A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
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A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo
Student Number: 051214031
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITYYOGYAKARTA
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo
Student Number: 051214031
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITYYOGYAKARTA
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 23 June 2009 The Writer
Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo 051214031
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo Nomor Mahasiswa : 051214031
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universita Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
English Code-switching in Indonesian Sport Tabloids
Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 22 Juni 2009 Yang menyatakan (Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo)
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Jesus Christ for giving me strength and guiding me all the time in my life. I thank Him for making me free of the fears and the pains during this exhausting process. He is such a zephyr that keeps whispering me the meaningful reasons why I have to finish my study well. In addition, I also would like to express my gratitude to those who have supported me.
First, I would like to thank F.X Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., my sponsor, especially for his guidance, suggestions, corrections, support, and patience in the process of completing my thesis. May God always be with him ever after.
Second, I would like to thank all the lecturers and staff of English Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University, who have patiently taught and given the best to me from the beginning till the end of my study. I thank them for giving me a lot of knowledge and experiences for my brighter future.
Furthermore, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved parents, FX. Trihadi & Fr. Sri Purwanti Wahyuningsih, for all their prayer, support, understanding, encouragement and anything that I got so far. My special gratitude also goes to my dearest sister, Yosephine Eri Kusumastuti, who gives me another reason to finish my study. I love her so much.
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My sincerely gratitude is addressed to my thesis-mates, Vinsensia Tyas
Maharsi, Desideria Araya, Emanuella Swastika Datu, Roomawardi, Koko
Adityanto, and Anastasia Permata Liska for their togetherness and sharing to finish
the thesis.
Last but not least, I would like to thank all my best friends inside or outside English Education Study Program, especially Agustinus Wahyu Wasono Putro,
Andreas Jeffry Okavianto, Bondan R. Subagya, Ezra Anggara Y., Agatha Pepy
Y., Esti Dewanti, Fillomena Tunjung, Daniel Ari W., Pius Rahardian Putranto,
Yosaphat Dwi Santo N., SEC members, UKMK members, and PENDOPO mass
media members. I thank them for their care, support, encouragement, and being with
me all the time. Remember that life is beautiful! I specially would like to thank Gendis Naskoshi & Paulus Yanu Armanto for loving me all the time. Both of them are so special in my life.
Fidelis Windiawan Adhi Purnomo
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………… i
PAGES OF APPROVAL………………………………………………………ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……………………………… iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………… viii
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………. x
LIST OF APPENDICES ………………………………………………………xii
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………... xiv
ABSTRAK …………………………………………………………………….. xvi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A.
1 Research Background ……………………………………………………… B.
2 Problem Formulation ………………………………………………………..
C.
3 Problem Limitation ………………………………………………………… D.
3 Research Objectives ……………………………………….........................
E.
3 Research Benefits ………………………………………………………… F.
4 Definitions of Terms ………………………………………………………
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A.
6 Theoretical Description …………………………………………………….
1.
6 Linguistics ………………………………………………………………….
2.
7 Sociolinguistics…………………………………………………………… 3.
8 The Nature of Code-switching …………………………………………… a.
8 Definitions of Code-switching ………………………………………….
b.
8 The Types of Code-switching ………………………………………… c.
12 The Possible Reasons for Code-switching ……………………………...
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46
25
30
35
39
43
44
44
48
Code-switching and Language Learning ………………………….
49
51
52
54 1. Single-word Code-switching ……………………………………… 2.
Phrase Code-switching …………………………………………….
3. Whole-sentence Code-switching ………………………………….
4. Integrated Loanwords Code-switching …………………………….
24
d.
21
20
B.
Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………….
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY A. Research Method …………………………………………....................... B. Source of Data …………………………………………………………. C. Research Instruments ……………………………………………………. D. Data Gathering Technique ………………………………………………. E. Data Analysis Technique ……………………………………………….. F. Research Procedure …………………………………………………… CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS A. Types of Code-switching ………………………………………………..
5. Diglossic Code-switching ………………………………………….
6. Clause Code-switching ……………………………………………..
B.
The Possible Reasons for Code-switching …………………………….
C.
Implications …………………………………………………………….
D.
Other Findings …………………………………………………………
14
15
17
18
19
22
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions …………………………………………………………… B. Suggestions ……………………………………………………………… REFERENCES …………………………………………………………… APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………
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LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 4.1: The Number of Single-word Code-switching Cases
25 in Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.2: The Most Frequent Single-word Code-switching
26 in News Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.3: The Most Frequent Single-word Code-switching
27 in Opinion Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.4: The Most Frequent Single-word Code-switching
28 in Feature Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.5: The Most Frequent Single-word Code-switching
29 in Advertisement Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.6: The Number of Phrase Code-switching Cases
30 in Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.7: The Most Frequent Phrase Code-switching
31 in News Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.8: The Most Frequent Phrase Code-switching
32 in Opinion Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.9: The Most Frequent Phrase Code-switching
33 in Feature Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.10: The Most Frequent Phrase Code-switching
34 in Advertisement Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.11: The Number of Whole-sentence Code-switching Cases
35 in Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.12: The Most Frequent Whole-sentence Code-switching
36 in News Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids
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Table 4.13: The Most Frequent Whole-sentence Code-switching
37 in Opinion Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.14: The Most Frequent Whole-sentence Code-switching
38 in Feature Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.15: The Most Frequent Whole-sentence Code-switching in 38-39
Advertisement Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.16: The Number of Integrated Loanwords Code-switching Cases in Indonesian Sport Tabloids
39 Table 4.17: The Most Frequent Integrated Loanwords Code-switching
40 in News Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.18: The Most Frequent Integrated Loanwords Code-switching
41 in Opinion Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.19: The Most Frequent Integrated Loanwords Code-switching
42 in Feature Category of the Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.20: The Number of Diglossic Code-switching Cases
43 in Indonesian Sport Tabloids Table 4.21: Misspelling Words in the Target tabloids 47 Table 4.22: Misspelling Phrases in the Target Tabloids
47 Table 4.23: Both Written Double Verbs and Nouns in the Target Tabloids
48
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Page Appendix 1: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
55 Appendix 2: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
56 in News Category of BOLA Tabloid No. 1909/March/2009 Appendix 3: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
57 in Opinion Category of BOLA Tabloid No. 1909/March/2009 Appendix 4: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
58 in Feature Category of BOLA Tabloid No. 1909/March/2009 Appendix 5: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
59 in Advertisement Category of BOLA Tabloid No. 1909/March/2009 Appendix 6: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
60 in News Category of SOCCER Tabloid Edition 35/IX/March/2009 Appendix 7: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
61 in Opinion Category of SOCCER Tabloid Edition 35/IX/March/2009 Appendix 8: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
62 in Feature Category of SOCCER Tabloid Edition 35/IX/March/2009 Appendix 9: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
63 in Advertisement Category of SOCCER Tabloid Edition 35/IX/March/2009
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Appendix 10: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
64 in News Category of MOTOR Plus Tabloid Edition 523/March/2009 Appendix 11: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
65 in Opinion Category of MOTOR Plus Tabloid Edition 523/March/2009
Appendix 12: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
66 in Feature Category of MOTOR Plus Tabloid Edition 523/March/2009 Appendix 13: The Example of Checklist of Types of Code-switching
67 in Advertisement Category of MOTOR Plus Tabloid Edition 523/March/2009 Appendix 14: Sample of Single-word, Phrase, and Integrated Loanwords
68 Code-switching in BOLA Tabloid No. 1909/March/2009 p. 12
Appendix 15: Sample of Whole-sentence Code-switching
69 in SOCCER Tabloid Edition 35/IX/March/2009 p. 32 Appendix 16: Sample of Diglossic Code-switching
70 in MOTOR Plus Tabloid Edition 523/March/2009 p. 2
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ABSTRACT
Purnomo, Fidelis Windiawan Adhi. 2009. English Code-switching in Indonesian Sport Tabloids. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
As a means of communication, a language works like a bridge which bridges people to build a good relationship in the society, in this case, how language is used in giving information accurately is by using printed mass media, tabloids. There is a language phenomenon where some English language elements are juxtaposed with the Indonesian utterance, in which sociolinguistics defines it as code-switching.
This study was conducted to analyze the types of code-switching in BOLA tabloid, SOCCER tabloid, and MOTOR Plus tabloid, as the samples of Indonesian sport tabloids, to identify the possible reasons for code-switching in the target tabloids and to find out the possible implications of code-switching toward English education in Indonesia. Those three sport tabloids were chosen due to they had the same target readers, which was both teenagers and adults.
To accomplish the research objectives, the writer decided himself as the instrument to analyze the types of code-switching in the Indonesian sport tabloids. Besides, the writer applied both a checklist and a library study to ease the process of gathering and analyzing data. First of all, the writer organized the data on the observation form and perused the entire data. As a result, there were five types of code-switching in those three sport tabloids. They were diglossic code-switching, whole-sentence code-switching, phrase code-switching, single-word code-switching and integrated loanwords. This process came up with the findings that the most frequent code-switching cases in occurrence was single-word code-switching.
Afterward, to answer the second and third research questions, the writer employed a library study. There were two possible reasons for code-switching in those three sport tabloids. First, code-switching was employed because of the specific terms related to the topic under discussion that were sometimes difficult to be translated into Indonesian language. Second, it was employed to build the intimate relationship with the readers. Meanwhile, based on the findings, the writer found two implications of code-switching toward English education. The most of code- switching cases in the sport tabloids might support the English education whereas some of them obstruct the English education.
Finally, since there were still some errors in spelling or writing of code- switching cases found in those three sport tabloids, the readers should not reserve it categorically. The use of dictionary would be better to help identify the correctness of code-switching cases. As a result, code-switching cases in sport tabloids could
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support the readers’ learning process, especially English vocabulary development. Meanwhile, the other researchers might observe further research on tabloids with more samples or on other types of written text.
Key words: sociolinguistics, code-switching, Indonesian sport tabloids
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ABSTRAK
Purnomo, Fidelis Windiawan Adhi. 2009. English Code-switching in Indonesian Sport Tabloids. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Sebagai sebuah alat komunikasi, bahasa berperan sebagai layaknya sebuah jembatan yang menjembatani orang-orang untuk membangun hubungan yang baik di dalam masyarakat, dalam hal ini adalah bagaimana bahasa digunakan dalam memberikan informasi secara akurat melalui media cetak, tabloid. Ada sebuah fenomena bahasa di mana beberapa istilah bahasa Inggris di masukkan ke dalam ungkapan bahasa Indonesia, di mana sosiolinguistik mendefinisikannya sebagai alih kode.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menganalisa tipe-tipe alih kode yang terdapat di dalam tabloid BOLA, tabloid SOCCER, dan tabloid MOTOR Plus, sebagai contoh dari tabloid-tabloid olahraga di Indonesia, untuk mengidentifikasi alasan-alasan yang mungkin dari alih kode di dalam tabloid-tabloid tersebut, dan juga untuk mencari implikasi-implikasi yang mungkin dari alih kode terhadap pendidikan bahasa Inggris di Indonesia. Tabloid-tabloid tersebut dipilih karena memiliki kesamaan sasaran pembaca, yaitu remaja dan dewasa.
Untuk mencapai tujuan penelitian, penulis memutuskan dirinya sendiri sebagai alat untuk menganalisa tipe-tipe alih kode yang ada di dalam tabloid-tabloid olahraga di Indonesia tersebut. Di samping itu, penulis juga menggunakan checklist dan library study untuk memudahkan proses perolehan dan penganalisaan data. Pertama, penulis menyusun data di dalam lembar observasi dan mengkaji keselurahan data. Sebagai hasilnya, terdapat lima tipe alih kode di dalam tiga tabloid olahraga tersebut. Tipe-tipe tersebut adalah diglossic code-switching, whole-sentence code-
switching, phrase code-switching, single-word code-switching, dan integrated
loanwords code-switching . Berdasarkan proses tersebut ditemukan bahwa kasus alih
kode terbanyak yang terjadi adalah single-word code-switching.
Kemudian, untuk menjawab rumusan masalah kedua dan ketiga, penulis menggunakan library study. Ada dua kemungkinan alasan alih kode di dalam tiga tabloid olah raga tersebut. Pertama, alih kode digunakan karena istilah-istilah khusus dalam topik yang sedang dibahas kadang-kadang sulit untuk diterjemahkan ke bahasa Indonesia. Kedua, alih kode digunakan untuk membangun hubungan yang akrab dengan pembaca. Sementara itu, berdasarkan hasil selanjutnya, penulis menemukan dua kemungkinan implikasi alih kode terhadap pendidikan bahasa Inggris. Kebanyakan dari kasus alih kode di dalam tiga tabloid olahraga tersebut dapat
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menunjang pendidikan bahasa Inggris sedangkan ada beberapa di antaranya menghambat pendidikan bahasa Inggris.
Akhirnya, selama masih ada beberapa kesalahan dalam pengejaan maupun penulisan kasus alih kode di dalam tiga tabloid tersebut, para pembaca hendaknya tidak menyerap semua itu secara mentah-mentah. Penggunaan kamus akan lebih baik untuk membantu mengidentifikasi kebenaran dari kasus-kasus alih kode tersebut. Hasilnya, alih kode pun dapat mendukung proses pembelajaran bagi pembaca, khususnya pengembangan kosa kata bahasa Inggris. Sementara itu, peneliti-peneliti yang lain dapat melakukan penelitian lebih jauh pada tabloid-tabloid dengan contoh- contoh yang lebih banyak atau pada jenis-jenis teks tertulis lainnya.
Kata kunci: sosiolinguistik, alih kode, tabloid-tabloid olah raga di Indonesia
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the writer describes six underlying issues namely background
of the study, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Background of the Study
As a means of communication, language works like a bridge which bridges people to do anything that they want to do in their society, in this case, how language is used in giving information accurately is by using printed mass media, such as, newspapers, magazines, or tabloids. On the other hand, the ways of using language reflect people’s personal aspects of visual and intellectual. Thus, language that is used must be well-arranged in order to be easily understood.
McCormick (1994: 581) explains that “the term ‘code-switching’ refers to the juxtaposition of elements from two (or more) language or dialects.” So, someone may switch the language from one language to another. In addition, she or he can produce the language utterances that consist of language elements from two or more different languages. The statement above is also supported by Valdes – Fallis (1977), as cited by Duran, code-switching means the use of two languages concurrently or interchangeably. It shows the degree of competence in the languages.
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2 There are a number of reasons for code-switching. One of them can be the influence of certain meanings. Sometimes, people feel that it is monotonous when they only use their own native language all the time to communicate to others, in this case in giving information by using printed mass media. They need something new and different taste in order to have stylish language utterances without changing its meaning. As a result, they switch their own native language elements with foreign language elements. In addition, those statements above are going to be explored whether or not code-switching exists and it is appropriate in use to the prevailing rules.
Finally, based on the phenomenon above, the writer would like to focus on code-switching that exist in sport tabloids. He would try to investigate the types of code-switching, the possible reasons for code-switching and the implications of code- switching toward English education as long as there are a lot of English code- switching cases may be discovered in Indonesian sport tabloids.
B. Problem Formulation
In this study the writer would like to address three questions related to the use of English code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloid.
1. What are the types of code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids? 2.
What are the possible reasons for code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids?
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3 3. What are the possible implications of code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids toward English education in Indonesia?
C. Problem Limitation This study focuses on the use of English code-switching in Indonesian sport
tabloids that might often be discovered recently. Therefore, the writer is going to analyze three of the most popular weekly sport tabloids in Indonesia as the target tabloids, starting from the beginning of March till the end of March 2009. They are BOLA tabloid, SOCCER tabloid, and MOTOR Plus tabloid. BOLA tabloid is published twice a week whereas both SOCCER tabloid and MOTOR tabloid are published once a week. Therefore, the writer takes eight editions for BOLA tabloid, four editions for SOCCER tabloid and four editions for MOTOR Plus tabloid. As a result, there are 16 editions of those three sport tabloids.
D. Research Objectives The objectives of this study are: 1. to analyze the types of code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids.
2. to identify the possible reasons for code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids. 3. to find out the possible implications of code-switching in Indonesian sport tabloids toward English education in Indonesia.
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4 E.
Research Benefits 1. The Benefits for Readers They will have broader knowledge of code-switching, especially about the
types of code-switching, some possible reasons for code-switching, and implications of code-switching that exist in printed mass media, which is tabloid. They can use it to support language learning. Besides, based on those findings, they can add their English vocabularies with a strong base to distinguish the correct or incorrect items.
As a result, they will more understand the language phenomenon that happens in printed mass media, especially sport tabloids.
2. The Benefits for Other Researchers
This study will hopefully encourage other researchers to conduct further study on code-switching by using more samples or on other types of written texts. Then, they will enrich the existing body of data and use the research result to do the certain objectives.
F. Definition of Terms
Code-switching refers to the juxtaposition of elements from two (or more) language or dialects (McCormick, 1994: 581). Meanwhile, according to Valdes – Fallis (1977), as cited by Duran in The Journal in Educational Issues of Language
Minority Student, code-switching means the use of two languages concurrently or
interchangeably. It shows the degree of competence in the languages.PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5 In this study, code-switching refers to the language phenomenon where two different languages are juxtaposed in one context, in this case, English code- switching in Indonesian sport tabloids. They are BOLA tabloid, SOCCER tabloid, and MOTOR Plus tabloid. According to Hornby (2005), a tabloid is a newspaper with small pages usually has the size of those in larger papers; newspaper of this size which short articles and a lot of pictures and stories about famous people.
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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter mainly concerns with two main parts namely theoretical
description and theoretical framework. In the theoretical description, the writer discusses some related theories from some linguists to provide basic principles of this study. The theoretical framework attempts to draw a framework based on the theoretical description.
A. Theoretical Description
In this section, the related theories that will be reviewed are the nature of code-switching which explains the general understanding of code-switching, the types of code-switching, the reasons for code-switching as well as the implications of code-switching toward English education.
1. Linguistics
According to Finegan (2004: 24), linguistics can be defined as “the systematic inquiry into human language – into its structure and the relationship between them, as well as into the development and acquisition of language”. He also states that “language is often defined as an arbitrary vocal system used by human beings to communicate with one another” (Finegan, 2004: 25). All aspects of language are
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directed to create meaning. As a result, there is an important fact that language is more than communication. “It is social action, with work to perform” (Finegan, 2004: 25). Therefore, linguistics is specified to create the relationship between language and society.
2. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics. According to Radford (1999: 16), sociolinguistics can be defined as “the study of relationship between language use and the structure of society”. As Radford stated, it considers with some factors which maintain that they are essential to an understanding of both structure and function of the language used in a certain situation. Those factors are social backgrounds of both speaker and listener, the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction (Radford, 1999: 16). Therefore, people have to modify their language used in communication to build good communication with others in the society, in which this phenomenon is commonly known as code-switching.
The relationship between sociolinguistics and code-switching cannot be separated each other as long as there is a different variety of languages and conversation contexts in the society.
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3. The Nature of Code-switching
The nature of code-switching provides some theories in understanding the definitions of code-switching as well as in what situations code-switching happen according to some linguists.
a. Definitions of Code-switching
According to Gal (1988: 247), the term ‘code-switching refers to a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their right and obligations’. The statement above is also supported by Wardhaugh (1992: 103) who states that ‘code- switching’ refers to a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their right and obligations. He asserts that a person may use more than one code in her or his speech instead of just employing a single code. People may switch or mix the codes or languages that they use. In addition, the term of ‘code-switching’ is used to name this a conversational strategy. It is unusual for a speaker to have command of, or use, only one such code. In addition, people, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes.
b. The Types of Code-switching
Every linguist has their own point of view in classifying the types of code- switching.
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According to McCormick (1994) as cited in The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics Vol. 10 by Asher, based on the length of juxtaposed utterances, there are six types of code-switching. Those are diglossic code-switching, situational code- switching, metaphoric code-switching, conversational code-switching, single-word code-switching and integrated loanwords code-switching.
Diglossia is a feature of speech community rather than individuals (Holmes, 2001: 30). In diglossic situation, two languages are used for different functions in a speech community. In addition, one language is used for H or high function and the other is for L or low function. H variety refers to the high class situations, whereas L variety is the lower ones. It means that H variety is used in formal discourse which illustrates there is a prestige indeed between the speakers in the situations, such as in the office, classroom, or in other formal situations. Meanwhile, L variety is used in informal discourse due to lack of prestige indeed. People may use L variety when they have conversation with their close friends, family or in other informal situations.
In this case, code-switching may happen from H variety to L variety or just on the other hand. However, not all people can employ code-switching in both discourses.
Most of people who tend to be able to employ code-switching better are they who learn in formal education.
The second type is called situational code-switching. It is “the codes may be perceived as different but be equally valued, and similarity the situations may be differentiated on grounds other than prestige” (McCormick, 1994: 582). Based on the
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statement, it could be seen that the language change depends on the circumstance faced by a speaker since the certain circumstance may encourage the speaker to exchange the language which is used. However, situational code-switching happens without any change of topic. As a result, the change happens for the whole part of one’s speech in one context. For example, when the students do not understand the teacher’s explanation using English language for the whole context, the teacher should re-explain her or his explanation to the students using Indonesian language in order to be more understandable.
The third type is metaphoric code-switching. In metaphorical code-switching, there is a difference from the previous one where a language change may happen under discussion. It occurs in “whole conversation, each within one role relationship” (McCormick, 1994: 581). On the other word, the role of relationship between the speakers in a conversation may change.
The fourth type is conversational code-switching, in which “its occurrence is not dependant on a change of interlocutors’ topic or situation” (McCormick, 1994: 583). It can also be called style shifting or code mixing. It allows the speaker to juxtapose various lengths of foreign elements within her or his speech. In this case, there are three smaller types of conversational code-switching. They are phrase code- switching, whole-sentence code-switching, and clause code-switching. For the first type of conversational code-switching is phrase code-switching. According to Collins Essential English Dictionary, a phrase is “a group of words forming a unit of meaning
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in a sentence” (Sinclair, 2001). Then, the second type is whole sentence code- switching. According to Collins Essential English Dictionary, whole sentence is “a sequence of words constituting a statement, question, or a command that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop when written down” (Sinclair, 2001). Hence, these code-switching cases occur in the form of a full sentence. The last type of conversational code-switching is clause code-switching, in which happened within a sentence in form of a clause. According to Collins Essential English Dictionary, clause is “a group of words, consisting of a subject and a predicate including a finite verb, that does not necessarily constitute a sentence” (Sinclair, 2001). Clause “may be either a sentence (independent clause) or a sentence-like construction included within another sentence (dependent clause)” (Nordquist, 2009).
The fifth type is called single-word code-switching. It can also be called as lexical borrowing, in which it permits the speaker to borrow a single word from another language or dialect and place it within her or his native language utterances (McCormick, 1994: 581).
The last type of code-switching is integrated loanwords code-switching. The juxtaposition in this type happens in a morpheme level (McCormick, 1994: 581).
Morpheme is a minimal functional element of a word. Here, someone may integrate a word from foreign language with affixes of her or his native language to form a certain language expression.
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Ronald Wardhaugh (1992) classifies three kinds of code-switching that may happen in a society, which are situational code-switching, metaphorical code- switching, and conversational code-switching.
The first type of code-switching is situational code-switching. Wardhaugh (1992: 106) explains that situational code-switching happens when the language which is used by a speaker changes according to the situation which is faced by the speaker. She or he may speak one language in one situation and another language in the different one.
The second type is metaphorical code-switching. One thing that enables people to identify metaphorical code-switching is that it has an affective dimension; formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous, etc.
The last type is conversational code-mixing. The difference between code- switching and code-mixing can be seen through the context of the occurrence in which code-mixing occurs within a single utterance of someone’s speech as what Wardhaugh (1992: 106) says that “Code-mixing occurs when conversances use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance.” c.
The Possible Reasons for Code-switching
According to Crystal (1987) as cited by Skiba (1997) in Code-switching as a
Countenance of Language Interference , there were three kinds of the reasons for
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code-switching. First, the code-switching was employed because of the special terms related to the topic under discussion that should be used. It happened because every topic might have some specific terms that were sometimes so difficult to be translated in Indonesian language. The second possible reason was presented by Crystal (1987) was to build the intimate relationship with the readers. Code-switching may occur when individuals wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group. Then, the third possible reason, Crystal (1987) stated that code-switching occurs when the speaker wishes to convey his/her attitude to the listener. Where monolingual speakers can communicate these attitudes by means of variation in the level of formality in their speech, bilingual speakers can convey the same by code switching.
According to Hoffmann (1991) in her book An Introduction to Bilingualism, she writes that “the reasons for code-switching are manifold” (1991: 115). It means that reasons are contextual, situational and personal class. She describes that switching usually happens when the speaker is quoting someone else. It is called by Holmes as “referentially oriented code switch” (2001: 37), in which it is employed to emphasize particular message content. The second reason presented by Hoffmann (1991) was code-switching may occur when the speaker is being emphatic about something. In addition, for the last reason, Hoffmann (1991) stated that it may occur when the speaker repeats their utterance for clarification.
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d. Code-switching and Language Learning
Cook as cited by Skiba (1997) in Code-switching as a Countenance of
Language Interference agrees that code-switching can be used to help the process of
language learning. In addition, as stated by Ellis on his book Second Language (1997), the learners’ communication engage in and through this rate and
Acquisition
possibly the route of inter-language development is indirectly influenced by social factors. One of the external factors to explain why learners acquire an L2 in certain ways is input or “the samples of language to which a learner is exposed” (Ellis, 1997: 5) that they receive.