language, identification of errors, description of errors, explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors which create abstraction and lexical density in this paragraph. However, such abstraction does not contribute much to the written-ess of the text because, as mentioned previously, this set of abstraction is the only form of experiential metaphor used in the paragraph. Thus, apart from the clear text structure contributed by the use of textual metaphor, the lexical density of this paragraph is relatively low for formal academic writing 3.7 (Halliday, 1985).

3.7 Concluding Remark

The chapter has presented the methodology of how the study was conducted. This includes the research questions which serve as the starting points for the conduct of the research, the selection of participants and research settings and research design and method. How data were collected and analysed have also been outlined in this chapter.

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realization at the rank level. Since meaning realization at both levels are closely interrelated, meaning that a metaphorical realization at the rank level also affects the clause configuration at the structural level (Halliday, 1998; Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004), the metaphorical realization at the structural level was inevitably identified during the analysis.

Clause was the unit of analysis as is the tradition in systemic functional linguistics. With regard to rank movement, each clause was analysed whether it (figure) was a metaphorical realization of clauses (sequence), and further down, whether groups or phrases or words (elements) within that clause metaphorically realize clause (figure). As for structural configuration, the study uses Halliday’s (1998) taxonomy of Ideational grammatical metaphor as illustrated in the following table.

Table 3.3 Ideational Metaphor (Halliday, 1998)

No Semantic Type Class Shift

Congruent Metaphorical

1 Quality Entity Adjective noun

2 Process Entity Verb noun

3 Circumstance[minor process]

Entity Prepositional phrase noun

4 Relator Entity Conjunction noun

5 Process Quality Verb adjective

6 Circumstance Quality Adverb adjective; prepositional phrase

adjective; prepositional phrase noun modifier

7 Relator Quality Conjunction adjective

8 Circumstance Process Be/go + preposition verb

9 Relator Process Conjunction verb

10 Relator Circumstance Conjunction prepositional phrase

11 0 Entity 0 noun

12 0 Process 0 verb

13 Entity Modifier (of entity) Noun various

The metaphorical realizations of conjunctions were used to identify logical metaphor, i.e. types 4, 7, 9, and 10; while the remaining realizations, i.e. types 1-3, 5, 6, 8, and 13, were used to identify experiential metaphor. Types 11-12 were not taken into account in the analysis since these metaphorical forms do not have congruent forms.

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On analyzing a clause, type(s) of ideational metaphor occurring in a clause was first identified with notation. Then, the number of each type of ideational metaphor was totaled. An example of analysis on ideational metaphor at a clause level is presented in excerpt [3.1] below.

[3.1] His research found that integrative reasons for second language learning are most significant 13 2 5 4 13 2

among the respondents, which are 234 Korean 9th graders 6

The analysis of ideational metaphor on all clauses from each research article was then totaled as exemplified to that on a clause and presented in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4 Sample Analysis of Ideational Metaphor Ideational Metaphor Types/total Experiential/Types

Total

1 2 3 5 6 8 13 - 2 - - 1 - 2 Logical/Types

Total

4 7 9 10 - - - 1 - - - -

More example of ideational metaphor analysis can be seen in Appendix 3.6.1. 3.6.2 Interpersonal Metaphor

Since interpersonal metaphor covers areas of Modality and Mood, these two resources of interpersonal metaphor were also analysed in this study.

There are three points to note regarding the analysis of interpersonal metaphor in this study. First of all, since projection is a characteristic of interpersonal metaphor that is manifested in the metaphors of mood and modality (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004); the unit of analysis for cases of interpersonal metaphor involving projection was both the projecting and the projected clauses (see excerpts [3.2] to [3.4] below). Secondly, the projected propositions were then further analysed to classify to which interpersonal metaphor type the metaphorical clause belongs: 1) projection that manifests the writer’s assessment was classified as modality metaphor (see excerpt [3.3]) ; 2) projection that manifests the writer’s detachment from the proposition or

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proposal and assigns it to others including manifestation through a) “dummy it” construction, sources of authority and others that render evidence to the proposition (Halliday and Mattihessen, 2004) – see excerpt [3.2]. Thirdly, incongruent realization of speech functions of statement, question, offer and command as another was classified as a case of mood metaphor (see excerpt [3.3]).

A sample analysis of interpersonal metaphor is exemplified in excerpts [3.2] through [3.4] below.

[3.2] During the first three meetings, observation showed that students respond well in any of the groupings on student’s initiatives, indicating the higher level of receptiveness among these upper intermediate students (SA.3A)

[3.3] it is clear that the nature of the learning situation will influence a student’s level of motivation. (SA.2A) [3.4] To avoid doing so, teachers are recommended to help these learner. (SA.3A)

Projection is present in both excerpt [3.2] and [3.3] but that in [3.2] is used by the writer to strengthen her proposition through reference to source of evidence, i.e. observation, shifting modal responsibility from herself to the observation. This shift in modal responsibility is a case of mood metaphor and thus interpersonal metaphor in [3.2] was classified as a case of mood metaphor. In contrast, despite similar writer detachment from the proposition, the projection in [3.3] denotes the writer’s certainty regarding the proposition that the nature of the learning

situation will influence a student’s level of motivation; hence a case of modality metaphor. On

the other hand, the indicative mood of excerpt [3.4] realizes a proposal which is congruently realized by imperative. Such incongruent realization of mood function was classified as mood metaphor.

A more comprehensive example of interpersonal metaphor analysis in the study can be seen in Appendix 3.6.2.

42 3.6.3 Textual Metaphor

There are two types of unit of analysis for textual metaphor in this study. First, related to hyper-theme, the unit of analysis was paragraph (Martin, 1992). Second, the units of analysis for macro-Theme were headings and subheadings (Martin, ibid).

For identifying hyper-Theme, each paragraph in the study was read closely whether or not the first sentence of the paragraph encapsulates the overall paragraph development. For identifying macro-Theme however, the first paragraph of each heading/subheading and the paragraphs following this first paragraph were analysed to see whether or not the development in that particular heading/subheading followed the idea encapsulated in the first paragraph.

More detail example of textual metaphor analysis in the study can be seen in Appendix 3.6.3.

3.6.4 How Grammatical Metaphor Contributes to the Written Language Characteristics of the Texts

After classifying the types of grammatical metaphor used in the texts, the next analysis was conducted to the impact of these types of grammatical metaphor on making the text more written-like. This analysis involved the scrutiny on how the use of grammatical metaphor in the text: (a) helps structure the clause in ways that allow more information and technicality to be packaged using experiential metaphor; (b) creates greater logical reasoning and conciseness in the text through the occurrence of logical metaphor; (c) helps the orientation of objectivity through impersonal constructions through the occurrence of interpersonal metaphor; and (d) helps create clear text structuring through textual metaphor. For these purposes, the analysis mainly employed the concept of ideational and interpersonal metaphor formulated by Halliday (1994) and textual metaphor developed by Martin (1992).

43

The analysis at this stage was conducted to both clause and text levels. At the clause level, the analysis was conducted to clauses in which the grammatical metaphor occurs and the impact of such use on making the text more written. Particularly for textual metaphor, the analysis was conducted at a wider scope which included the paragraphs in which the particular metaphor is located. In addition, for textual metaphor functioning in text structuring, the analysis of the textual metaphor effect was also conducted to the “neighbouring” paragraphs, i.e. paragraphs prior to and following the occurrence of the metaphor. The analysis was even conducted to the text as a whole for textual metaphor serving as macro-Theme.

To strengthen the data analysis at this stage, the use of grammatical metaphor was also contrasted to the congruent realizations in the text.

An example of the analysis at this stage is illustrated below using excerpt [3.5].

[3.5] In conducting the study of Error Analysis, there are few things that should be *concerned [considered] by the researcher. One of the important things that should be noted is the steps in EA research proposed by Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994): collection of a sample of learner language, identification of errors, description of errors, explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors. Therefore, the next discussion will talk about the steps taken in this study based on Corder’s. (SA3.C)

Analysis:

There are two types of grammatical metaphor in the above paragraph: textual metaphor (bold-underlined) and experiential metaphor (underlined) each of which contributes to clear text structuring and information packaging, as well as abstraction and lexical density (Halliday, 1994; Martin, 1991; Thibault, 2008).

The organizing vocabulary few things in the first clause complex (sentence) in the above paragraph is textual metaphor serving as hyper-Theme (Martin, 1992) that predicts what will be discussed in the paragraph, i.e. things that anyone conducting the study of error analysis should consider. These few things are mentioned in the following sentence

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preceded by the internal conjunction (Martin, 1992) One of the important things. This paragraph is closed with another textual metaphor the steps that sum up what has been discussed previously. This whole paragraph further predicts what to be discussed in the paragraphs that follow, serving the function of macro-Theme albeit positioned not at the beginning of the text. This function of prediction is consistently adhered to by the writer in which the steps taken in the study of error analysis as suggested by Corder are further elaborated in the coming paragraphs.

The only experiential metaphor are phrases in underlined collection of a sample of learner language, identification of errors, description of errors, explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors which create abstraction and lexical density in this paragraph. However, such abstraction does not contribute much to the written-ess of the text because, as mentioned previously, this set of abstraction is the only form of experiential metaphor used in the paragraph. Thus, apart from the clear text structure contributed by the use of textual metaphor, the lexical density of this paragraph is relatively low for formal academic writing 3.7 (Halliday, 1985).

3.7 Concluding Remark

The chapter has presented the methodology of how the study was conducted. This includes the research questions which serve as the starting points for the conduct of the research, the selection of participants and research settings and research design and method. How data were collected and analysed have also been outlined in this chapter.