Kuliah 9_Pengaruh Polusi terhadap penyakit tumbuhan
Pengaruh Polusi Udara terhadap
Penyakit Tumbuhan
Oleh Irda Safni
Environmental pollution is a serious menace to all kinds of
life and threatens our fragile environment that is so vital for
our survival.
The air pollutants cause direct and indirect effect on
microbial community.
Air pollution damage to vegetation has been recognized for
more than 125 years. Air pollutants are a fact of modern life.
The susceptibility of pollution stressed plants to microbial
pathogens may be altered and the disease development may
be influenced. Interactions between air pollutants and plant
pathogens on a given host may affect pathogenesis.
Thus plant diseases may be either enhanced or
suppressed depending upon the nature of the disease and
host, the kind and concentration of the air pollutants.
Urbanization, industrialization, transportation, and energy
consumption are increasing at an unprecedented scale in
big cities because the infrastructure development in major
cities has not kept pace with the population influx, thereby
giving rise to poor planning, faulty traffic systems and
blatant disregard poor vehicle maintenance.
Therefore, atmospheric conditions of big cities have been
deteriorating for the last two decades.
Air pollution is said to exist when a wide range of
inorganic gases, organic compounds, inorganic metallic
substances and smoke particles are discharged into the
atmosphere by the motor vehicles, factories, power plants,
home furnaces and waste incineration plants.
The diverse emissions into the atmosphere bring about
qualitative or quantitative changes in the normal composition
of the air that may adversely affect human health and plant
life.
Some times natural causes such as forest or grassland
fires and volcanic eruptions around the globe also contribute
to the atmospheric pollution.
Air pollutants are any aerial substances that have the
potential to cause adverse effects on plants, animals or
cultural assets.
At present more than 300 substances are known which
can be emitted into the air, and are significant as air
pollutants.
Environmental pollution is a product of the anthropogenic
activities.
Human has unconsciously interfered with the environment
so much that its deterioration in many areas has reached
alarming proportions, basically due to massive industrial
development, rapid increase of automotives and exponential
growth of world population and its food consumption.
Between 100 and 200 million tons of man-made air
pollutants are released each year into the atmosphere
in the United States. According to U.S. EPA’s
“Latest Findings on National Air Quality: 2000 Status
and Trends”, over 160 million tons of pollution are
emitted into the air each year in the United States.
Carbon Monoksida
Oksidasi Sulfur
Oksidasi Nitrogen
Hidrokarbon
Inorganic Pollutants
OZONE (O3)
Ozone is an active form of oxygen that causes a variety of
symptoms, including tissue collapse, interveinal necrosis, and
markings on the upper surface of leaves known as stipple
(pigmented yellow, light tan, red brown, dark brown, red,
black, or purple), flecking (silver, or bleached straw-white),
mottling, chlorosis or bronzing, bleaching, and a marginal
rolling and scorching of leaves.
Growth is stunted.
Flowering and bud formation are depressed.
Young plants generally are the most sensitive to ozone;
mature plants, relatively resistant.
Ozone-killed tissues are readily infected by certain fungi.
Luka Ozon pada kentang
Luka Ozon pada Cucurbitaceae
Ozone is brought down from the stratosphere by
turbulence in strong vertical down-drafts during severe
electrical storms; more important, it is produced when
sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
formed by refuse burning and combustion of coal or
petroleum fuels, especially the exhaust gases from
internal-combustion engines.
When oxidant levels in the air are high, more than 90
percent is ozone.
These levels usually are at their highest point from around
11 a.m. to 5 p.m. and relatively low at night.
Exposure of sensitive plants for 4 to 6 hours at levels of
0.02 to 0.04 parts per million (ppm) of air or more will produce
injury patterns.
The extent of the injury depends on the plant species and
the environmental conditions prior to and during exposure.
Ozone and sulfur dioxide often combine to cause plant
injury at lower concentrations of these pollutants than either
would cause alone.
Ozone inhibits a number of pathogenic fungi or their
effects are pronounced by it.
Facultative parasites are affected more than facultative
saprophytes.
Manning et al. (1970) investigated invasion of potato
leaves by Botrytis cinerea under the stress of ozone.
Invasion of the leaves by the fungus was enhanced when
plants were exposed to (0.15-0.25 ppm ozone) for 6-8h.
Kochhar et al. (1982) studied the effect of single acute
ozone exposure (0.3 ppm for 2 h) of clover on pathogenesis
of Rhizoctonia solani followed by 0.04-0.16 ppm through out
the season.
The effect of sulphur dioxide (0.1 and 0.2 ppm) for
different time intervals (3, 6, 9, 12, 18 h) was examined on
conidial germination of some powdery mildew fungi.
Fluorida (F)
The typical injury by gaseous (primarily hydrogen fluoride
(HF) and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) or particulate fluorides
is a yellowish mottle to a wavy, reddish-brown or tan
“scorching” at the leaf margins and tips of broadleaved
plants, and a “tipburn” of grasses and conifers.
A narrow, chlorotic to dark-brown band often occurs
between living and dead tissue.
Leaves and fruits, such as apple, apricot, citrus, fig,
peach, plum, and prune, may fall prematurely.
Fruits may soften or become necrotic at the blossom
end.
Fluoride-contaminated forage that is eaten by cattle or
sheep may cause fluorosis.
Sulfur Dioxide (S02)
The exposure of succulent, broadleaved plants to SO2 (and
its byproduct, sulfuric acid) usually results in dry, papery
blotches that are generally white to tan or straw-colored and
marginal or interveinal.
Both the upper and lower leaf surfaces are affected.
The leaf veins normally remain green.
Chlorosis (yellowing) and a gradual bleaching of the
surrounding tissues is fairly common.
Growth suppression, reduction in yield, and heavy,
premature defoliation may also occur.
Full-grown and nearly full-grown leaves and young plants
are most susceptible to SO2. Young and old leaves are
usually less sensitive.
Luka karena Sulfur Dioksida (SO2) pada Tanaman
Chlorine (Cl2)
Chlorine injury is somewhat similar to that caused by sulfur
dioxide and fluorides, in that it is marginaland interveinal.
Two types of damage generally can occur:
(1) with broadleaved plants, necrotic, bleached, or tan-to-brown
areas that tend to be near the leaf margins, tips, and between
the principal veins.
(2) with grasses, progressive streaking toward the main vein in
the region between the tip and the point where the grass blade
bends, usually occurring alongside the veins.
Luka karena Chlorine pada Tanaman
Impact of Air Pollution on Plant Diseases
Air pollutants directly toxic to the pathogens possible impair
their growth and reproduction and thereby partially or wholly
inhibit the diseases.
Air pollutants on the other hand, by modifying the host
physiology may render it more susceptible to infection and
pathogenic damages.
Atmospheric pollutants may adversely affect the spore
germination, mycelial proliferation, fruiting body formation and
spore production by fungi. Host-parasite relationship may be
adversely affected.
Air pollutants cause specific diseases in plants thus behave
as plant pathogens.
In nature plants remain exposed to multiple pathogenic
situations.
These pathogens to which plants remain exposed interact in
nature and the ultimate effect on the host is the result of their
interactive actions.
Air pollutants have been recognized as abiotic (inanimate)
plant pathogens as they cause disease with specific disease
syndrome.
Secondly, air pollutants develop relationship with various
kinds of biotic pathogens influencing the incidence and
intensity of the biotic diseases.
It these two groups of the pathogens abiotic (e.g. air
pollutants) and biotic (e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses etc.) coexist in a common pathosystem, it is quite apprehensible
that they may become vulnerable to greater pathogenic
damages caused by the biotic pathogens or the plants
infected with biotic pathogens may become more sensitive
and suffer greater damages caused by the pollutants.
Air pollutants may enhance or inhibit parasitism of biotic
pathogens through stimulated or depressed activity of the
parasites.
Conidial germination of the powdery mildew fungi was
reduced at both the concentrations of sulphur dioxide.
With increase in the duration of exposure, a
corresponding decrease in the conidial germination
occurred.
Spore germination of some fungi like Phytophthora
infestans was inhibited by SO2.
Laurence et al. (1979) reported 38% decrease in the
number of lesions caused by Helminthosporium maydis
on maize exposed to 0.15 ppm SO2, 14 h daily for 8
days, before inoculation.
Couey (1965) observed 60% reduction in spore
germination of Alternaria spp. with treatment of ppm SO2
for 24 min.
According to Heagle (1982) stimulated acid rain caused
inhibition of growth of Cronartium fusiforme on leaves of
yellow oat inoculated with aeciospores.
Lawry (1977) studied the fungal population in soils at the
sites exposed to acid rain from strip-mines and observed a
decrease in fungal species diversities.
Sharp (1967) determined that high ionic concentrations in
the atmosphere reduced the germination of Puccinia
striiformis urediniospores.
Pengendalian
The solution to the air pollution problem is complex and involves:
1.Enforced use of special, adjusted control devices on motor vehicles and
aircraft.
2. Stopping emissions at the source (the smoke stack or combustion
chamber) by such “scrubbing systems” as electrostatic precipitators,
filtering devices including fabric filters, absorption equipment, gravity
settling chambers, sonic and ultrasonic collectors, and byproduct recovery.
3. Public awareness and adequate enforcement of federal, state, and local
legislation.
4. Plant breeding and selection of less susceptible crops for critical areas.
5. Using less susceptible plants or cultivars.
6. Carbon filtration of the air in greenhouses.
Ozone inhibits a number of pathogenic fungi or their effects.
ozone enhanced the predisposition of the leaves of plants to
B. cincerea inoculated one day after exposure.
The rate of enhancement depended on the level of O 3
induced injury, which was influenced by the cultivar, leaf and
ozone concentrations.
Trifoliate leaves of all the cultivars were less predisposed to
the fungus than the primary leaves.
There was increase in chlorosis and necrosis with increase in
exposure duration and concentration of ozone.
The effect of sulphur dioxide was observed on conidial
germination of some powdery mildew fungi.
Conidial germination of the powdery mildew fungi was
reduced at both the concentrations of sulphur dioxide.
With increase in the duration of exposure, a corresponding
decrease in the conidial germination occurred.
Maximum reduction occurred when conidia were exposed
to 0.2 ppm S02 for 12 h.
Spore germination of some fungi like Phytophthora
infestans was inhibited by SO2.
Exposure 0.04 ppm sulphur dioxide for 24-72h continuously
caused reduction in spore germination, penetration and
hyphal production of Microsphaera alni infecting lilac leaves.
38% decrease in the number of lesions caused by
Helminthosporium maydis on maize exposed to 0.15 ppm
SO2, 14 h daily for 8 days, before inoculation.
60% reduction in spore germination of Alternaria spp. with
treatment of ppm SO2 for 24 min.
Acid rain caused inhibition of growth of Cronartium fusiforme
on leaves of yellow oat inoculated with aeciospores.
The exposure of plant foliage to acid rain has also
implications on root diseases.
When above-ground parts are affected the composition of
root exudates also changes the biology of the rhizosphere.
TERIMA KASIH
Penyakit Tumbuhan
Oleh Irda Safni
Environmental pollution is a serious menace to all kinds of
life and threatens our fragile environment that is so vital for
our survival.
The air pollutants cause direct and indirect effect on
microbial community.
Air pollution damage to vegetation has been recognized for
more than 125 years. Air pollutants are a fact of modern life.
The susceptibility of pollution stressed plants to microbial
pathogens may be altered and the disease development may
be influenced. Interactions between air pollutants and plant
pathogens on a given host may affect pathogenesis.
Thus plant diseases may be either enhanced or
suppressed depending upon the nature of the disease and
host, the kind and concentration of the air pollutants.
Urbanization, industrialization, transportation, and energy
consumption are increasing at an unprecedented scale in
big cities because the infrastructure development in major
cities has not kept pace with the population influx, thereby
giving rise to poor planning, faulty traffic systems and
blatant disregard poor vehicle maintenance.
Therefore, atmospheric conditions of big cities have been
deteriorating for the last two decades.
Air pollution is said to exist when a wide range of
inorganic gases, organic compounds, inorganic metallic
substances and smoke particles are discharged into the
atmosphere by the motor vehicles, factories, power plants,
home furnaces and waste incineration plants.
The diverse emissions into the atmosphere bring about
qualitative or quantitative changes in the normal composition
of the air that may adversely affect human health and plant
life.
Some times natural causes such as forest or grassland
fires and volcanic eruptions around the globe also contribute
to the atmospheric pollution.
Air pollutants are any aerial substances that have the
potential to cause adverse effects on plants, animals or
cultural assets.
At present more than 300 substances are known which
can be emitted into the air, and are significant as air
pollutants.
Environmental pollution is a product of the anthropogenic
activities.
Human has unconsciously interfered with the environment
so much that its deterioration in many areas has reached
alarming proportions, basically due to massive industrial
development, rapid increase of automotives and exponential
growth of world population and its food consumption.
Between 100 and 200 million tons of man-made air
pollutants are released each year into the atmosphere
in the United States. According to U.S. EPA’s
“Latest Findings on National Air Quality: 2000 Status
and Trends”, over 160 million tons of pollution are
emitted into the air each year in the United States.
Carbon Monoksida
Oksidasi Sulfur
Oksidasi Nitrogen
Hidrokarbon
Inorganic Pollutants
OZONE (O3)
Ozone is an active form of oxygen that causes a variety of
symptoms, including tissue collapse, interveinal necrosis, and
markings on the upper surface of leaves known as stipple
(pigmented yellow, light tan, red brown, dark brown, red,
black, or purple), flecking (silver, or bleached straw-white),
mottling, chlorosis or bronzing, bleaching, and a marginal
rolling and scorching of leaves.
Growth is stunted.
Flowering and bud formation are depressed.
Young plants generally are the most sensitive to ozone;
mature plants, relatively resistant.
Ozone-killed tissues are readily infected by certain fungi.
Luka Ozon pada kentang
Luka Ozon pada Cucurbitaceae
Ozone is brought down from the stratosphere by
turbulence in strong vertical down-drafts during severe
electrical storms; more important, it is produced when
sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
formed by refuse burning and combustion of coal or
petroleum fuels, especially the exhaust gases from
internal-combustion engines.
When oxidant levels in the air are high, more than 90
percent is ozone.
These levels usually are at their highest point from around
11 a.m. to 5 p.m. and relatively low at night.
Exposure of sensitive plants for 4 to 6 hours at levels of
0.02 to 0.04 parts per million (ppm) of air or more will produce
injury patterns.
The extent of the injury depends on the plant species and
the environmental conditions prior to and during exposure.
Ozone and sulfur dioxide often combine to cause plant
injury at lower concentrations of these pollutants than either
would cause alone.
Ozone inhibits a number of pathogenic fungi or their
effects are pronounced by it.
Facultative parasites are affected more than facultative
saprophytes.
Manning et al. (1970) investigated invasion of potato
leaves by Botrytis cinerea under the stress of ozone.
Invasion of the leaves by the fungus was enhanced when
plants were exposed to (0.15-0.25 ppm ozone) for 6-8h.
Kochhar et al. (1982) studied the effect of single acute
ozone exposure (0.3 ppm for 2 h) of clover on pathogenesis
of Rhizoctonia solani followed by 0.04-0.16 ppm through out
the season.
The effect of sulphur dioxide (0.1 and 0.2 ppm) for
different time intervals (3, 6, 9, 12, 18 h) was examined on
conidial germination of some powdery mildew fungi.
Fluorida (F)
The typical injury by gaseous (primarily hydrogen fluoride
(HF) and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) or particulate fluorides
is a yellowish mottle to a wavy, reddish-brown or tan
“scorching” at the leaf margins and tips of broadleaved
plants, and a “tipburn” of grasses and conifers.
A narrow, chlorotic to dark-brown band often occurs
between living and dead tissue.
Leaves and fruits, such as apple, apricot, citrus, fig,
peach, plum, and prune, may fall prematurely.
Fruits may soften or become necrotic at the blossom
end.
Fluoride-contaminated forage that is eaten by cattle or
sheep may cause fluorosis.
Sulfur Dioxide (S02)
The exposure of succulent, broadleaved plants to SO2 (and
its byproduct, sulfuric acid) usually results in dry, papery
blotches that are generally white to tan or straw-colored and
marginal or interveinal.
Both the upper and lower leaf surfaces are affected.
The leaf veins normally remain green.
Chlorosis (yellowing) and a gradual bleaching of the
surrounding tissues is fairly common.
Growth suppression, reduction in yield, and heavy,
premature defoliation may also occur.
Full-grown and nearly full-grown leaves and young plants
are most susceptible to SO2. Young and old leaves are
usually less sensitive.
Luka karena Sulfur Dioksida (SO2) pada Tanaman
Chlorine (Cl2)
Chlorine injury is somewhat similar to that caused by sulfur
dioxide and fluorides, in that it is marginaland interveinal.
Two types of damage generally can occur:
(1) with broadleaved plants, necrotic, bleached, or tan-to-brown
areas that tend to be near the leaf margins, tips, and between
the principal veins.
(2) with grasses, progressive streaking toward the main vein in
the region between the tip and the point where the grass blade
bends, usually occurring alongside the veins.
Luka karena Chlorine pada Tanaman
Impact of Air Pollution on Plant Diseases
Air pollutants directly toxic to the pathogens possible impair
their growth and reproduction and thereby partially or wholly
inhibit the diseases.
Air pollutants on the other hand, by modifying the host
physiology may render it more susceptible to infection and
pathogenic damages.
Atmospheric pollutants may adversely affect the spore
germination, mycelial proliferation, fruiting body formation and
spore production by fungi. Host-parasite relationship may be
adversely affected.
Air pollutants cause specific diseases in plants thus behave
as plant pathogens.
In nature plants remain exposed to multiple pathogenic
situations.
These pathogens to which plants remain exposed interact in
nature and the ultimate effect on the host is the result of their
interactive actions.
Air pollutants have been recognized as abiotic (inanimate)
plant pathogens as they cause disease with specific disease
syndrome.
Secondly, air pollutants develop relationship with various
kinds of biotic pathogens influencing the incidence and
intensity of the biotic diseases.
It these two groups of the pathogens abiotic (e.g. air
pollutants) and biotic (e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses etc.) coexist in a common pathosystem, it is quite apprehensible
that they may become vulnerable to greater pathogenic
damages caused by the biotic pathogens or the plants
infected with biotic pathogens may become more sensitive
and suffer greater damages caused by the pollutants.
Air pollutants may enhance or inhibit parasitism of biotic
pathogens through stimulated or depressed activity of the
parasites.
Conidial germination of the powdery mildew fungi was
reduced at both the concentrations of sulphur dioxide.
With increase in the duration of exposure, a
corresponding decrease in the conidial germination
occurred.
Spore germination of some fungi like Phytophthora
infestans was inhibited by SO2.
Laurence et al. (1979) reported 38% decrease in the
number of lesions caused by Helminthosporium maydis
on maize exposed to 0.15 ppm SO2, 14 h daily for 8
days, before inoculation.
Couey (1965) observed 60% reduction in spore
germination of Alternaria spp. with treatment of ppm SO2
for 24 min.
According to Heagle (1982) stimulated acid rain caused
inhibition of growth of Cronartium fusiforme on leaves of
yellow oat inoculated with aeciospores.
Lawry (1977) studied the fungal population in soils at the
sites exposed to acid rain from strip-mines and observed a
decrease in fungal species diversities.
Sharp (1967) determined that high ionic concentrations in
the atmosphere reduced the germination of Puccinia
striiformis urediniospores.
Pengendalian
The solution to the air pollution problem is complex and involves:
1.Enforced use of special, adjusted control devices on motor vehicles and
aircraft.
2. Stopping emissions at the source (the smoke stack or combustion
chamber) by such “scrubbing systems” as electrostatic precipitators,
filtering devices including fabric filters, absorption equipment, gravity
settling chambers, sonic and ultrasonic collectors, and byproduct recovery.
3. Public awareness and adequate enforcement of federal, state, and local
legislation.
4. Plant breeding and selection of less susceptible crops for critical areas.
5. Using less susceptible plants or cultivars.
6. Carbon filtration of the air in greenhouses.
Ozone inhibits a number of pathogenic fungi or their effects.
ozone enhanced the predisposition of the leaves of plants to
B. cincerea inoculated one day after exposure.
The rate of enhancement depended on the level of O 3
induced injury, which was influenced by the cultivar, leaf and
ozone concentrations.
Trifoliate leaves of all the cultivars were less predisposed to
the fungus than the primary leaves.
There was increase in chlorosis and necrosis with increase in
exposure duration and concentration of ozone.
The effect of sulphur dioxide was observed on conidial
germination of some powdery mildew fungi.
Conidial germination of the powdery mildew fungi was
reduced at both the concentrations of sulphur dioxide.
With increase in the duration of exposure, a corresponding
decrease in the conidial germination occurred.
Maximum reduction occurred when conidia were exposed
to 0.2 ppm S02 for 12 h.
Spore germination of some fungi like Phytophthora
infestans was inhibited by SO2.
Exposure 0.04 ppm sulphur dioxide for 24-72h continuously
caused reduction in spore germination, penetration and
hyphal production of Microsphaera alni infecting lilac leaves.
38% decrease in the number of lesions caused by
Helminthosporium maydis on maize exposed to 0.15 ppm
SO2, 14 h daily for 8 days, before inoculation.
60% reduction in spore germination of Alternaria spp. with
treatment of ppm SO2 for 24 min.
Acid rain caused inhibition of growth of Cronartium fusiforme
on leaves of yellow oat inoculated with aeciospores.
The exposure of plant foliage to acid rain has also
implications on root diseases.
When above-ground parts are affected the composition of
root exudates also changes the biology of the rhizosphere.
TERIMA KASIH