STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF AUTONOMOUS LEARNING IN EXTENSIVE READING II CLASS A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF AUTONOMOUS LEARNING

  

IN EXTENSIVE READING II CLASS

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

  By Agnes Nugraheni

  Student Number: 041214074

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2009

  

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF AUTONOMOUS LEARNING

  

IN EXTENSIVE READING II CLASS

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

  By Agnes Nugraheni

  Student Number: 041214074

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2009

  I dedicate this thesis to my beloved father, mother, brother and sister.

  

ABSTRACT

  Nugraheni, Agnes. 2009. Students’ Perception of Autonomous Learning in Extensive Reading II Class. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

  Traditional learning applied in schools today creates inactive and dependent learners. Learners will be unlikely to develop skills to control their learning by themselves. Promoting autonomous learning is one of the ways which enable learners to be actively involved in learning. Implementing autonomous learning is important since it supports lifelong learning and assists the learners in facing the globalization. In so doing, teachers should apply autonomous learning that encourages the learners to be actively involved in the learning processes.

  The present study investigated the students’ perception of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. There were two questions addressed. The first question discussed the implementation of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II and the second question explored the students’ perception of the autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II (ER II).

  This study employed survey method. There were two instruments used to obtain the data, namely questionnaires and interviews. There were two results gained from the study. First, based on the discussion on the implementation of autonomous learning, autonomous learning was implemented by integrating metacognitive strategies with the tasks of ER II. Second, based on the discussion on the students’ perception of autonomous learning, most of the students had positive perception of autonomous learning. The positive perception illustrated that the students had been ready for autonomous learning. There were 30, 77% of students who had negative perception of autonomous learning. They still depended for their learning on the lecturer and believed that learning must be directed by the lecturer. These students were not ready yet for autonomous learning.

  Suggestions were given to (1) the lecturer in that he has to give more assistance to the students in constructing the learning plan and deciding the appropriate reading material, (2) the students in that they have to be more actively involved in their learning and take advantages of collaborative learning both with teacher and other students and (3) future researchers on learner autonomy in that they have to investigate other areas of autonomy such as autonomy and language proficiency, or much more on the psychological construct related to the development of autonomy.

  ABSTRAK Nugraheni, Agnes. 2009. Students’ Perception of Autonomous Learning in

  Extensive Reading II Class . Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma

  Pembelajaran tradisional yang diterapkan di sekolah-sekolah saat ini mengakibatkan siswa tidak terlibat aktif dalam proses pembelaaran mereka. Siswa tidak akan mengembangkan kemampuan belajar mandiri. Mengembangkan kemandirian belajar (autonomous learning) adalah salah satu cara untuk memberikan siswa kesempatan agar terlibat aktif dalam proses pembelajaran. Hal ini penting karena kemandirian belajar mendukung pembelajaran sepanjang hayat dan membantu siswa untuk siap menghadapi era globalisasi. Dalam hal ini, hendaknya guru menerapkan kemandirian dalam belajar yang mendorong siswa untuk terlibat aktif dalam proses pembelajaran.

  Studi ini mengkaji kemandirian belajar yang diterapkan di kelas Extensive Reading II, Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Ada dua permasalahan yang dikemukakan dalam penelitian ini. Permasalahan pertama membahas penerapan kemandirian belajar di kelas Extensive Reading II. Permasalahan kedua memaparkan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap proses kemadirian belajar tersebut.

  Peneliti menggunakan metode penelitaian survey. Ada dua alat yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data yaitu kuesioner dan wawancara. Ada dua hasil yang diperoleh. Pertama, berdasarkan pembahasan tentang penerapan kemandirian belajar, kemandirian belajar diterapkan dengan menggabungkan strategi pembelajaran dengan tugas-tugas ER I. Kedua, berdasarkan pembahasan persepsi siswa terhadap kemandirian dalam belajar, sebagian besar mahasiswa mempunyai persepsi positif terhadap kemandirian belajar. Persepsi positif ini menunjukkan bahwa siswa sudah siap dalam kemandirian belajar. Ada 30,77% mahasiswa yang mempunyai persepsi negatif terhadap kemandirian belajar. Mereka masih bergantung pada guru dan percaya bahwa pemebelajaran harus diatur oleh guru. Mahasiswa ini masih belum siap dalam kemandirian belajar.

  Peneliti memberikan saran kepada (1) dosen agar lebih membimbing siswa dalam menentukan tujuan dan membuat rencana pembelajaran, (2) siswa agar lebih aktif dalam kegiatan pembelajaran dan memanfaatkan belajar bersama baik dengan guru maupun dengan siswa yang lain dan (3) peneliti mendatang agar mengkaji area lain yang berhubungan dengan kemandirian belajar seperti kemandirian belajar dan kemampuan berbahasa, atau faktor-faktor psikologis yang berhubungan dengan perkembangan kemandirian belajar.

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  First of all I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for His blessing, guidance and spirit given to me during the process of finishing my thesis. Without Him I never imagine I could finish these all.

  My deepest gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Drs. Concilianus Laos

  

Mbato, M.A., who was willing to spend his precious time to guide and support

  me in writing my thesis. My gratitude also goes to all of my lecturers in PBI who had guided and taught me well.

  I am truly indebted to Markus Budiraharjo, S.Pd, M.Ed., who had permitted me to undertake this research in his classes. I also thank the students of Extensive Reading II class C and D for being my research participants.

  I am deeply grateful to my beloved parents Fransiscus Xaverius Midiharsanto and Ignatia Kasmirah Dwiyantini for the endless love and prayer. I also thank my beloved brother and sister, Dominicus Susilo Wibowo and Maria Margarita Pujiastuti for the advice and support. My special thank goes to Paulus Accruce Mulyana who has given many lessons of life to be learnt together.

  I warmly thank my best freinds Bernadia Hastiwi Widya Sarastri, Vonny Indriawati, Hyacintha Handayani Purwitasari, Hana Yudita Windra Yasmein, Agustina Dyah Festy, Varonika Indrianingrum and Borommea Bekti. I thank them for their support in finishing my thesis.

  I would like to thank Agnes Deta Waluyaningtyas, Albertus Valentino Christian, Tarsisius Joni Prasetyo, Antonius Yulistyo Adi Nugroho, Agung Tri Haryanta, Protasia Dewi and Sariani Putranti for every strory we made.

  My great thanks go to Hana’s family; Pak Endro, Bu Insi, Hana and Empi who have allowed me to stay in their house during my study. I also thank my friends in my boarding house, Lisa, Sasha, mba’ Nana, Tita and Amel for every laugh we share. I also thank all friends in Marsudirini Elementary School, especially the English teachers, tutors in Domby Kids’ Hope, and teachers and staff in Purikids. I thank them for the togetherness and experience we learned together.

  I am happy to have an opportunity to give my appreciation to Charles Louis Sutherland, Hyacintha Handayani Purwitasari, and Hubertha Setyarindarti. I thank them for their willingness to be the proofreaders of my thesis. I also thank them for giving valuable feedback for my thesis.

  I would not forget the help of secretariat staff of the English Language Education Study Program, mba’ Tari and mba’ Dani, since I have been studying there. I thank them for the assistance in administrative matters.

  Finally, many thanks are addressed to those who have given me a hand, whose names I cannot mention here one by one, but I believe that God always blesses them all. Amien

  TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Page TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………… i APPROVAL PAGE ……………………………………………………… ii PAGE OF DEDICATION ………………………………………………… iv STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY …………………………… v

  LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS …………………………………………………. vi

  ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………… vii

  ABSTRAK ………………………………………………………………… viii

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………….. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………. xi LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………….. xiv LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………. xv LIST OF APPENDICES …………………………………………………... xvi

  CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A.Research Background ………………………………..

  1 B. Problem Formulation ……………………………………

  5 C. Problem Limitation ……………………………………..

  5 D. Research Objectives ….…………………………………

  6 E. Research Benefits………………………………………...

  6 F. Definition of Terms ………………………………………

  7 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A.

  Theoretical Description ………………………………… 10 a.

  Concept of Autonomy………………………….

  10 b. Characteristics of Learners Autonomy…………… 15 c.

  Developing Autonomy in Language Learning…. 16 d.

  Implication of Autonomous Learning…………. 19 e. Collaborative Learning………………………..

  20 2. Extensive Reading ………………………………… 21 3.

  Perception…………………………………………. 23 a.

  The Perceptual Process………………………..

  23 b. Factors Influencing Perception………………… 24 B.

  Theoretical Framework ………………………………… 25

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY A. Research Method……………………………………..

  29 C. Research Setting ………………………………………

  28 B. Research Participants………………………………..

  30 1. Questionnaire…………………………………….. 30 2.

  Interview…………………………………………. 32 E. Data Gathering Techniques……………………………

  33 F. Data Analysis Techniques …………………………….

  33 G. Research Procedure…………………………………

  35 CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS A.

  How Autonomous Learning is Implemented in ER II…

  37 B. Students’ Perception of Autonomous Learning………

  41 1. Students’ Previous Experience on Autonomous

  Learning……………………………………………. 42

  30 D. Research Instruments………………………………….

  2. Students’ Perception of How the Responsibility of Learning is Transferred……………………………. 43

  3. Students’ Perception of the Transfer of Responsibility of Learning………………………………………… 53 4. Students’ Perception of the Process of Autonomous

  Learning in ER II……………………………………

  60 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A.

  Conclusions…………………………………………… 62 B. Suggestions…………………………………………… 64

  REFERENCES …………………………………………………………….. 65 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………… 67

  LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

Table 3.1 Questionnaire Blueprint ...............................................................

  31 Table 3.2 Interview Blueprint ……………………………………………...

  32 Table 3.3 Data Analysis Technique …………………………………….

  34 Table 4.1 The Schedule of the Tasks Submission in Extensive Reading II...

  38 Table 4.2 The Process of Autonomous Learning in Extensive Reading II ....

  40 Table 4.3 Students’ Previous Experience in Autonomous Learning ............

  42 Table 4.4 Teacher’s Roles in Autonomous Learning in Extensive Reading II 44

Table 4.5 Students’ Roles in Autonomous Learning in Extensive Reading II

  48 Table 4.6 Group-work’s Roles ……………………………….……………

  50 Table 4.7 Students’ Perception of the Teacher’s Role ...…………………

  53 Table 4.8 Students’ Perception of the Students’ Role ……………………

  56 Table 4.9 Students’ Perception of Group-work …………………………

  58 Table 4.10 Students’ Perception of the Process of Autonomous Learning in Extensive Reading II Class………………………………….

  61

  LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Page

Figure 2.1 Defining Autonomy…………………………………………

  11 Figure 2.2 Control over Cognitive Process ……………………………

  12

  

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

  Appendix 1. Questionnaires ………………………………………………

  69 Appendix 2. List of Interview Questions …………………………………

  73 Appendix 3. Record of Interview with the Teacher ……………………..

  75 Appendix 4 The Result of Interviews ………………………………………

  79 Appendix 5 Questions for Interview with Teacher…………………………

  88

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the introduction of the study. This includes the

  research background, the problem formulation and problem limitation, the research objectives and research benefits. Definition of terms follows at the last part of this chapter. Research background deals with the reason for choosing the topic. Problem formulation focuses on the problem investigated through the research. Problem limitation describes the particular problems of the research. The research objectives describe the aims of the research. The research benefits exemplify the benefits of conducting the research for language learners, English teachers, and further researchers. Finally, definition of terms explains several terms that are important for the research.

A. Research Background

  The implementation of traditional learning creates inactive learners. Teacher, as the one who knows knowledge, transfers information to the learner and directs the whole learning process (Holec, 1979: 10). Learners with a predominant teacher seem to be passive receivers of information. Consequently, learners will be unlikely to develop the skills necessary to learn by themselves after they pass their period of study in formal education. They will stop developing their skill and knowledge in this period.

  2 In order to prevent this situation, formal education has to provide a kind of learning which offers the students with the skills necessary to learn by themselves after they pass out of formal education. This is important since learners need to learn independently after they pass out of formal education. As Boekaert (1997: 161) stated that it is important to teach the skills to learn independently since they help the learners to up-date their knowledge after they leave school. Moreover, the requirements of the globalization era demand the learners to be as dynamic as the growth of this world. The skills that the learners obtain from formal education may not be enough to face the changing circumstances without continuing development of these, as well as additional skills and knowledge . It suggests that education has to promote autonomous learning to produce autonomous learners who are able to educate themselves and develop themselves to face the globalization era.

  Besides giving the learners opportunity to educate and develop themselves, autonomous learning is taught as effective and efficient in language learning Dafei (2007: 2-4) states that developing autonomous learners is important because of its efficiency and because it creates motivated learners.

  Realizing the importance of autonomous learning, teachers, especially teachers of adult learners have to promote autonomous learning since adult learning is important in its contribution of learners’ independence. Malcolm Tight (1983: 169) argues that the purpose of adult learning is to provide the students with an educational experience which enables them to be generally competent and independent. Therefore, the teacher of adult learners should create a learning

  3 environment which supports these purposes. The teacher must provide appropriate learning activities that enable the learners to develop and enforce their learning outcomes. At this point, the teacher applies what is called autonomous learning in which the learning process helps the learners to be more independent or autonomous.

  In the context of language learning, autonomous learning was considered as effective learning. Benson (2001: 2) states that when learners succeed in developing autonomy, they not only become better language learners but they also develop into more responsible and critical members of the communities in which they live. For that reason autonomy needs to be practiced in language learning.

  The English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University is a formal education institution which produces English teacher candidates. Within this context, it deals with both adult learners and language learning. Considering that it was thought important to promote autonomous learning in both language and adult learning, the English Language Education Study Program therefore, becomes the right setting to promote autonomous learning.

  One of the courses in the English Language Education Study Program applied what is called autonomous learning. Based on the informal interview with the students of the English Language Education Study Program attending Extensive Reading II course, the researcher found that the teacher of that course applied autonomous learning in his class. Extensive Reading II course required the students to improve their reading skill through literary works and scientific or

  4 journalism writing. This requirement demanded the students to find reading material by themselves based on their own interest. The students were also obliged to produce short essays based on the reading material they choose. In this case, the students would be more responsible for their choice and learning.

  As stated in the syllabus, Extensive Reading II was intended to develop the students’ autonomy. The teacher said that the students’ autonomy need to be developed since it prepared them to face the unpredictability of a changing world. Extensive Reading II gave more ample for the students to manage their own learning. As Hiemstra (1994: 2) said that reading is a primary mode for self directed study. Therefore, Extensive Reading II becomes the right setting for providing modes of autonomous learning. In order to develop students’ autonomy, the teacher invited the students to make a learning plan at the beginning of the course which consisting of the learning goal and learning strategies they planed to work on. Then, the teacher asked the students to work on their own learning plan. This learning facilitated the students to develop their responsibility for their own learning and helped them to be more autonomous.

  Although autonomous learning is considered effective in language learning (Benson, 2001 & Defei, 2007), many students especially in Indonesia are not familiar with autonomous learning. Since elementary school, students’ experience of learning has been under the teacher’s direction. At the present, the implementation of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II class may be perceived differently by the students . The students may perceive autonomous

  5 learning positively if they are interested in the learning. They may also perceive autonomous learning negatively if they are not interested in the learning.

  Discovering the students’ perception of autonomous learning is very important. The students’ perception of autonomous learning indicates the students’ readiness to engage in autonomous learning. As stated by Deci and Ryan (1985, 1995 as cited in Noels, 2001) the students' perception of their autonomy supports their feelings of intrinsic motivation, which are central to sustained effort at the learning task. At this point, autonomous learners will be more responsible for their tasks. Moreover, Cotterall (1995, as cited in Sert, 2006: 14) argues that the students’ beliefs of their ability are likely to reflect their readiness for autonomy. Therefore, it suggests that the students’ high perception of autonomy indicates their readiness for learning autonomously.

  B. Problem Formulation

  The problems of this study are formulated as follow: 1.

  How is autonomous learning implemented in Extensive Reading II class? 2. What is the students’ perception of the implementation of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II class?

  C. Problem Limitation

  Realizing that autonomy in language learning is considered effective by most of teachers and researchers (Dafei, 2007 and Benson, 2001), this study is going to investigate the students’ perception of autonomous learning implemented in

  6 Extensive Reading II class. This study focuses on the implementation of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II class. This class attempts to facilitate an active engagement of the learners in their own learning process. This study mainly discusses the implementation of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II and the students’ perception of autonomous learning. The subjects of this study will be the fourth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program in Sanata Dharma University who experiencing autonomous learning in their learning process in Extensive Reading II class .

D. Research Objectives

  This study is going to find out: 1.

  How autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II class is implemented.

2. The students’ perception of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II class.

E. Research Benefits

  It is hoped that this study will be of benefit to those who deal with language teaching and learning particularly teachers, learners and further researchers.

  1. For teachers, especially English language teachers: This study provides English teachers with knowledge about autonomous learning especially the implementation of autonomous learning in language learning and the students’ perception of autonomous learning in Extensive Reading II Class. As a result, teachers are likely to be encouraged to create

  7 autonomous learning modes to develop students’ autonomy. This study also benefits the teachers who have applied autonomous learning in their classes as a source of feedback for their teaching learning activities.

  2. For students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University:

  This study makes the language learners aware of their responsibility for their learning. Learning happens not only with the teachers’ guidance. Consequently, they were encouraged to be more autonomous in their learning.

3. Further Researchers

  This study benefits the future researchers as the basis for conducting research on autonomy in language learning. It is hoped that this study gives valuable insight concerning on learning autonomy in language learning.

F. Definition of Terms

  The researcher provides definition of some important terms related to the study. Those are:

1. Perception

  Perception is defined as how people select and group the stimuli so that they can interpret the stimuli meaningfully. It is the way that people view their environment (Altman, et al., 1985:85). Perception helps a person to know and to understand things around him/her. In this study, perception is defined as how the students view autonomous learning and interpret it to be meaningful information.

  8 The students’ perception of autonomous learning is derived from the students’ opinions of learning autonomously in Extensive Reading II class.

  2. Learning Autonomy Learning autonomy is usually defined as "the ability to take charge of or responsibility for one's own directed learning" (Holec, 1979: 3). In language learning area, “taking charge or taking responsibility” is related to the context of learning. Therefore learning autonomy is defined as learning in which the learners have the ability to take charge of or take responsibility for one’s learning.

  3. Autonomous Learning In order to develop the students’ capacity to take charge of or take responsibility for their learning, Benson (2001: 11) uses term the autonomous learning. It is a learning in which the learner’s capacity for autonomy is exercised and displayed. Since this study was intended to investigate students’ perception of learning in which the learner’s capacity for autonomy was exercised, this study used term autonomous learning. In this study autonomous learning was defined as a learning in which the students’ autonomy is exercised. The process of the students accomplishing Extensive Reading II tasks worked as autonomous learning.

  4. Extensive Reading II Extensive Reading II is a compulsory subject taken by the students of the English Language Education Study Program at Sanata Dharma University.

  Nurwidasa et, al (2004: 90) convey that the goal of Extensive Reading II is leading the students to improve their reading skill through literary works and

  9 scientific or journalism writing. In this study, Extensive Reading II Class worked as a general setting in which the study was conducted.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter is aimed at discussing the theories underlying the study. This chapter covers theoretical description and theoretical framework. A. Theoretical Description This section presents a detailed discussion of three key concepts in this study. They are autonomy in language learning, extensive reading and perception.

1. Autonomy in Language Learning a. Concept of Autonomy

  Holec (1979: 3) defined autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”. To take charge of one’s own learning is elaborated as “to have and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of learning”(p: 3). It consists of the responsibility for “determining the objectives, defining the contents and progressions, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the procedure of acquisition, and evaluating what has been acquired” (p: 4). This definition points out that autonomous learners are able to direct their own learning by making all the significant decisions concerning its management and organization. Furthermore, Little (1991: 4) defined autonomy as a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision making , and independent action. It presupposes but also entails, that the learner will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of his learning. The capacity for autonomy will be displayed both in the way

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  the learner learns and in the way he /she transfer what has been learned to wider context. Little’s definition describes autonomy more in terms of control over the cognitive processes involved in effective self-management of learning. This definition completes Holec’s definition of autonomy. Following the above definitions, Benson (2001: 49) adds a social aspect in the definition of autonomy. Therefore, the description of autonomy should at least recognize the importance of three levels at which learner controls may be exercised: “learning management, cognitive processes and learning content” (Benson, 2001: 49).

Figure 2.1 Defining Autonomy (Benson, 2001: 50)

  Control over learning management points to the behaviors the learners employ to handle the planning, organization, and evaluation of the learning (Benson, 2001: 77). Nunan (2000: 8) describes management as behaviors related to time allocation, making plans and developing one’s own learning contracts. In this

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  regard, the behaviors are closely related to the metacognitive strategies. According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990 as cited in Benson, 2001: 81) metacognitive strategies involve “ thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring the learning task, and evaluating how well one has learned”.

  Control over cognitive process concerns with the psychological factors underlying the control of learning management (Benson, 2001: 86). It is assumed that the controlled cognitive processes constitute the controlled behaviors, either the process or the content of learning (Little, 1991, cited in Benson, 2001:84). In this viewpoint, the control of cognitive processes contributes an essential role in enhancing autonomy in language learning hence.

  Benson (p: 86), furthermore, identifies three independent factors strongly influencing the cognitive processes. They are attention, reflection, and metacognitive knowledge. Figure 2.1 describes the relationship and the contribution of those factors to the process of cognition in language learning.

Figure 2.1 Controls over Cognitive Proces (Benson, 2001: 86)

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  Attention refers to the noticing of linguistic input, a key process in language acquisition, which constitutes students’ consciousness and awareness of a particular linguistic form (Benson 2001: 90). Discussing attention toward language input calls attention to talk about the process of how the students attain the linguistic input. The picture of this process is elicited via students’ reflection. Little (1997 cited in Benson, 2001: 93), asserts that reflection is indispensable to enhance learning autonomy. Benson (p: 93), furthermore, asserts that reflection and autonomy are interconnected in terms of “the cognitive and behavioral process by which individual takes control of the stream of experience they are subject to”. As sated by Holec (1980 cited in Wenden, 1987: 57), “critical reflection fosters the students to dig up the psychological attitudes toward learning to bring about the change of their learning behavior.” Thus, reflection plays as a basis for control over learning management (Benson, 2001: 95).

  The reflected learning facilitates the students to look at themselves and finally find the strengths and weaknesses of their learning. Consequently, reflection raises students’ learning awareness. Furthermore, the students also bear the cognitive knowledge about their learning, consisting of person knowledge, task knowledge, and strategic knowledge. The metacognitive knowledge is used in their upcoming learning management in terms of planning, problem solving, monitoring and evaluating (Benson, 2001: 111).

  The third aspect of learning autonomy is control over learning content. Being able to control the learning management and cognitive processes, as discussed previously, but failing to find the material to be learned does not guarantee

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  learning to take place. Controlling the learning content also conveys the challenge for the students to decide what they want to learn in order to reach the goal of their learning (Benson, 2001: 47).

  The three levels of control are clearly interdependent. Effective learning management depends upon control of the cognitive processes involved in learning, while control of cognitive processes necessarily has consequences for the self- management of learning. Autonomy also implies that self- management and control over cognitive processed should involve decision concerning the content of learning (Benson, 2001: 50).

  As to the control over learning content, Littlewood (1999: 74) proposes two kinds of learning autonomy, namely proactive autonomy and reactive autonomy.

  Proactive autonomy is somewhat idealistic in the effort of promoting autonomy in language learning. It indeed suggests that the learners regulate both the direction and the activity of learning. Given this respect the learners are as “the locus of causality towards their learning” (Littlewood, p: 74). Proactive autonomy is regarded to be in accordance with the clarification of ideal autonomy articulated by Holec (1979: 3) that the learners are able to determine the objective, select technique and method, and evaluate what is learned in order to take charge of their learning. Thus, the clarification appears to be the main key for proactive autonomy. In short, the ideal form of autonomy lies in the total involvement of the students in their learning.

  Reactive autonomy, on the other hand, requires the students to regulate the activities when the direction is set by external authority (Litlewood, 1999: 149).

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  However, it also functions as an initial step to achieve the ideal learning autonomy for autonomy is a continuum process. Meaning to say, the reactive autonomy seeds the proactive autonomy. In this kind of autonomy, the teacher provides the students with stimulus, through establishing the goal, procedures, and the materials. Yet, once the stimulus is determined, the stduents are given an opportunity to organize the resources that support them to achieve the determined goal (Benson, 2001: 100).

b. Characteristics of Learners Autonomy:

  Based on the definition of learning autonomy there are agreements that autonomous learners understand the purpose of their learning program, explicitly accept responsibility for their learning, share in setting of learning goals, take initiatives in planning and execute learning activities, and regularly review their learning and evaluate its effectiveness (Dafei 2007: 6). Having same idea as Dafei (2007) Leni Dam (1990 cited in Thanasoulas, 2000: 117) adds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and set goals, chooses materials, methods and tasks, exercises choices and purpose in organizing and carrying out the chosen tasks, and chooses criteria for evaluation

  Therefore, autonomous learners principally are able to self- determine the overall direction of their learning, become actively involved in the management of learning process, and exercise freedom of choice in relation to learning resources and activities (Nunan, 2000: 1)

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c. Developing Autonomy in Language Learning

  Dafei (2007: 7) states that autonomy in learning is more effective than non autonomous learning. In other words, the development of autonomy implies better language learning. It means that autonomous learner will be more successful than non autonomous learner.

  Since autonomy is not directly inborn, it needs exercise to achieve it. “The ability is not inborn but must be acquired either by natural means or by formal learning i.e. in a systematic, deliberate way” (Holec, 1979:3). Furthermore, Little (1995) points out that learners do not automatically accept responsibility in formal contexts and do not necessarily find it easy to reflect on the learning process. Teachers must therefore first provide them with appropriate tools and with opportunities to practice using them (Little, 1995:176). Thinking as a goal of language education, Benson (2001) states that teachers and educational institution should attempt to foster autonomy through the practices that allow the learner to engage the learning approach in which the capacity can be developed. In principle any practice that encourages and enables the learners to take greater control of any aspect of their learning can be considered a means of promoting autonomy (Benson, 2001: 109).

  Little (2004) stated that the development of autonomy in language learning is governed by three basic pedagogical principles. First is the learner involvement. It means that learning gives opportunity to engage the learners to share responsibility for the learning process. It involves the affective and metacognitive dimension. Second is the learner reflection. It means that learning has to help the

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  learners to think critically when they plan, monitor and evaluate their learning. It involves the metacognitive dimension. Third is the use appropriate target language. It means that learning has to use the target language as the principal medium of language learning. It involves the cognitive and metacognitive dimension (Little, 2004: 2).

  Nunan (2000) presents four ways to sensitize learners to the learning process and thereby begin to encourage a greater degree of autonomy. They are “integrating language content and learning process through learner strategy training, incorporating reflective lessons into your teaching, drawing up learning contracts and learner diaries” (Nunan, 2000: 12). These ways involves metacognitive strategies in learning.

  According to Benson (2001: 113-177), practices associated with the development of autonomy can be classified under six approaches. First is resource-based approach. In resource-based learning, the focus of the development of autonomy is placed upon the learners’ independent interaction with learning resources. Resources-based learning offers learners the opportunity to exercise control over learning plans, the selection of learning material and the evaluation of learning. In resource-based learning, learner will develop skills associated with these activities through processes of the experimentation and discovery in which freedom of choice is a crucial factor. The success in resources- based learning presupposes that the learner already possesses some of skill that associated with autonomy.

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  Second is technology-based approach. In technology-based approach, the focus of the development of autonomy is placed upon the learners’ independent interaction with educational technology or the use of technologies to access resources.

  Third is learner-based approach. Learner-based approach focuses directly on the reproduction of behavioural and psychological changes that will enable learners to take greater control over their learning.

  Fourth is classroom-based approach. Classroom-based approaches attempt to foster autonomy by involving learners in decision making processes concerned with the day-to-day management of their learning.

  Fifth is curriculum-based approach. Curriculum based approach to autonomy extend the principle of control over the management of the learning to the curriculum as a whole. The principle of learner control over the curriculum has been formalized the idea of the process syllabus, in which learner are expected to make the major decisions concerning the content and procedures of learning in collaboration with their teachers.

  Sixth is teacher-based approach. Teacher-based approach emphasizes the role of the teacher and teacher education in the practice of fostering autonomy among learners. Voller (1997 as cited in Benson, 2002: 172) describes the role of teacher in autonomous learning under the headings of technical and psycho-social support. The key features of technical support are first, helping learners to plan and carry out their independent language learning by means of need analyses, objectives setting, and work planning, selecting materials, and organizing

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  interaction. Second, teacher helps learners to evaluate themselves. Third, helping learners to acquire the skills and knowledge needed (by raising their awareness of language and learning by providing learner training to help them to identify the learning styles and appropriate learning strategies).