Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue3.1998:

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1998] 1 2 0 –1 3 2 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

Background, psycho-social factors and substance

use: their ef fects on high school seniors’

perceptions of their education

Ronald H. Heck

Unive rsity o f Hawaii at Mano a, Ho no lulu, Hawaii, USA

Robert C. Voliter

Unive rsity o f Hawaii at Mano a, Ho no lulu, Hawaii, USA A structural model was

pro-posed and tested concerning the impact of background and psycho-social variables on high school seniors’ (N = 2,731) reported substance use and educational out-comes. The fi ndings indicated that interpersonal variables (e.g., school adjustment, delinquency, relationships with parents and community) primarily affected reported substance use. Intrapersonal variables (e.g., self-concept, attitudes toward school), however, were unrelated to substance use. Moreover, background, psycho-social variables and substance use were also related to a variety of student perceptions about their educational experiences and future aspirations. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for school personnel working with high school students.

Du r in g a d olescen ce, m a n y p eop le in it ia t e b eh av ior t h a t ca n n e ga t ively im p a ct on t h eir fu t u r e m en t a l, p h y sica l, a n d m a t er ia l w ell-b ein g (Wa lla ce a n d Ba ch m a n , 1991). You n g-st er s w h o a bu s e d r u gs a n d a lcoh ol h ave b een fou n d t o h ave gr ea t er m a r it a l in s t a b ilit y a n d in t er p er s on a l p r oblem s la t er in life, d im in -is h ed ea r n in gs a n d lim it ed fu t u r e job p r os p ect s, a s w ell a s r ed u ced m en t a l a n d p h y s ica l h ea lt h la t er in life (Dr y foos, 1990; N ew com b a n d Ben t ler, 1988). Som e p r ev iou s r es ea r ch s u ggest s t h a t a lcoh ol a n d ot h er d r u g (AOD) u s e, p r oblem b eh av ior s in t h e h igh sch ool s et t in g in clu d in g d elin q u en cy a n d t r u a n cy (Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, 1987; Rh od es a n d J a s on , 1990), a n d low er a ca d em ic a ch ieve-m en t (As h by, 1995; H a h n , 1987; Tob ia s, 1986), a r e oft en in t er r ela t ed .

A va r iet y of sociologica l a n d p sych o-s ocia l t h eor ies h ave b een d evelop ed t o a ccou n t for su b s t a n ce u s e a m on g h igh s ch ool st u d en t s. T h es e in clu d e s ocia l con t r ol t h eor y (H ir s ch i, 1969), p r oblem b eh av ior t h eor y (J es s or, 1976), socia liza t ion t h eor y (Ka n d el, 1980) a n d s ocia l st r ess (Rh od es a n d J a s on , 1990). Sim ila r it ies exis t a m on g t h e va r iou s t h eor et ica l m od els w h ich u n d er gir d m u ch of t h e r es ea r ch on a d oles cen t s u b st a n ce u se (Wa lla ce a n d Ba ch m a n , 1991). T h ey t en d t o focu s con cer n on h ow va r iou s b a ck gr ou n d , socia l en v ir on -m en t a l, a n d p er son a l va r ia bles in t er a ct w it h d r u g u s e (e.g., su cces sive st a ges of d r u g u s e) a n d r es u lt in g t y p es of p r oblem b eh av ior in sch ool s et t in gs.

T h er e is gen er a l a gr eem en t on t h e m a jor p r ed ict or s of AOD u s e, a n d r ev iew s of t h e cor r ela t es of AOD u s e a r e n u m er ou s (As h by, 1995; Bem a n , 1995; Ca p u zzi a n d Lecoq , 1983; Dielm a n , 1989; F lay et a l., 1983; H a leb s k y, 1987; H aw k in s et a l., 1985; 1991; H u b a et a l., 1980; Ka n d el, 1980; 1982; Ka n d el et a l., 1978; Kova ch a n d Glick m a n ; 1986; M u r r ay a n d P er r y, 1985). As Wa lla ce a n d Ba ch m a n (1991) a r gu e, m ost a p p r oa ch es ca n b e s u b s u m ed u n d er t h e “p r oblem b eh av ior ” m od el p os it ed by J es s or (1976) a n d J es s or a n d J es s or (1977).

T h e lit er a t u r e r ela t ed t o t h e p r ed ict ion of AOD u s e a m on g a d olescen t s is t h er efor e d iver s e, a n d h a s com e in t h e la s t few yea r s t o focu s on id en t ify in g a n d exa m in in g t h e r is k a n d p r ot ect ive fa ct or s for s u b st a n ce u s e. F r om t h is p er s p ect ive, AOD u s e is on e of

sever a l p oss ible ou t com es t h a t r esu lt fr om a d olescen t s ocia liza t ion , a p r ocess t h a t b a l-a n ces l-a vl-a r iet y of en v ir on m en t l-a l, p eer, l-a n d p a r en t r ela t ion sh ip s (Ash by, 1995; Bem a n , 1995; Ka n d el, 1982). P r ev iou s t h eor et ica l m od -els a n d su p p or t in g em p ir ica l fi n d in gs su ggest t h a t a com p r eh en sive fr a m ewor k of b a ck -gr ou n d va r ia bles a n d p sych ologica l-socia l va r ia bles m ay exp la in a d olescen t s’ cu r r en t AOD u se. Besid es b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles, p sych osocia l va r ia bles in clu d e t h e en v ir on -m en t a l sy st e-m , t h e in d iv id u a l’s p er s on a lit y, a n d h is or h er b eh av ior a l sy st em . T h ese sy s-t em s in s-t er r ela s-t e s-t o p r od u ce a d olescen s-t s w h o a r e m or e or less p r on e t o a bu s e ille ga l su b -st a n ces. T h e p u r p ose of t h is s t u dy is t o p r op ose a n d t est a st r u ct u r a l m od el t h a t exa m -in es t h e r ela t ive im p a ct of a va r iet y of p sych osocia l va r ia bles on h igh s ch ool sen ior s’ cu r -r en t levels of AOD u se a n d , in t u -r n , h ow t h ese set s of va r ia bles m ay a ffect s t u d en t s’ p er ce p -t ion s of -t h eir ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es a n d fu t u r e a sp ir a t ion s.

Psycho-social variables and AOD

use

P sych o-socia l t h eor ies focu s on h ow t h e socia l en v ir on m en t in t er a ct s w it h p er son a l va r i-a bles t o i-a ffect d r u g i-a bu s e i-a m on g i-a d olescen t s (Ash by, 1995; Bem a n , 1995; Ca p u zzi a n d Lecoq , 1983; H a leb sk y, 1987; J es sor a n d J essor, 1977). Am on g p sych o-socia l va r ia bles t h a t a ffect p r oblem b eh av ior, r esea r ch er s h ave id en t ifi ed socia l r ela t ion s h ip s, self-est eem , r ela t ive a lien a t ion fr om societ y, a n d u n con ven t ion a l v iew s a n d b eh av ior a s a ssocia t ed w it h d r u g a n d a lcoh ol in volvem en t (Bem a n , 1995; Gr im es a n d Sw ish er, 1989; H a leb s k y, 1987; J es sor, 1976; N ew com b et a l., 1987). Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, t h e fi n d in gs in d ica t e t h a t a d oles-cen t s w h o a r e m or e in volved w it h p eer s t h a n p a r en t s a n d fa m ily, h ave low self-es t eem , a r e m or e a lien a t ed fr om societ y, a n d h ave m or e u n con ven t ion a l a t t it u d es or v iew s a r e m or e lik ely t o b ecom e in volved w it h d r u gs a n d a lcoh ol. T h is m od el h a s b een su p p or t ed in p r ed ict in g d r u g a n d a lcoh ol u se (e.g., Ash by, 1995; Bem a n , 1995; H a leb sk y, 1987; H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982; J essor, 1976; J essor a n d J essor, 1977).

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

Follow in g p r ev iou s a t t em p t s t o m od el t h es e p r ocesses w it h r es p ect t o a d oles cen t su b s t a n ce a bu s e (e.g., Dielm a n et a l., 1993; H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982; Oet t in g a n d Bea u -va is, 1987), w e h ave gr ou p ed t h ese p s ych o-s ocia l va r ia bleo-s in t o o-sever a l gen er a l ca t e-gor ies.

Background and other socio-environmental variables

Ba ck gr ou n d va r ia bles fou n d t o b e r ela t ed t o a d olescen t s ’ AOD u s e in clu d e a ge (H ayes, 1987; Se ga l, 1986), et h n ic b a ck gr ou n d (Wa lla ce a n d Ba ch m a n , 1991), gen d er (Ba ch m a n et a l., 1991), a n d fa m ily s ocioecon om ic st a t u s (F u r s t en bu r g et a l., 1987). Va r ia bles for m in g t h e a d oles cen t ’s socia l en v ir on m en t h ave a lso b een fou n d t o b e r ela t ed t o d r u g a n d a lcoh ol u se. T h es e in clu d e r eligiou s id en t ifi ca t ion , p olit ica l b eliefs, a n d em p loy m en t (Dr y foos, 1990; J oh n s t on et a l., 1989; Oet t in g a n d Bea u -va is, 1987).

Interpersonal factors

T h e a d oles cen t ’s level of s ocia l a d ju s t m en t is a n ot h er b r oa d ca t e gor y t h a t a p p ea r s t o wor k a s a r is k or p r ot ect ive fa ct or w it h r es p ect t o s u b s t a n ce u s e (Ash by, 1995; Bem a n , 1995; Din ges a n d Oet t in g, 1993; H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982; Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, 1987). T h is ca t e-gor y con s is t s of in t er p er s on a l s k ills (e.g., com m u n ica t ion , p er son a l in t er a ct ion ), socia l-iza t ion , r ela t ion sh ip s w it h p eer s a n d p a r en t s, a n d in volvem en t in societ a l in s t it u t ion s s u ch a s t h e s ch ool a n d t h e com m u n it y. Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, for exa m p le, fou n d t h a t a la ck of coh es ion w it h in t h e fa m ily, in a d eq u a t e con -fl ict r esolu t ion s k ills, a n d t h e la ck of b eh av ior m a n a gem en t s k ills w er e a s socia t ed w it h in cr ea sed s u b st a n ce u s e.

T h e d evelop m en t of socia l sk ills t h r ou gh ou t ch ild h ood a n d a d oles cen ce a p p ea r s t o b e im p or t a n t in p r ot ect in g a ga in st a d olescen t s ’ AOD u s e (e.g., Bot v in a n d Wills, 1985). M a n i-fest a t ion s of a d oles cen t s’ s ocia l s k ills in clu d e in volvem en t in s ch ool-r ela t ed a ct iv it ies (e.g., s p or t s, s ch ool cou n cil, m u sic, a ft er -s ch ool clu b s ), in volvem en t in t h e com m u n it y, a n d r ela t ion s h ip s w it h p a r en t s. Ad d it ion a lly, a d oles cen t s w h o a r e m or e in volved in d elin -q u en t b eh av ior (i.e., p h y sica l fi gh t s, va n d a l-ism , t r u a n cy, t r ou ble a t sch ool) a r e m or e lik ely t o b e u sin g s u b st a n ces t h a n st u d en t s n ot in volved in t h ese p r oblem b eh av ior s (Dever y, 1993; E lliot et a l., 1985).

Intrapersonal factors

Over t im e, t h e d evelop m en t of st r on g

in t r a p er s on a l s k ills m ay a lso s er ve a s a d et er -r en t t o AOD u se (Bot v in a n d Wills, 1985). In t r a p er son a l fa ct or s in clu d e t h e in d iv id u a l’s a t t it u d es, va lu es, a n d self-con ce p t (H u b a a n d

Ben t ler, 1982). Som e of t h e in t r a p er s on a l fa ct or s a ssocia t ed w it h in cr ea sed a lcoh ol a n d d r u g u se in clu d e p la cin g gr ea t er va lu e on in d e p en d en ce, low er va lu e on sch oolin g a n d a ch ievem en t , h old in g low er exp ect a t ion s for a ca d em ic su ccess, gr ea t er t oler a n ce for d ev ia n t b eh av ior, a n d gr ea t er exp ect a t ion s of fa ilu r e (Ash by, 1995; Gr im es a n d Sw ish er, 1989; Milgr a m a n d P a n d in a , 1981; Mu r r ay a n d P er r y, 1985). In con t r a st , p osit ive a t t it u d es a b ou t self, sch ool a n d ed u ca t ion a r e seen a s con t r ibu t in g t o a n a d olescen t ’s h ea lt h y in t r a p er son a l d om a in (Gr im es a n d Sw ish er, 1989).

AOD use and educational

outcomes

T h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een b a ck gr ou n d , p sy ch os ocia l va r ia bles, su b st a n ce u s e, a n d ed u -ca t ion a l ou t com es h a s a lso d r aw n

r esea r ch er s ’ a t t en t ion , bu t r esu lt s h ave b een som ew h a t m or e con fl ict in g. Resea r ch er s h ave in vest iga t ed h ow AOD u se a n d ot h er t y p es of p r oblem b eh av ior m ay a ffect sch ool a ca d em ic p er for m a n ce a n d fu t u r e ed u ca t ion a l a sp ir a -t ion s (Ash by, 1995; Gr im es a n d Sw ish er, 1989; H a h n , 1987; J es sor, 1976; Kella m a n d Br ow n , 1982; Milgr a m a n d P a n d in a , 1981; Mills et a l., 1988; N u n n a n d P a r ish , 1992; Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, 1987; Tob ia s, 1986). On e con clu sion d r aw n is t h a t AOD u s e over t im e m ay d im in ish h igh sch ool st u d en t s’ a ca d em ic p er for -m a n ce a n d fu t u r e ed u ca t ion a l a sp ir a t ion s. For exa m p le, Tob ia s (1986) fou n d t h a t 28 p er -cen t of n on -u ser s a ch ieved a n A aver a ge in s ch ool, w h ile on ly 8 p er cen t of r e gu la r AOD u ser s a ch ieved a n A aver a ge. In con t r a st , 2 p er cen t of n on u ser s ea r n ed Ds or F s, com -p a r ed t o 23 -p er cen t of st u d en t s d escr ib ed a s ext en sive u ser s.

Som e AOD u se h a s a ls o b een n ot ed a m on g s u cces sfu l st u d en t s, h ow ever. In on e la r ge-s ca le ge-s t u dy of h igh ge-s ch ool ge-s t u d en t ge-s in a la r ge s u r bu r b a n cou n t y, E va n s a n d Sk a ger (1992) fou n d t h a t over 70 p er cen t of t h e a ca d em ica lly s u cces sfu l st u d en t s r e p or t ed som e t y p e of AOD u se. Wh ile con fi r m in g t h e in it ia l n e ga -t ive r ela -t ion sh ip b t w een AOD u se a n d a ca d e-m ics, fu r t h er a n a ly ses in d ica t ed t h a t t h e n e ga t ive a s socia t ion b et w een AOD u se a n d a ca d em ic a ch ievem en t m ay b e m od er a t ed by s ever a l fa ct or s. T h es e fa ct or s in clu d e h igh ed u ca t ion a l a sp ir a t ion s, p a r en t s’ ed u ca t ion a l level a n d su p p or t , a n d st u d en t s ’ em ot ion a l s t a b ilit y.

It a p p ea r s, t h er efor e, t h a t a d olescen t s’ s ocia l a d ju st m en t a n d in d iv id u a l p er son a lit y ch a r a ct er is t ics m ay b e cr u cia l in m od er a t in g t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een AOD u se a n d a ca d em ic fa ilu r e (Ash by, 1995; Gr im es a n d

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

Sw is h er, 1989; H a h n , 1987; J es s or, 1976; M ills

et a l., 1988; N u n n a n d P a r is h , 1992; Oet t in g

a n d Bea u va is, 1987; Tob ia s, 1986). For exa m -p le, N u n n a n d P a r is h fou n d t h a t a t -r is k st u d en t s ’ locu s of con t r ol w a s m or e ext er -n a lly or ie-n t ed , i-n d ica t i-n g a gr ea t er t e-n d e-n cy t ow a r d b eliev in g t h a t b eh av ior h a d lit t le effect on ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. Self-con ce p t com p a r is on s r evea led low er p er ce p t ion of com p et en cy for st u d en t s w h o r e p or t ed h igh er AOD u s e. A p r ofi le of t h es e s t u d -en t s s u ggest ed t h ey w er e les s m ot iva t ed t ow a r d a ch ievem en t a n d d es ir ed a m or e in for m a l a n d n on -t r a d it ion a l a p p r oa ch t o lea r n in g.

For s t u d en t s a t r isk of su b s t a n ce a bu s e, t h er efor e, exp er ien ces a p p ea r t o b e fi lt er ed t h r ou gh a p er son a l b elief s y s t em w h ich in clu d es a m a r gin a l sen s e of p er son a l em p ow -er m en t for effect in g ch a n ge, cou p led w it h a d eva lu in g sen s e of p er son a l com p et en ce a n d d efl a t ed con fi d en ce. T h ese b eliefs, t h en , wou ld b e exp ect ed t o a ffect a ch ievem en t n e g-a t ively. St u d en t s g-a t r isk of su b s t g-a n ce g-a bu s e m ay h ave exp er ien ced r ela t ive a ca d em ic fa ilu r e in s ch ool over t h eir ed u ca t ion a l ca r eer s. Over t im e, a ca d em ic fa ilu r e m ay lea d t o s u b s t a n ce a bu s e, w h ich m ay lea d t o fu r t h er a ca d em ic fa ilu r e. Mor eover, t h ese t y p es of st u d en t s t en d t o h ave low er s ocia l b on d in g a n d in volvem en t w it h p a r en t s, t h e sch ool, a n d t h e com m u n it y.

F r om t h e p er sp ect ives of cou n s elor s, a d m in is t r a t or s, t ea ch er s, a n d t h ose sch ool p er s on n el w h o a r e in volved in d evelop in g sch ool p olicy, em p h a sis d ir ect ed t ow a r d p r e-ven t in g s u b s t a n ce u s e ca n b e p la ced on in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l ch a r a ct er is -t ics, b eca u se socia liza -t ion a n d h ea l-t h y a -t -t i-t u d es a n d va lu es ca n b e i-t a u gh i-t , r ole m od eled , a n d en cou r a ged in t h e sch ool set t in g. In con t r a s t , s ocioen v ir on m en t a l fa ct or s, for exa m -p le, a r e m or e d ifficu lt t o in fl u en ce fr om t h e sch ool-b a s ed p r even t ion p os it ion (Ca r ls on , 1994; M a son a n d H od ge, 1995).

Wh ile p r ev iou s r es ea r ch h a s b een u sefu l in con fi r m in g s om e of t h e fa ct or s t h a t in fl u en ce a d oles cen t s ’ su b s t a n ce a bu s e, a n d t h e r ela -t ion s h ip a m on g -t h es e s e-t s of va r ia bles a n d a ca d em ic a t t a in m en t , t h er e a r e lim it a t ion s t o k ee p in m in d . Alt h ou gh id en t ify in g a n u m b er of p ot en t ia lly im p or t a n t va r ia bles, m u ch of t h e ea r ly r esea r ch con cer n in g t h e effect s of p s ych o-s ocia l va r ia bles on AOD u s e a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t d id n ot a llow t h e t es t in g of s im u lt a n eou s effect s of va r ia bles w it h in a com p r eh en sive fr a m ewor k . T h is h a s h in d er ed effor t s t o id en t ify t h e effect s of va r iou s fa ct or s (e.g., d et er m in in g t h eir r ela -t ive s-t r en g-t h ). For exa m p le, r es ea r ch er s h ave d et er m in ed t h a t socio-en v ir on m en t a l va r ia bles a ffect AOD u s e a n d s ch ool

ou t com es. Wh a t is less clea r, h ow ever, is h ow va r iou s in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er son a l va r ia bles m ay in t er ven e b et w een t h e socia l en v ir on m en t a n d t h e in d iv id u a l’s r esu lt a n t b eh av ior.

In s om e ca s es, t h e a n a ly t ica l m ea n s u sed t o in vest iga t e t h e r ela t ion sh ip s im p lied a m on g t h ese va r ia bles in a com p r eh en sive fr a m e-wor k d id n ot a llow for t h e m od elin g of t h is com p lexit y (e.g., b iva r ia t e cor r ela t ion s, a n a ly sis of va r ia n ce, m u lt ip le r e gr ession ). As r esea r ch er s h ave con clu d ed (F lay a n d P et r a it is, 1991; Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, 1987), m ost p r ev iou s r esea r ch h a s offer ed r ela t ively lim it ed st r a t e gies for s t u dy in g t h es e fa ct or s in m u lt iva r ia t e set t in gs. For exa m p le, Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is con fi r m ed t h e r ela t ion -sh ip b et w een socia liza t ion ch a r a ct er ist ics a n d a d olescen t su b st a n ce u se u sin g p a t h a n a ly sis. T h ey a ck n ow led ge sever a l lim it a -t ion s in p a -t h a n a ly sis, h ow ever, a s a n a n a ly -t ic t ech n iq u e. T h ese in clu d e t h e n ecess it y of u sin g ob ser ved va r ia bles, t h e t r im m in g of p a t h m od els by elim in a t in g w ea k p a t h s, a n d t h e in a b ilit y t o a ccou n t for p ot en t ia lly im p or -t a n -t sou r ces of er r or in -t h e m ea su r em en -t of va r ia bles.

Desp it e som e lim it a t ion s of p r ev iou s r esea r ch , t h eor et ica l for m u la t ion s a b ou t fa ct or s t h a t in fl u en ce a d olescen t s’ p er ce p -t ion s of -t h eir AOD u se a n d -t h eir com b in ed effect s on ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es p r ov id e som e solid fou n d a t ion s for p r op os in g a s t r u ct u r a l m od el t h a t or ga n izes t h ese va r iou s in t er r ela -t ion sh ip s. N ew er a p p r oa ch es -t o d a -t a a n a ly sis, su ch a s st r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od elin g, m ay a d d t o r es ea r ch er s’ a b ilit ies t o m od el a n d est im a t e t h ese fa ct or s w it h gr ea t er d et a il a n d a ccu r a cy. M or e r ecen t ly, t h er e h ave b een sever a l a t t em p t s t o d evelop m od els of va r ia bles t h a t a ffect AOD u se, u s in g st r u c-t u r a l eq u a c-t ion m od elin g (see, for exa m p le, Dielm a n , 1989; Dielm a n et a l., 1993; H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982; Rh od es a n d J a son , 1990). A r em a in in g n eed , h ow ever, is t o d evelop a n exp lor a t or y st r u ct u r a l m od el t h a t exa m in es h ow b a ck gr ou n d , p sych osocia l va r ia bles, a n d AOD u se m ay in fl u en ce st u d en t s’ v iew s a b ou t ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es.

Ou r p r op osed m od el, su m m a r ized in F igu r e 1, p osit s t h e exist en ce of sever a l la t en t , or h y p ot h et ica l, con s t r u ct s (e.g., in t r a p er son a l a n d in t er p er s on a l sk ills) w h ich t oget h er com p r ise a fr a m ewor k of p s ych osocia l fa ct or s t h a t is b elieved t o a ffect st u d en t s ’ r e p or t ed cu r r en t AOD u s e a n d ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es. Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, -t h e m od el fi r s t su gges t s t h a t socio-en v ir on m en t a l (in clu d in g d em ogr a p h ic) fa ct or s a r e a ssoci-a t ed w it h in t r ssoci-a p er son ssoci-a l ssoci-a n d in t er p er son ssoci-a l fa ct or s (Mu r r ay a n d P er r y, 1985). We h y p ot h e-sized th a t a str on ger set of socioen vir on m en ta l

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

va r ia bles (e.g., ch u r ch a t t en d a n ce, s t u d en t in volvem en t in wor k , h igh er p a r en t ed u ca -t ion , p a r en -t su p p or -t of s ch oolin g) wou ld b e p os it ively r ela t ed t o st u d en t s ’ p er ce p t ion s a b ou t a va r iet y of in t er p er s on a l a n d in t r a p er -son a l va r ia bles. In con cer t , t h es e va r ia bles w er e h y p ot h es ized t o in fl u en ce AOD u s e, a s su ggest ed by Mu r r ay a n d P er r y (1985) in t h eir r esea r ch a n d d evelop m en t of en v ir on m en t a l m od els. We b elieved t h a t in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l s k ills wou ld b e n e ga t ively r ela t ed t o s t u d en t s ’ cu r r en t AOD u s e (i.e., h igh er in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l s k ills w ill b e r ela t ed w it h low er r e p or t ed su b s t a n ce u s e). F in a lly, w e p r op osed t h a t t h e p r ev iou s set of va r ia bles wou ld in fl u en ce s t u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d fu t u r e a sp ir a t ion s. H er e, w e h y p ot h e-sized t h a t AOD u se wou ld n e ga t ively a ffect ou t com es, w h ile in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er -son a l s k ills w ill p os it ively a ffect ou t com es.

As w e h ave su gges t ed , d evelop in g a s t r u c-t u r a l m od el ca n fa cilic-t a c-t e c-t h e in ves c-t iga c-t ion of u n d er ly in g p r ocesses t h ou gh t t o b e r ela t ed t o p sych os ocia l p r ocesses, AOD u s e, a n d ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es a m on g h igh sch ool sen ior s. Sever a l im p or t a n t lim it a t ion s s h ou ld b e k e p t in m in d , h ow ever. F ir st , a lt h ou gh it is ea sy t o h op e t h a t m os t of t h e com p lexit y of a t h eor y a b ou t fa ct or s t h a t in fl u en ce a d olescen t s ’ p er ceived AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es ca n b e s t u d ied w it h in a s in gle m od el, in r ea lit y t h is is u s u a lly n ot t h e ca se. Sin ce a ll p la u -s ible p r ed ict or -s wou ld b e -s eld om ava ila ble t o b e en t er ed in t o a s in gle m od el, t h e p r oblem is r ed u ced t o con st r u ct in g a m od el so t h a t r ele-va n t ele-va r ia bles a r e in clu d ed (H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982), r ecogn izin g t h a t su ch a

p r oced u r e is gu a r a n t eed t o b e t h eor et ica lly in com p let e.

Secon d , st u d en t s’ u s e of a lcoh ol a n d ot h er d r u gs obv iou sly d evelop s over a p er iod of t im e. It is n ot p os sible t o ca p t u r e a ll of t h ese in t er r ela t ion sh ip s in a s in gle cr oss-sect ion a l m od el. Wh er e d ou b t s a b ou t t h e d ir ect ion of ca u sa lit y a r e exp r essed , cr oss -sect ion a l d a t a a r e u n a ble t o r esolve t h e a m b igu it y in h er en t in cor r ela t ion s a n d ot h er m ea s u r es of a ssocia t ion (Dssociav ies, 1994). We r ecogn ize t h ssocia t p r ob ssocia -ble r ecip r oca l r ela t ion sh ip s (e.g., b et w een AOD u s e a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t ) wou ld b ecom e m or e a p p a r en t over t im e. T h u s, lon gi-t u d in a l d a gi-t a wou ld b e p r efer r ed gi-t o a n sw er q u est ion s a b ou t h ow t h es e r ela t ion s h ip s evolve.

Desp it e t h is lim it a t ion , h ow ever, cr oss-sect ion a l d a t a ca n b e u s efu l in exa m in in g p sych o-socia l p h en om en a , p r ov id ed t h a t t h e d a t a a r e a ccom p a n ied by st r on g t h eor y. St r u c-t u r a l eq u a c-t ion m od elin g is a u sefu l c-t ool in t h is r e ga r d b eca u s e it for m s a s y st em of r ela -t ion s -t h a -t ser ves a s a n in -t er m ed ia r y b e-t w een ou r ob ser va t ion s of socia l p h en om en a a n d ou r t h eor et ica l a b st r a ct ion s t h ou gh t t o exp la in t h es e in t er r ela t ion sh ip s. It a lso p r ov id es a m ea n s of t est in g t h e ca p a cit y of a lt er -n a t ive su b st a -n t ive m od els t o a ccou -n t for t h e p a t t er n of cova r ia t ion a m on g t h e ob ser ved va r ia bles in t h e d a t a (Cu t t a n ce a n d E cob, 1987).

A fi n a l lim it a t ion t h a t sh ou ld b e n ot ed con -cer n s t h e u se of self-r e p or t ed in for m a t ion . In t h is st u dy, w e focu s on s t u d en t s ’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir cu r r en t AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d fu t u r e a sp ir a t ion s. H er e, w e p oin t ou t t h a t s elf-r e p or t ed m ea su r es, d esp it e a va r iet y of lim it a t ion s, a r e oft en u sefu l

Intrape rso nal Fac to rs

Educ atio nal Outc o me s De mo graphic

Variable s

Inte rpe rso nal Fac to rs

AOD Use Figure 1

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

p r oxy m ea s u r es of a ct u a l ed u ca t ion a l ou t -com es (e.g., Leit h wood et a l., 1993) in clu d in g gr a d e-p oin t aver a ges, sch ool a t t en d a n ce, a n d effor t .

Method

Participants and instrumentation T h e s u b ject s in t h is s t u dy w er e p a r t of t h e “M on it or in g t h e F u t u r e” p r oject , fi r s t d evel-op ed by t h e Un iver s it y of M ich iga n ’s In s t it u t e for Socia l Res ea r ch in 1974. Sin ce t h en , t h e p r oject h a s su r veyed sen ior s in p r iva t e a n d p u blic h igh sch ools on a n a n n u a l b a s is. T h e “M on it or in g t h e F u t u r e” in s t r u m en t a d d r es s es a b r oa d scop e of is su es r ela t ed t o st u d en t s ’ p er son a l lifest y les, con fi d en ce in socia l in s t it u t ion s, in t er gr ou p a n d in t er p er -son a l a t t it u d es, con cer n s a b ou t ecology, b eh av ior s a n d a t t it u d es r ela t ed t o AOD u s e, a n d ot h er s ocia l a n d et h ica l iss u es. St u d en t s a r e a lso a sk ed a b ou t t h eir a ca d em ic p er for -m a n ce in s ch ool a n d ca r eer a sp ir a t ion s a ft er gr a d u a t in g fr om h igh sch ool (Ba ch m a n et a l., 1991).

P a r t icip a n t s a r e select ed t h r ou gh a m u lt i-s t a ge i-s a m p lin g p r ocei-si-s. At t h e fi r i-st i-s t a ge geogr a p h ic clu st er s a r e u sed , d evelop ed by t h e Un iver sit y of M ich iga n ’s In s t it u t e for Socia l Res ea r ch for u s e in t h eir n a t ion w id e s t u d ies. T h ese in clu d e t h e 16 la r ges t m et r o-p olit a n a r ea s in t h e USA a n d 64 ot h er a r ea s fr om t h e n or t h -ea st , n or t h -cen t r a l, s ou t h , a n d w es t . At s t a ge t wo, a p p r oxim a t ely 120 t o 140 h igh s ch ools a r e select ed w it h in t h e

geogr a p h ic clu st er s. F in a lly, u p t o 350 in d iv id -u a l s en ior s a r e r a n d om ly s elect ed w it h in s ch ools (w h er e cla s s s ize is sm a ller t h a n 350, a ll s t u d en t s a r e s a m p led ). Res p on d en t s a r e a s s ign ed a s a m p le w eigh t w h ich t a k es in t o a ccou n t va r ia t ion s in t h e sizes of s a m p les fr om on e s ch ool t o a n ot h er, a s w ell a s ot h er er r or s in sa m p lin g a t p r ev iou s st a ges (Ba ch -m a n et a l., 1991).

Over t im e, t h e st u dy h a s a ch ieved ver y good r et u r n r a t es fr om s t u d en t s. Usa ble

q u es t ion n a ir es a r e ob t a in ed fr om a p p r oxi-m a t ely 85 p er cen t of t h e sen ior s in t h e sa oxi-m p le (Ba ch m a n et a l., 1991; Wa lla ce a n d Ba ch m a n 1991), w it h few er t h a n 1 p er cen t r efu s in g t o com p let e t h e q u est ion n a ir e. Six d iffer en t q u est ion n a ir e for m s a r e u sed t o collect t h e d a t a . E a ch for m in clu d es a ll d r u g u s e a n d d em ogr a p h ic va r ia bles a n d a s u b set of ot h er in for m a t ion . Beca u s e s ix d iffer en t for m s a r e u sed in t h e d a t a collect ion , ea ch r a n d om s u b s a m p le fr om t h e la r ger s t u dy con s ist s of a p p r oxim a t ely 2,700 h igh s ch ool sen ior s in p u blic a n d p r iva t e s ch ools in USA. T h e d a t a u sed for t h is st u dy w er e fr om t h e 1992 st u dy (su r vey For m 6), w h ich in clu d ed t h e r eleva n t

p sych osocia l a n d a ca d em ic va r ia bles. T h is sa m p le con sist ed of 2,731 h igh s ch ool sen ior s.

Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, t h e sa m p le w a s 52 p er cen t fem a le. T h e et h n ic com p osit ion w a s 65 p er cen t Ca u ca sia n , 16 p er cen t Afr ica n -Am er ica n , a n d 19 p er cen t ot h er. Beca u se of sm a ll n u m b er s of As ia n s, n a t ive Am er ica n s, a n d H isp a n ics in s om e s ch ools, t o p r ot ect con fi d en t ia lit y, t h e la t t er et h n ic or igin s w er e colla p sed in t o t h e la t t er ca t e gor y. F a m ily st r u ct u r e w a s 70 p er cen t n u clea r, a n d 30 p er -cen t of t h e st u d en t s h a d p a r en t s w h o w er e eit h er se p a r a t ed or d ivor ced . T h e fa t h er ’s sch oolin g (a m ea su r e of socioecon om ic st a -t u s) in clu d ed 85 p er cen -t w h o fi n ish ed h igh sch ool a n d 15 p er cen t w h o fi n ish ed colle ge. T h ir t y -t h r ee p er cen t of t h e h igh sch ool sen ior s r e p or t ed n ot wor k in g, 47 p er cen t wor k ed fr om 1 t o 20 h ou r s p er w eek , a n d 20 p er cen t wor k ed over 20 h ou r s p er w eek . F in a lly, 12 p er cen t of t h e s t u d en t s d escr ib ed t h eir p olit ica l b eliefs a s con ser va t ive, 72 p er -cen t d escr ib ed t h em a s m od er a t e, a n d 16 p er cen t d escr ib ed t h eir b eliefs a s lib er a l.

T h er e a r e a cou p le of lim it a t ion s t o k ee p in m in d w it h t h is d a t a set . F ir st , t h e sa m p le d oes n ot in clu d e st u d en t s w h o w er e a b sen t fr om sch ool w h en t h e s u r vey w a s im p lem en t ed . T h is cou ld r esu lt in som e b ia s, b eca u se st u d en t s w it h h igh er a b sen t ee r a t es a r e k n ow n t o u s e d r u gs m or e fr eq u en t ly (Ba ch m a n et a l., 1991). M or eover, t h e sa m p le d oes n ot in clu d e st u d en t s w h o d r op p ed ou t of sch ool d u r in g t h eir s en ior yea r. Dr u g u se a m on g d r op ou t s is lik ely t o b e h igh er t h a n a m on g t h os e a t t en d in g sch ool. Beca u se of t h ese lim it a t ion s, t h e sa m p le p r ob a b ly sligh t ly u n d er r e p r esen t s a lcoh ol a n d d r u g u se a m on g a d olescen t s.

Variables included in the structural

model

Ta ble I p r ov id es a d es cr ip t ion of t h e su r vey it em s a n d sca les t h a t w er e u sed t o d evelop ea ch la t en t con st r u ct in t h e m od el. Resp on ses a r e su m m a r ized a s m ea n s. For et h n icit y, t h e m ea n ca n b e in t er p r et ed a s t h e p er cen t a ge of Ca u ca sia n s.

Background and environmental variables Sever a l b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles w er e in vest i-ga t ed d u r in g p r elim in a r y a n a ly ses a n d d elet ed (e.g., gen d er, fa m ily st r u ct u r e, r u r a l ver su s u r b a n com m u n it y ) b eca u se t h ey h a d n o im p a ct on t h e con s t r u ct s in t h e m od el. T h e six b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles r et a in ed for t h e fi n a l m od el t est ed a r e sh ow n in Ta ble I. T h ese w er e E t h n icit y (cod ed 0 = Ca u ca sia n , 1 = m in or it y ), F a t h er ’s ed u ca t ion (cod ed 1 = gr a d e sch ool or less t o 6 = gr a d u a t e sch ool),

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

P olit ica l b eliefs (cod ed 1 = ver y con s er va t ive t o 6 = ver y lib er a l), Ch u r ch a t t en d a n ce (cod ed 1 = n ever t o 4 = on ce a w eek ), a n d St u d en t ’s wor k h ou r s (cod ed 1 = n on e t o 8 = m or e t h a n 30 h ou r s p er w eek ). P a r en t a l s u p p or t w it h sch oolwor k con s is t ed of t wo it em s (ea ch cod ed 1 = n ever t o 4 = a lw ay s) m ea s u r in g h ow oft en p a r en t s ch eck ed a n d b eca m e in volved in t h e s t u d en t ’s s ch ool h om ewor k .

Psycho-social variables

In gen er a l, t h e ob s er ved va r ia bles w er e con -st r u ct ed fr om fi ve-p oin t sca les, w it h

r esp on s es r a n gin g fr om “n ever ” (1) t o

“a lw ay s” (5) or fr om “st r on gly d is a gr ee” (1) t o “s t r on gly a gr ee” (5). Wh er ever p os sible, sca les w er e con st r u ct ed (see Ta ble I) t o im p r ove t h e r elia b ilit y a n d va lid it y of ou r ob ser ved m ea su r es of t h e p sych o-s ocia l, AOD, a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com e va r ia bles in clu d ed in t h e m od el. T h e in t er n a l con s ist en cy of t h e sca les w a s ju d ged t o b e a cce p t a ble, w it h Cr on -b a ch ’s a lp h a coefficien t s r a n gin g fr om 0.62 t o over 0.80. A few it em s w er e r ever s e cod ed t o b e con s is t en t w it h t h e ot h er it em s u s ed t o m ea s u r e a p a r t icu la r la t en t con s t r u ct (e.g., in t r a p er son a l r ela t ion sh ip s ).

Sch ool a t t it u d es (Sch a t t ) com p r is ed six q u es t ion n a ir e it em s focu sin g on h ow oft en t h e s t u d en t fa iled t o com p let e or t u r n in a s sign m en t s, w a s d iscip lin ed for m is b eh av -ior, s k ip p ed sch ool, m is b eh aved in cla s s, w a s s u s p en d ed , a n d en joyed b ein g in s ch ool.

Cod in g w a s su ch t h a t low scor es in d ica t ed gr ea t er d isr u p t ive b eh av ior in sch ool.

Self-con ce p t (Self) con sist ed of eigh t it em s a b ou t st u d en t feelin gs of self-wor t h . T h ese in clu d ed h av in g a p os it ive a t t it u d e a b ou t self, a sen se of self-wor t h , p r a ct icin g p er son a l sa fet y, en joy in g life, feelin g effica cy in d oin g a ct iv it ies a s w ell a s ot h er s, b ein g sa t isfi ed w it h self, b ein g sa t is fi ed w it h life, a n d b ein g h a p py t o b e liv in g. H igh scor es in d ica t ed st r on ger feelin gs of self-wor t h .

Sch ool a ct iv it ies (Sch a ct ) w a s a s ix-it em sca le m ea su r in g t h e st u d en t ’s in volvem en t in sever a l t y p es of sch ool a ct iv it ies in clu d in g sch ool n ew sp a p er or yea r b ook , m u sic or p er for m in g a r t s, a t h let ic t ea m s, a ca d em ic clu b s, s t u d en t cou n cil, ot h er sch ool clu b s a n d a ct iv it ies. H igh s cor es in d ica t ed gr ea t er in volvem en t in sch ool a ct iv it ies a n d , h en ce, st r on ger s ocia l a d ju st m en t t o t h e sch ool set -t in g.

Delin q u en cy (Del) w a s a fou r -it em sca le focu sin g on h ow oft en d u r in g t h e p a st yea r t h e st u d en t h a d d a m a ged sch ool p r op er t y on p u r p ose, d a m a ged p r op er t y a t wor k on p u r -p ose, ex-p er ien ced t r ou ble w it h -p olice, or b ecom e in volved in a ser iou s fi gh t a t sch ool or wor k . T h is va r ia ble w a s cod ed su ch t h a t low scor es in d ica t ed h igh d elin q u en cy.

P a r en t a r gu m en t s (P a r en t ) m ea s u r ed h ow oft en in t h e la st 12 m on t h s t h e st u d en t a r gu ed or h a d a fi gh t w it h eit h er of h is or h er p a r -en t s. Resp on ses w er e r ever se cod ed a n d r a n ge Table I

De sc riptive statistic s o f variable s in the struc tural mo de l

Variables M ean SD M inimum M aximum

1. Background

Ethnicity (% Caucasian) 0 .6 5 NA 0 1

Father’s education 4 .1 9 1 .7 0 1 6

Church attendance 2 .6 4 1 .0 8 1 4

Student work hours 3 .9 2 2 .2 9 1 8

Parent support with schoolwork 4 .8 2 1 .7 9 1 1 0

Political beliefs 4 .8 5 2 .4 8 1 6

2. Intrapersonal

Self-concept 3 1 .4 6 8 .9 0 1 4 2

School attitudes 2 3 .1 7 3 .4 4 1 2 6

3. Interpersonal

School activities 8 .4 1 3 .4 4 1 1 2

Delinquency 0 .6 7a _{0 .1 3 0 1}

Parent relationship 1 .3 7 1 .5 0 1 5

Community involvement 2 .1 1 1 .1 1 1 5

4. AOD use

Drug use 0 .1 5a _{0 .2 5 0 0 .5}

Alcohol use (30 days) 1 .3 9 0 .4 9 0 7

5. Outcomes

Academics 2 3 .0 2 4 .8 0 1 3 3

Attendance 3 .3 2 1 .9 0 0 1 3

Aspirations 3 .8 3 0 .9 7 1 5

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

fr om fi ve or m or e a r gu m en t s (cod ed 1) t o n o a r gu m en t s (cod ed 5).

Com m u n it y in volvem en t (Com m u n ) m ea -su r ed h ow oft en t h e s t u d en t p a r t icip a t ed in com m u n it y a ffa ir s or volu n t eer wor k . Resp on s es r a n ged fr om n ever (cod ed 1) t o a lm os t ever y d ay (cod ed 5).

AOD use

Dr u g u s e a n d exp er im en t a t ion (Dr u g) w a s d evelop ed fr om t en ca t e gor ies of t y p es of d r u gs s t u d en t s m igh t h ave u s ed d u r in g t h e p r ev iou s yea r. T h ese in clu d ed m a r iju a n a , LSD, a m p h et a m in es, coca in e, b a r b it u r a t es, t r a n q u ilizer s, h er oin , a n d ot h er t y p es of n a r -cot ics a n d in h a la n t s. Res p on s es w er e r ecod ed t o in d ica t e w h et h er st u d en t s w er e cu r r en t ly u s in g a p a r t icu la r d r u g or n ot . T h ese w er e seq u en ced a ccor d in g t o Ka n d el’s (1980) m od el of s t a ges of d r u g u s a ge (i.e., n on u s e, le ga l d r u gs, m a r iju a n a , ot h er illicit d r u gs ). T h en , t h e su m s of r esp on s es for ea ch d r u g w er e t ot a led t o p r od u ce a r a n ge of r es p on s es fr om 0 t o 10 (M ea n = 1.8, SD = 1.7, n ot t a bled ). A scor e of 0, for exa m p le, wou ld in d ica t e n o exp er i-m en t a t ion w it h d r u gs, w h ile a scor e of 3 or 4 wou ld r efl ect con sid er a ble exp er im en t a t ion w it h illicit d r u gs (e.g., m a r iju a n a , coca in e). T h is va r ia ble w a s s u b seq u en t ly t r a n s for m ed t o im p r ove it s sk ew n es s a n d k u r t os is.

Alcoh ol u se (Alco) w a s a n in t er va l va r ia ble m ea s u r in g t h e n u m b er of t im es s t u d en t s h a d b een d r u n k or h igh fr om d r in k in g a lcoh olic b ever a ges in t h e p a st 30 d ay s.

Educational outcomes

Aca d em ic a ch ievem en t (Aca d ) w a s

con s t r u ct ed fr om s ix it em s t h a t m ea su r ed t h e st u d en t ’s p er ce p t ion of h is or h er a ca d em ic a b ilit y a n d in t elligen ce, a ccu m u la t ed gr a d e p oin t aver a ge in h igh s ch ool, a n d effor t u s ed in s ch ool.

At t en d a n ce (At t en d ) con sis t ed of t wo it em s m ea su r in g h ow oft en t h e s t u d en t r e p or t ed b ein g a b sen t fr om cla s s a n d fr om sch ool d u r in g h is or h er s en ior yea r.

E d u ca t ion a l a s p ir a t ion s (As p ) w a s r ecod ed in t o a fi ve-p oin t or d in a l s ca le (1 = low, 5 = h igh ) fr om fou r s u r vey it em s a s k in g st u d en t s a b ou t t h eir p la n n ed a ct iv it ies a ft er gr a d u a t -in g fr om h igh sch ool. T h ese op t ion s -in clu d ed wor k in g (i.e., n o fu r t h er ed u ca t ion ), goin g in t o t h e m ilit a r y, a t t en d in g a voca t ion a l or t ech n ica l sch ool, a t t en d in g a t wo-yea r colle ge, or a t t en d in g a fou r -yea r colle ge. T h e m ea n for t h is va r ia ble (see Ta ble I) su gges t s t h a t t h e st u d en t s in t h e sa m p le h a d fa ir ly h igh ed u ca -t ion a l a s p ir a -t ion s.

Specifying and testing a structural model Ma n y socia l a n d b eh av ior a l p h en om en a a r e con ceived of a s st r u ct u r a l p r ocess es

op er a t in g a m on g u n ob ser ved (la t en t ) con -st r u ct s. Beca u s e la t en t con -st r u ct s a r e n ot ob ser ved , h ow ever, t h ey ca n n ot b e d ir ect ly m ea su r ed . Befor e a p r op osed t h eor et ica l m od el ca n b e t est ed w it h s t r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od elin g, a s et of em p ir ica lly op er a t ion a lized in d ica t or s m u st b e d efi n ed for ea ch la t en t con st r u ct (J or es k og a n d Sor b om , 1993). By r ela t in g con st r u ct s t o m u lt ip le ob ser ved in d i-ca t or s, gr ea t er va lid it y a n d r elia b ilit y i-ca n b e a ch ieved , t h er eby p r ov id in g a m or e com p let e t est of t h eor et ica l r ela t ion sh ip s. Mor eover, er r or s of m ea s u r em en t m ay b e est im a t ed for b ot h ob ser ved va r ia bles a n d la t en t con st r u ct s in t h e m od el, giv in g a m or e t h or ou gh in d ica -t ion of i-t s con s -t r u c-t va lid i-t y a n d r elia b ili-t y.

St r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od els con sis t of t wo in t er r ela t ed m a t h em a t ica l m od els. T h e r ela -t ion sh ip b e-t w een -t h e ob ser ved in d ica -t or s a n d t h eir t h eor et ica l con st r u ct s con s t it u t e t h e m ea su r em en t m od el. In a p a t h d ia gr a m (see F igu r e 2), t h e la t en t con st r u ct s a r e r e p r e-sen t ed by ova ls, w h ile ob ser ved va r ia bles a r e in d ict ed by r ect a n gles. Beca u se ob s er ved va r ia bles a r e h y p ot h esized t o r esu lt fr om t h eir la t en t con st r u ct s, lin es w it h a r r ow s or igin a t e fr om t h e la t en t con st r u ct s t o t h eir a ssocia t ed in d ica t or s. T h e secon d m od el (t h e st r u ct u r a l m od el) su m m a r izes t h e st r u ct u r a l r ela t ion s a m on g la t en t con st r u ct s, a s w ell a s t h e effect s of t h e b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles in t h e m od el (e.g., fa t h er ’s ed u ca t ion , ch u r ch a t t en -d a n ce, et h n icit y ) on t h e la t en t con st r u ct s in t h e m od el.

Results

T h e goa ls of t h e a n a ly sis w er e t o est im a t e t h e r ela t ive st r en gt h of t h e va r ia bles in t h e m od el in exp la in in g st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir cu r r en t AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. Mor eover, w e a t t em p t ed t o d et er m in e h ow m u ch va r ia n ce in AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es cou ld b e a ccou n t ed for by va r ia bles in t h e m od el, a s op p osed t o sou r ces ou t sid e t h e m od el (e.g., r a n d om er r or, ot h er va r ia bles n ot in clu d ed ). H igh er va r ia n ce a ccou n t ed for in t h e la t en t con st r u ct s p r ov id es a n ot h er in d ica t ion of t h e m od el’s con st r u ct va lid it y.

T h e m od el w a s t est ed u sin g LISRE L 8 (J or es k og a n d Sor b om , 1993)[1] a n d a m a t r ix of p r od u ct m om en t cor r ela t ion s, w it h ob ser -va t ion s on or d in a l or d ich ot om ou s -va r ia bles r e p la ced by n or m a l scor es d et er m in ed fr om t h e m a r gin a l d ist r ibu t ion s. T h e m a xim u m lik elih ood m et h od of est im a t ion w a s u sed t o t est t h e m od el. In t est in g a s t r u ct u r a l m od el, on e a t t em p t s t o fi t t h e va r ia n ce-cova r ia n ce m a t r ix im p lied by t h e t h eor et ica l m od el t o t h e va r ia n ce-cova r ia n ce m a t r ix of t h e

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

sa m p le d a t a . Beca u s e a t h eor et ica lly -d r iven m od el w a s p r op os ed , ou r p r im a r y in t er es t is t h e a s s es s m en t of fi t of t h e h y p ot h es ized st r u ct u r a l m od el t o t h e d a t a . Wit h ou t a n a d e-q u a t e m od el fi t , t h e p r op os ed m od el wou ld n eed t o b e r econ ce p t u a lized . For exa m p le, w e wou ld h ave t o r ed efi n e t h e m ea su r es of t h e la t en t con s t r u ct s or t h e h y p ot h es ized in t er r ela t ion sh ip s a m on g t h e la t en t va r i-a bles.

Sever a l m ea s u r es of fi t a r e n or m a lly u sed t o a s sess h ow w ell t h e p r op os ed m od el fi t s t h e d a t a . T h e in d ices ch osen for t h eir w id e-sp r ea d u s e w er e t h e good n es s-of-fi t in d ex (GF I), t h e a d ju s t ed (for s a m p le s ize) good n es s-of-fi t in d ex (AGF I), t h e com p a r a t ive-fi t in d ex (CF I), t h e r oot m ea n s q u a r e r es id u a l (RM R) a n d t h e r oot m ea n s q u a r e er r or of a p p r oxim a -t ion (RM SE A). For -t h e GF I, AGF I, a n d CF I, va lu es a b ove 0.9 a r e gen er a lly r ecogn ized a s in d ica t ive of a good m od el fi t t o t h e d a t a (w it h 1.0 in d ica t in g a p er fect fi t ). T h ese in d ices ca n b e con s id er ed a s t h e r ela t ive a m ou n t of va r i-a n ce i-a n d covi-a r ii-a n ce in t h e d i-a t i-a i-a ccou n t ed for by t h e p r op os ed m od el.

In con t r a s t , t h e RM R a n d t h e RM SE A a r e m ea s u r es of t h e aver a ge of t h e u n exp la in ed va r ia n ces a n d cova r ia n ces in t h e p r op os ed m od el. T h ese in d ices s h ou ld b e clos e t o zer o if t h e m od el fi t s t h e d a t a w ell. M or eover, t h e RM SE A h a s a cor r es p on d in g t es t b a s ed on t h e ch i-s q u a r e s t a t is t ic, w h ich p r ov id es a st a t ist ica l t est of w h et h er t h e m od el ca n b e a cce p t ed a s p la u sible or n ot .

Ta ble II p r es en t s a su m m a r y of t h e r eleva n t good n es s -of-fi t in d ices. T h e va r iou s in d ices a ll s u gges t a good fi t of t h e p r op os ed m od el t o t h e d a t a (e.g., GF I = 0.97, AGF I = 0.93, RM R = 0.042). M or eover, t h e RM SE A is 0.057, w it h t h e t es t of fi t a t p = 0.076, s u gges t in g t h a t t h e m od el sh ou ld n ot b e r eject ed . Given t h e va r i-et y of t es t s ava ila ble t o ju d ge t h e a d eq u a cy of t h e s t r u ct u r a l m od el, t h er efor e, it ca n b e seen a s a p la u s ible r e p r es en t a t ion of t h e d a t a .

As M a r s h et a l. (1988) s u gges t , im p r ovem en t in m od el fi t sh ou ld b e m ot iva t ed by su b s t a n t ive, a s op p osed t o p u r ely s t a t is t ica l, con -cer n s. Wh ile w e cou ld im p r ove t h e m od el’s fi t (e.g., by a llow in g er r or t er m s a m on g it em s t o cor r ela t e), t h e m od el m igh t m a k e lit t le sen s e s u b st a n t ively. Of cou r s e, w e in ves t iga t ed s ever a l m od ifi ca t ion s t o ou r m od el, bu t follow in g M a r s h et a l.’s (1988) r ecom m en d a -t ion s, w e ch ose -t o p r esen -t ou r r es u l-t s in t er m s of t h e m od el p r op os ed in it ia lly.

Beca u s e t h e m od el fi t t h e d a t a a d eq u a t ely, w e ca n n ow a s sess m or e t h or ou gh ly t h e s ig-n ifi ca ig-n ce of t h e em p ir ica l va lid a t ioig-n of t h e p r op os ed m od el. T h e sign ifi ca n t (p < 0.05) p a r a m et er est im a t es for t h e p a t h s in t h e m ea s u r em en t a n d s t r u ct u r a l m od els a r e p r es en t ed in F igu r e 2. T h ese es t im a t es

r e p r esen t t h e sim u lt a n eou s con t r ibu t ion of t h e ob ser ved a n d la t en t va r ia bles in exp la in in g AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in -m en t . Dir ect effect s a n d in d ir ect effect s (t h r ou gh com b in ed p a t h s) b et w een va r ia bles w er e ob ser ved a n d t h eir coefficien t s t est ed w it h t -t est s (t h e r a t io of t h e es t im a t e t o it s st a n d a r d er r or ) t o d et er m in e w h et h er t h ey w er e st a t ist ica lly sign ifi ca n t .

F igu r e 2 su m m a r izes s ever a l r eleva n t fi n d in gs a b ou t s t u d en t s ’ b a ck gr ou n d s, in t er p er -son a l a n d in t r a p er -son a l ch a r a ct er ist ics, r e p or t ed su b st a n ce u se, a n d r e p or t ed ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es. T h e p a -t h d ia gr a m r e p r e-sen t s t h e sim u lt a n eou s effect s of t h e va r i-a bles in t h e m od el. In t r i-a p er son i-a l fi-a ct or s exer t ed t h e st r on gest d ir ect effect on E d u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (0.57), a s w ell a s a sm a ll in d ir ect effect on Ou t com es t h ir ou gh In t eir p eir -son a l fa ct or s. In con t r a st , In t er p er -son a l fa c-t or s w er e on ly w ea k ly r ela c-t ed c-t o E d u ca c-t ion a l ou t com es (0.22). T h er e w a s, h ow ever, a lso a sm a ll, bu t s ign ifi ca n t , p osit ive in d ir ect effect of In t er p er s on a l fa ct or s on ou t com es t h r ou gh AOD u s e (–0.73 ×–0.13= 0.10).

In t er p er son a l fa ct or s w er e s t r on gly a n d n e ga t ively r ela t ed t o AOD u se (–0.73). T h is su ggest s t h a t st u d en t s w it h st r on ger socia l b on d in g ch a r a ct er ist ics (i.e., m or e in volved in sch ool a ct iv it ies, less in volved in d elin q u en cy, m or e in volved in t h e com m u n it y ) w er e less lik ely t o r e p or t u sin g su b -st a n ces.

In con t r a st t o ou r in it ia l h y p ot h esis, w e ob ser ved n o sign ifi ca n t d ir ect r ela t ion sh ip b et w een In t r a p er son a l fa ct or s a n d r e p or t ed AOD u s e (0.06). How ever, t h er e w a s a m od er -a t e in d ir ect effect (0.78 ×–0.73 = 0.57) of In t er -p er son a l fa ct or s on AOD u se (t h r ou gh t h e In t er p er s on a l F a ct or s p a t h ). As exp ect ed , AOD u se w a s w ea k ly (bu t sign ifi ca n t ly ) r ela t ed t o st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of E d u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (–0.13), su gges-t in g -t h a -t st u d en t s w h o u s ed su b st a n ces less fr eq u en t ly r e p or t ed h igh er a ca d em ic ou t com es, a t t en d a n ce, a n d fu t u r e ed u ca t ion a l a sp ir a -t ion s.

F igu r e 2 a lso s u m m a r izes t h e effect s of sever a l b a ck gr ou n d a n d en v ir on m en t a l va r ia bles in clu d ed in t h e m od el on t h e va r i-ou s la t en t con st r u ct s. On ly t h r ee va r ia bles (et h n icit y, fa t h er ’s ed u ca t ion , a n d ch u r ch a t t en d a n ce) exer t ed sm a ll effect s on E d u ca t ion a l ou t com es. Min or it y st u d en t s, for exa m p le, r e p or t ed low er p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u -ca t ion a l ou t com es (–0.22). T h e h ou r s t h a t st u d en t s wor k ed a ffect ed AOD u s a ge m od er -a t ely (–0.41), su ggest in g t h -a t st u d en t s w h o h eld job s a s s en ior s r e p or t ed low er u se of su b st a n ces. E t h n icit y, st u d en t wor k , a n d p olit ica l b eliefs a lso exer cised s m a ll effect s

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

on p er ce p t ion s of in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er -son a l fa ct or s.

Ot h er ev id en ce of t h e m od el’s va lid it y is p r ov id ed by exa m in in g t h e er r or s in t h e st r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion s cor r es p on d in g t o ea ch la t en t con s t r u ct . T h e coefficien t s in p a r en t h e-ses in F igu r e 2 in d ica t e va r ia n ce

u n a ccou n t ed for by t h e m od el (i.e., va r ia n ce d u e t o ot h er va r ia bles n ot in t h e m od el or er r or s of m ea su r em en t ). T h ese coefficien t s a r e a ll r ela t ively sm a ll. For exa m p le, t h e st r u ct u r a l m od el a ccou n t ed for over 80 p er cen t of t h e va r ia n ce in p er ce p t ion s of ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (84 p er cen -t ), w i-t h on ly 16 p er cen t d u e t o ot h er p os s ible s ou r ces of er r or. Mor eover, t h e b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles a n d in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l fa ct or s a ccou n t ed for 48 p er cen t of t h e va r ia n ce in p er ceived su b s t a n ce u se (w it h 52 p er cen t fr om ot h er in fl u en ces). T h e b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles in t h e m od el a ccou n t ed for a lm ost a ll of t h e va r ia n ce in s t u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l fa ct or s (90 p er cen t a n d 80 p er cen t , r es p ect -fu lly ).

It sh ou ld b e n ot ed t h a t t h e r es u lt s of a n y m od el t es t a r e a lw ay s lim it ed t o t h e va r ia bles st u d ied w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e p r op os ed st r u ct u r a l m od el. Given t h e a m ou n t of va r i-a n ce i-a ccou n t ed for in t h e m od el, h ow ever, it w a s con clu d ed t h a t t h e p r op os ed m od el p r o-v id ed a r ea son a ble exp la n a t ion of o-va r ia bles

t h a t a ffect st u d en t s’ r e p or t ed AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es.

Discussion

In t h is a r t icle, w e p r esen t ed r esu lt s fr om a st u dy in vest iga t in g fa ct or s t h a t in fl u en ce h igh s ch ool sen ior s’ r e p or t ed cu r r en t AOD u se a n d p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t . T h e p r op osed m od el h y p ot h e-sized t h a t socio-en v ir on m en t a l va r ia bles, in t r a p er son a l fa ct or s, a n d in t er p er son a l fa ct or s in fl u en ced st u d en t s’ r e p or t ed d r u g a n d a lcoh ol u s e. In t u r n , t h ese va r ia bles w er e h y p ot h esized t o a ffect st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of sever a l ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. T h e r esu lt s in d ica t ed t h a t ou r p r op osed m od el fi t t h e d a t a q u it e w ell.

Table II

Maximum like liho o d go o dne ss-o f-fit indic e s

Goodness-of-fit Index (GFI) = 0 .9 7 0

Adjusted Goodness-of-fit Index (AGFI) = 0 .9 3 0

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0 .9 1 0

Root M ean Square Residual (RM R) = 0 .0 4 2

Root M ean Square Error

of Approximation (RM SEA) = 0 .0 5 7

P-value for Test of Close Fit

(RM SEA < 0.05) = 0 .0 7 6

Intrape rso nal Fac to rs

Ho me wo rk Suppo rt .1 0 *

Churc h .2 2 *

Fathe r’ s Educ atio n

.0 9 *

1 .0

Sc hatt

.3 8 * (.1 0 )

Intrape rso nal Fac to rs

Wo rk

.7 8 * .1 9 *

–.4 1 *

Ethnic ity

Po litic al Be lie fs

–.3 1 * .2 1 * –.2 1 *

.3 2 *

AOD Use

(.2 0 )

Drug

.6 8 *

Alc o

.6 6 *

(.5 2 ) –.1 3 * –.1 3 *

–.2 1 * –.5 7 *

.1 5 * .0 6

–.2 2 * .2 2 *

Pare nt Sc hac t De l Commun

.2 7 * .5 4 * .3 2 * –.7 3 *

Se lf

Educ atio nal Outc o me s .5 6 *

Ac ad

.1 1 * .4 8 *

Atte nd Asp

(.1 6 ) Figure 2

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

sa m p le d a t a . Beca u s e a t h eor et ica lly -d r iven m od el w a s p r op os ed , ou r p r im a r y in t er es t is t h e a s s es s m en t of fi t of t h e h y p ot h es ized st r u ct u r a l m od el t o t h e d a t a . Wit h ou t a n a d e-q u a t e m od el fi t , t h e p r op os ed m od el wou ld n eed t o b e r econ ce p t u a lized . For exa m p le, w e wou ld h ave t o r ed efi n e t h e m ea su r es of t h e la t en t con s t r u ct s or t h e h y p ot h es ized in t er r ela t ion sh ip s a m on g t h e la t en t va r i-a bles.

Sever a l m ea s u r es of fi t a r e n or m a lly u sed t o a s sess h ow w ell t h e p r op os ed m od el fi t s t h e d a t a . T h e in d ices ch osen for t h eir w id e-sp r ea d u s e w er e t h e good n es s-of-fi t in d ex (GF I), t h e a d ju s t ed (for s a m p le s ize) good n es s-of-fi t in d ex (AGF I), t h e com p a r a t ive-fi t in d ex (CF I), t h e r oot m ea n s q u a r e r es id u a l (RM R) a n d t h e r oot m ea n s q u a r e er r or of a p p r oxim a -t ion (RM SE A). For -t h e GF I, AGF I, a n d CF I, va lu es a b ove 0.9 a r e gen er a lly r ecogn ized a s in d ica t ive of a good m od el fi t t o t h e d a t a (w it h 1.0 in d ica t in g a p er fect fi t ). T h ese in d ices ca n b e con s id er ed a s t h e r ela t ive a m ou n t of va r i-a n ce i-a n d covi-a r ii-a n ce in t h e d i-a t i-a i-a ccou n t ed for by t h e p r op os ed m od el.

In con t r a s t , t h e RM R a n d t h e RM SE A a r e m ea s u r es of t h e aver a ge of t h e u n exp la in ed va r ia n ces a n d cova r ia n ces in t h e p r op os ed m od el. T h ese in d ices s h ou ld b e clos e t o zer o if t h e m od el fi t s t h e d a t a w ell. M or eover, t h e RM SE A h a s a cor r es p on d in g t es t b a s ed on t h e ch i-s q u a r e s t a t is t ic, w h ich p r ov id es a st a t ist ica l t est of w h et h er t h e m od el ca n b e a cce p t ed a s p la u sible or n ot .

Ta ble II p r es en t s a su m m a r y of t h e r eleva n t good n es s -of-fi t in d ices. T h e va r iou s in d ices a ll s u gges t a good fi t of t h e p r op os ed m od el t o t h e d a t a (e.g., GF I = 0.97, AGF I = 0.93, RM R = 0.042). M or eover, t h e RM SE A is 0.057, w it h t h e t es t of fi t a t p = 0.076, s u gges t in g t h a t t h e m od el sh ou ld n ot b e r eject ed . Given t h e va r i-et y of t es t s ava ila ble t o ju d ge t h e a d eq u a cy of t h e s t r u ct u r a l m od el, t h er efor e, it ca n b e seen a s a p la u s ible r e p r es en t a t ion of t h e d a t a .

As M a r s h et a l. (1988) s u gges t , im p r ovem en t in m od el fi t sh ou ld b e m ot iva t ed by su b s t a n t ive, a s op p osed t o p u r ely s t a t is t ica l, con -cer n s. Wh ile w e cou ld im p r ove t h e m od el’s fi t (e.g., by a llow in g er r or t er m s a m on g it em s t o cor r ela t e), t h e m od el m igh t m a k e lit t le sen s e s u b st a n t ively. Of cou r s e, w e in ves t iga t ed s ever a l m od ifi ca t ion s t o ou r m od el, bu t follow in g M a r s h et a l.’s (1988) r ecom m en d a -t ion s, w e ch ose -t o p r esen -t ou r r es u l-t s in t er m s of t h e m od el p r op os ed in it ia lly.

Beca u s e t h e m od el fi t t h e d a t a a d eq u a t ely, w e ca n n ow a s sess m or e t h or ou gh ly t h e s ig-n ifi ca ig-n ce of t h e em p ir ica l va lid a t ioig-n of t h e p r op os ed m od el. T h e sign ifi ca n t (p < 0.05) p a r a m et er est im a t es for t h e p a t h s in t h e m ea s u r em en t a n d s t r u ct u r a l m od els a r e p r es en t ed in F igu r e 2. T h ese es t im a t es

r e p r esen t t h e sim u lt a n eou s con t r ibu t ion of t h e ob ser ved a n d la t en t va r ia bles in exp la in in g AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in -m en t . Dir ect effect s a n d in d ir ect effect s (t h r ou gh com b in ed p a t h s) b et w een va r ia bles w er e ob ser ved a n d t h eir coefficien t s t est ed w it h t -t est s (t h e r a t io of t h e es t im a t e t o it s st a n d a r d er r or ) t o d et er m in e w h et h er t h ey w er e st a t ist ica lly sign ifi ca n t .

F igu r e 2 su m m a r izes s ever a l r eleva n t fi n d in gs a b ou t s t u d en t s ’ b a ck gr ou n d s, in t er p er -son a l a n d in t r a p er -son a l ch a r a ct er ist ics, r e p or t ed su b st a n ce u se, a n d r e p or t ed ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es. T h e p a -t h d ia gr a m r e p r e-sen t s t h e sim u lt a n eou s effect s of t h e va r i-a bles in t h e m od el. In t r i-a p er son i-a l fi-a ct or s exer t ed t h e st r on gest d ir ect effect on E d u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (0.57), a s w ell a s a sm a ll in d ir ect effect on Ou t com es t h ir ou gh In t eir p eir -son a l fa ct or s. In con t r a st , In t er p er -son a l fa c-t or s w er e on ly w ea k ly r ela c-t ed c-t o E d u ca c-t ion a l ou t com es (0.22). T h er e w a s, h ow ever, a lso a sm a ll, bu t s ign ifi ca n t , p osit ive in d ir ect effect of In t er p er s on a l fa ct or s on ou t com es t h r ou gh AOD u s e (–0.73 ×–0.13= 0.10).

In t er p er son a l fa ct or s w er e s t r on gly a n d n e ga t ively r ela t ed t o AOD u se (–0.73). T h is su ggest s t h a t st u d en t s w it h st r on ger socia l b on d in g ch a r a ct er ist ics (i.e., m or e in volved in sch ool a ct iv it ies, less in volved in d elin q u en cy, m or e in volved in t h e com m u n it y ) w er e less lik ely t o r e p or t u sin g su b -st a n ces.

In con t r a st t o ou r in it ia l h y p ot h esis, w e ob ser ved n o sign ifi ca n t d ir ect r ela t ion sh ip b et w een In t r a p er son a l fa ct or s a n d r e p or t ed AOD u s e (0.06). How ever, t h er e w a s a m od er -a t e in d ir ect effect (0.78 ×–0.73 = 0.57) of In t er -p er son a l fa ct or s on AOD u se (t h r ou gh t h e In t er p er s on a l F a ct or s p a t h ). As exp ect ed , AOD u se w a s w ea k ly (bu t sign ifi ca n t ly ) r ela t ed t o st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of E d u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (–0.13), su gges-t in g -t h a -t st u d en t s w h o u s ed su b st a n ces less fr eq u en t ly r e p or t ed h igh er a ca d em ic ou t com es, a t t en d a n ce, a n d fu t u r e ed u ca t ion a l a sp ir a -t ion s.

F igu r e 2 a lso s u m m a r izes t h e effect s of sever a l b a ck gr ou n d a n d en v ir on m en t a l va r ia bles in clu d ed in t h e m od el on t h e va r i-ou s la t en t con st r u ct s. On ly t h r ee va r ia bles (et h n icit y, fa t h er ’s ed u ca t ion , a n d ch u r ch a t t en d a n ce) exer t ed sm a ll effect s on E d u ca t ion a l ou t com es. Min or it y st u d en t s, for exa m p le, r e p or t ed low er p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u -ca t ion a l ou t com es (–0.22). T h e h ou r s t h a t st u d en t s wor k ed a ffect ed AOD u s a ge m od er -a t ely (–0.41), su ggest in g t h -a t st u d en t s w h o h eld job s a s s en ior s r e p or t ed low er u se of su b st a n ces. E t h n icit y, st u d en t wor k , a n d p olit ica l b eliefs a lso exer cised s m a ll effect s

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

on p er ce p t ion s of in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er -son a l fa ct or s.

Ot h er ev id en ce of t h e m od el’s va lid it y is p r ov id ed by exa m in in g t h e er r or s in t h e st r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion s cor r es p on d in g t o ea ch la t en t con s t r u ct . T h e coefficien t s in p a r en t h e-ses in F igu r e 2 in d ica t e va r ia n ce

u n a ccou n t ed for by t h e m od el (i.e., va r ia n ce d u e t o ot h er va r ia bles n ot in t h e m od el or er r or s of m ea su r em en t ). T h ese coefficien t s a r e a ll r ela t ively sm a ll. For exa m p le, t h e st r u ct u r a l m od el a ccou n t ed for over 80 p er cen t of t h e va r ia n ce in p er ce p t ion s of ed u ca -t ion a l ou -t com es (84 p er cen -t ), w i-t h on ly 16 p er cen t d u e t o ot h er p os s ible s ou r ces of er r or. Mor eover, t h e b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles a n d in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l fa ct or s a ccou n t ed for 48 p er cen t of t h e va r ia n ce in p er ceived su b s t a n ce u se (w it h 52 p er cen t fr om ot h er in fl u en ces). T h e b a ck gr ou n d va r ia bles in t h e m od el a ccou n t ed for a lm ost a ll of t h e va r ia n ce in s t u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir in t r a p er s on a l a n d in t er p er s on a l fa ct or s (90 p er cen t a n d 80 p er cen t , r es p ect -fu lly ).

It sh ou ld b e n ot ed t h a t t h e r es u lt s of a n y m od el t es t a r e a lw ay s lim it ed t o t h e va r ia bles st u d ied w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e p r op os ed st r u ct u r a l m od el. Given t h e a m ou n t of va r i-a n ce i-a ccou n t ed for in t h e m od el, h ow ever, it w a s con clu d ed t h a t t h e p r op os ed m od el p r o-v id ed a r ea son a ble exp la n a t ion of o-va r ia bles

t h a t a ffect st u d en t s’ r e p or t ed AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es.

Discussion

In t h is a r t icle, w e p r esen t ed r esu lt s fr om a st u dy in vest iga t in g fa ct or s t h a t in fl u en ce h igh s ch ool sen ior s’ r e p or t ed cu r r en t AOD u se a n d p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t . T h e p r op osed m od el h y p ot h e-sized t h a t socio-en v ir on m en t a l va r ia bles, in t r a p er son a l fa ct or s, a n d in t er p er son a l fa ct or s in fl u en ced st u d en t s’ r e p or t ed d r u g a n d a lcoh ol u s e. In t u r n , t h ese va r ia bles w er e h y p ot h esized t o a ffect st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of sever a l ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. T h e r esu lt s in d ica t ed t h a t ou r p r op osed m od el fi t t h e d a t a q u it e w ell.

Table II

Maximum like liho o d go o dne ss-o f-fit indic e s

Goodness-of-fit Index (GFI) = 0 .9 7 0

Adjusted Goodness-of-fit Index (AGFI) = 0 .9 3 0

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0 .9 1 0

Root M ean Square Residual (RM R) = 0 .0 4 2

Root M ean Square Error

of Approximation (RM SEA) = 0 .0 5 7

P-value for Test of Close Fit

(RM SEA < 0.05) = 0 .0 7 6

Intrape rso nal Fac to rs

Ho me wo rk Suppo rt .1 0 *

Churc h .2 2 *

Fathe r’ s Educ atio n

.0 9 *

1 .0

Sc hatt

.3 8 * (.1 0 )

Intrape rso nal Fac to rs

Wo rk

.7 8 * .1 9 *

–.4 1 *

Ethnic ity

Po litic al Be lie fs

–.3 1 * .2 1 *

–.2 1 *

.3 2 *

AOD Use

(.2 0 )

Drug

.6 8 *

Alc o

.6 6 *

(.5 2 ) –.1 3 * –.1 3 *

–.2 1 * –.5 7 *

.1 5 *

.0 6

–.2 2 *

.2 2 *

Pare nt Sc hac t De l Commun

.2 7 * .5 4 * .3 2 * –.7 3 *

Se lf

Educ atio nal Outc o me s

.5 6 *

Ac ad

.1 1 * .4 8 *

Atte nd Asp

(.1 6 )

Figure 2

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

Mos t im p or t a n t ly, t h e m od el con fi r m s t h a t s t r on ger in t er p er s on a l fa ct or s (i.e., gr ea t er in volvem en t in s ch ool a ct iv it ies, low er d elin -q u en cy, s t r on ger r ela t ion sh ip s w it h p a r en t s, p a r t icip a t ion in t h e com m u n it y ) w er e a s soci-a t ed w it h low er r e p or t ed cu r r en t AOD u s soci-a ge a m on g h igh s ch ool sen ior s. Sim ila r ly, in t r a p -er s on a l fa ct or s (a t t it u d es t ow a r d s ch ool a n d s elf) w er e in d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o low er r e p or t ed a lcoh ol a n d d r u g u s e. Ou r fi n d in gs, t h er efor e, a r e con s ist en t w it h r esea r ch d em on st r a t in g t h a t s t r on ger socia l a d ju st m en t a n d p er s on a l feelin gs of self-wor t h ca n b e p r ot ect ive fa ct or s a ga in s t d r u g u s a ge (H u b a a n d Ben t ler, 1982; Oet t in g a n d Bea u va is, 1987; Rh od es a n d J a s on , 1990).

T h e m od el a ls o con fi r m ed t h a t sever a l va r ia bles ia ffect ed st u d en t s ’ p er ce p t ion s of ed u cia -t ion a l ou -t com es. For exa m p le, in -t er p er s on a l fa ct or s w er e p osit ively r ela t ed , a n d t h e s t r en gt h of t h a t in fl u en ce w a s a ls o in cr ea sed s om ew h a t b eca u s e of it s im p a ct in p r ov id in g a scr een a ga in st AOD u s e (see F igu r e 2). As exp ect ed , in t r a p er s on a l fa ct or s a ls o h a d a m od er a t e d ir ect effect on ed u ca t ion a l ou t -com es. Sim ila r ly, AOD u s a ge h a d a sm a ll (bu t s ign ifi ca n t ) n e ga t ive effect on s t u d en t s’ r e p or t ed ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es.

Implications

In p r op os in g a n d t est in g a st r u ct u r a l m od el of p sych o-s ocia l va r ia bles, AOD u s e, a n d

r e p or t ed ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t , w e

a t t em p t ed t o in ves t iga t e a n u m b er of r ela t ion -sh ip s of in t er es t t o p r ofes sion a ls in s ch ools w h o wor k w it h a d olescen t s. St r u ct u r a l eq u a -t ion m od elin g ca n m a k e a s ign ifi ca n -t con -t r i-bu t ion t o r es ea r ch a t t em p t in g t o d es cr ib e a n d eva lu a t e t h e effect s of va r iou s p sych o-s ocia l d im en s ion s on st u d en t su b s t a n ce u s e a n d r e p or t ed ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. An im p or -t a n -t r eq u ir em en -t for -t h e eva lu a -t ion of m od els v ia s t r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od elin g lies in u s in g t h eor et ica lly a p p r op r ia t e op er a t ion a l-iza t ion s of b ot h ob s er ved a n d la t en t va r ia bles.

T h e over a ll su p p or t of ou r p r op os ed m od el su ggest s ev id en ce of it s con st r u ct va lid it y a n d p r ov id es a p r elim in a r y sn a p sh ot of h ow in t er p er s on a l a n d in t r a p er s on a l fa ct or s m ay m od er a t e s u b st a n ce u se a m on g a d olescen t s. T h es e r es u lt s p r ov id e s ch ool cou n selor s w it h a p ot en t ia l m od el for gu id in g t h eir clin ica l p r a ct ice a n d in t er ven t ion s t r a t e gies w h en wor k in g w it h you n gst er s h av in g d ifficu lt ies w it h t h e m a jor com p on en t va r ia bles (i.e., in t er p er s on a l a n d in t r a p er s on a l s k ills, AOD u s a ge, ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es ).

St u d en t s ’ p r oblem b eh av ior a n d ed u ca -t ion a l a -t -t a in m en -t a r e obv iou s ly s h a p ed by -t h e com p lex cu lt u r a l a n d socia l fa b r ic t h a t

su r r ou n d s t h em (H oa r e, 1991). T h e r esu lt s of ou r s t u dy a r e con sist en t w it h t h e b elief t h a t a d olescen t s’ AOD u sa ge a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t a r e a m u lt id im en sion a l p r ocess in volv in g t h e in t er a ct ion of s ever a l im p or -t a n -t p sych ologica l a n d s ocio-en v ir on m en -t a l va r ia bles. Of cou r se, it is lik ely t h a t AOD u se a n d ed u ca t ion a l a t t a in m en t h ave r ecip r oca l effect s, w h ich w e cou ld n ot con fi r m in t h is st u dy b eca u se of t h e lim it a t ion s of cr oss-sect ion a l d a t a . F u t u r e st u d ies m igh t con sid er t h e u se of lon git u d in a l d a t a t o en h a n ce ou r in sigh t s in t o h ow t h ese p r ocesses u n fold over t im e.

T h e va r ia bles in clu d ed in ou r m od el a ccou n t ed for su b st a n t ia l va r ia t ion in a d oles-cen t s’ p er ce p t ion s a b ou t b ot h t h eir cu r r en t AOD u sa ge a n d t h eir ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. We n ot e, h ow ever, t h a t p r a ct it ion er s sh ou ld a lw ay s con sid er t h e r es u lt s of st r u ct u r a l m od els a s lim it ed t o t h e va r ia bles a n d fa ct or s sp ecifi ed w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e m od el d evelop ed . Ot h er va r ia bles ou t sid e of t h e m od el t h a t cou ld n ot b e t es t ed m ay a lso a ffect t h e exp er ien ces of a d oles cen t s in va r iou s w ay s. It is t h er efor e im p or t a n t t o r ecogn ize t h a t sch ool p er s on n el sh ou ld u se ca u t ion w h en m a k in g in fer en ces a b ou t st u d en t n eed s in isola t ion . Mor eover, ou r ou t com e m ea su r es w er e st u d en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ed u ca -t ion a l exp er ien ces, a s op p osed -t o -t h e a c-t u a l ou t com es. T h is, of cou r se, in t r od u ces t h e p ossib ilit y of som e b ia s in t h ese ou t com es, a lt h ou gh it is r ea son a ble t o a ssu m e t h a t st u -d en t s h ave a fa ir ly r elia ble u n -d er st a n -d in g of t h eir ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d a sp ir a t ion s by t h e t im e t h ey h ave sp en t 13 yea r s in sch ools.

Kee p in g t h ese ca u t ion s in m in d , on e ed u ca t ion a l goa l m ay b e t o h elp st u d en t s u n d er -st a n d t h e in t er a ct ion of t h eir b a ck gr ou n d s (e.g., et h n icit y, va lu es, fa m ily lives, cu lt u r a l t r a d it ion s ) on t h eir sen se of n ot b elon gin g or fi t t in g in w it h va r iou s sch ool a n d societ a l gr ou p s. As H oa r e (1991) a r gu es, t h er e m ay b e a la ck of fi t b et w een t h e st u d en t ’s in t er n a l a n d socia l wor ld s a n d t h e exp ect a t ion s a n d va lu es of t h e sch ool. Act in g ou t of a n e ga t ive id en t it y m ay follow, a s a d olescen t s a r e d e p r ived of a p osit ive sh a r e in t h e r oles, p r a c-t ices, a n d r ew a r d s of c-t h e m a jor ic-t y ’s sec-t of exp ect a t ion s.

In t r a p er son a l (e.g. selfcon ce p t ) a n d in t er p er son a l sk ills (e.g. p osit ive s ocia l r ela t ion -sh ip s) m ay b e p ot en t ia l s cr een s t o a d olescen t a lcoh ol a n d d r u g u sa ge. F r om ou r d a t a , it a p p ea r s t h a t t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een in t r a p -er s on a l sk ills a n d r e p or t ed AOD u s e is p r i-m a r ily in d ir ect , t h r ou gh t h e a d olescen t ’s p a t t er n of socia l r ela t ion s h ip s in t h e sch ool, h om e, a n d com m u n it y en v ir on m en t . F r om

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

t h is p er s p ect ive, cou n selor s a n d ot h er s ch ool p er s on n el wou ld d o w ell t o look for w ay s t o in volve is ola t ed st u d en t s in d evelop in g r ew a r d in g s ocia l r ela t ion sh ip s a n d in cr ea sed s elf-con ce p t a s a p oss ible m ea n s of r ed u cin g s t u d en t s u b st a n ce u se.

St r a t e gies focu sin g on st r en gt h en in g in t er -p er s on a l r ela t ion sh i-p s (e.g., -p eer s, fa m ily, t ea ch er s ) a n d selfes t eem , con fl ict n e got ia -t ion , r ole id en -t i-t y, a n d ge-t -t in g h elp m ay a lso b e im p or t a n t in r ed u cin g a d oles cen t s ’ p r ob -lem b eh av ior (d elin q u en cy, t r u a n cy,

s u b st a n ce a bu s e). Sch ool cou n selor s ca n wor k w it h t ea ch er s t o d evelop effect ive cla s sr oom s t sr a t e gies t o sr ed u ce d is cip lin a sr y p sr ob -lem s a n d in cr ea se cla s s r oom a ca d em ic su c-ces s. T h e r esea r ch on s t u d en t a ss ist a n ce p r ogr a m s is m ixed , h ow ever, in d ica t in g t h a t w h ile t h ey h ave b een w id ely a d op t ed , t h eir effect iven ess va r ies (Ca r ls on , 1994).

Cou p led w it h ou r fi n d in gs, t h is s u gges t s t h e fu r t h er n eed t o d evelop a n d eva lu a t e for m a l p r ogr a m s m or e com p r eh en sively by sp ecify -in g ca r efu lly t h e d et er m -in a n t va r ia bles. We h op e t h a t fu t u r e effor t s t o u n d er s t a n d t h e com p lex in t er r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een a d olescen t s a n d t h eir h om e a n d sch ool en v ir on -m en t s w ill lea d t o t h e d evelop -m en t a n d i-m p le-m en t a t ion of le-m or e effect ive ed u ca t ion a l a n d clin ica l in t er ven t ion s.

Note

1 Ob ser ved va r ia bles con ceived of a s s ca les w er e ju d ged t o b e w it h in n or m a l lim it s for m od el est im a t ion (Boom sm a , 1987), w it h a ll k u r t osis coefficien t s r a n gin g fr om –0.9 t o 2.2 (exce p t on e va r ia ble t h a t w h en t r a n sfor m ed w a s st ill a b it p ea k ed a t + 4.1) a n d s k ew n es s of –1.8 t o + 1.6.

References

Ash by, J . (1995), “Im p a ct of con t ext u a l va r ia bles on a d olescen t sit u a t ion a l exp ect a t ion of su b st a n ce a bu se”, J ou r n a l of Dru g E d u ca tion , Vol. 25 N o. 1, p p. 11-22.

Ba ch m a n , J ., Wa lla ce, J ., O’M a lley, P., J oh n s t on , L., Ku r t h , C. a n d N eigh b or s, H . (1991), “Ra cia l/ et h n ic d iffer en ces in s m ok in g, d r in k -in g, a n d illicit d r u g u s e a m on g Am er ica n h igh sch ool sen ior s, 1976-1989”, A m er ica n J ou r n a l of Pu blic H ea lth , Vol. 81, p p. 372-7.

Bem a n , D. (1995), “Risk fa ct or s lea d in g t o a d oles -cen t s u b st a n ce a bu se”, A d oles-cen ce, Vol. 30 N o. 117, p p. 201-8.

Boom sm a , A. (1987), “T h e r obu s t n ess of m a xi-m u xi-m lik elih ood est ixi-m a t ion in s t r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od els”, in Cu t t a n ce, P. a n d E cob, R. (E d s), S tru ctu ra l M od elin g b y E x a m p le, Ca m -b r id ge Un iver sit y P r es s, N ew Yor k , N Y, p p. 160-88.

Bot v in , G. a n d Wills, T. (1985), Person a l a n d S ocia l S k ills T ra in in g: Cogn itiv e-B eh a v iora l A p p r oa ch es to S u b sta n ce A b u se Prev en tion ,

Res ea r ch Mon ogr a p h Ser ies N o. 63, De p a r t m en t of H ea lt h a n d H u m a n Ser v ices, Rock v ille, MD.

Ca p u zzi, D. a n d Lecoq , L. (1983), “Socia l a n d p er s on a l d et er m in a n t s of a d oles cen t u se a n d a bu s e of a lcoh ol a n d m a r iju a n a ”, Person -n el a -n d Gu id a -n ce J ou r -n a l, Vol. 62 N o. 4, p p. 199-205.

Ca r ls on , K. (1994), “St u d en t a s sist a n ce p r ogr a m s : d o t h ey m a k e a d iffer en ce?”, J ou r n a l of Ch ild a n d A d olescen t S u b sta n ce A b u se, Vol. 4 N o. 1, p p. 1-16.

Cu t t a n ce, P. a n d E cob, R. (1987), “In t r od u ct ion ”, in Cu t t a n ce, P. a n d E cob, R. (E d s), S tru ctu ra l M od elin g b y E x a m p le: A p p lica tion s in E d u ca -tion a l, S ociologica l, a n d B eh a v iora l R esea rch , Ca m b r id ge Un iver s it y P r ess, Ca m b r id ge. Dav ies, R. (1994), “F r om cr oss sect ion a l t o lon git u

-d in a l a n a ly sis”, in Da le, A. a n -d Dav ies, R. (E d s), A n a lyz in g S ocia l a n d Politica l Ch a n ge: A Ca seb ook of M eth od s, St a t e Un iver s it y of N ew Yor k P r ess, Alb a n y, N Y.

Dever y, G. (1993), “Sch ool va n d a lism , t r u a n cy, a n d v iolen ce d u e t o d r u gs ”, T h e J oh n son In stitu te Ob ser v er , Vol. 6, p p. 1-6.

Dielm a n , T. (1989), “A cova r ia n ce st r u ct u r e m od el t es t of a n t eced en t s of a d oles cen t a lcoh ol m is-u s e a n d a p r even t ion effor t ”, J ois-u r n a l of Dris-u g E d u ca tion , Vol. 19 N o. 4, p p. 337-61.

Dielm a n , T., Bu t ch a r t , A. a n d Sh op e, J . (1993), “St r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od el t es t s of p a t t er n s of fa m ily in t er a ct ion , p eer a lcoh ol u s e, a n d in t r a p er s on a l p r ed ict or s of a d olescen t a lcoh ol u s e a n d m isu se”, J ou r n a l of Dru g E d u ca tion , Vol. 23 N o. 3, p p. 273-316.

Din ges, M . a n d Oet t in g, E . (1993), “Sim ila r it y in d r u g u s e p a t t er n s b et w een a d olescen t s a n d t h eir fr ien d s”, A d olescen ce, Vol. 28, p p. 253-66.

Dr y foos, J . (1990), A d olescen ts a t R isk , Oxfor d Un iver s it y P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y. E lliot , D., H u izin ga , S. a n d Aget on , S. (1985),

E x p la in in g Delin qu en cy a n d Dru g A b u se, Sa ge, N ew bu r y P a r k , CA.

E va n s, W. a n d Sk a ger, R. (1992), “Aca d em ica lly s u cces sfu l d r u g u ser s : a n oxy m or on ”, J ou r n a l of Dru g E d u ca tion , Vol. 22 N o. 4, p p. 353-65. F lay, B. a n d P et r a it is, J . (1991), M eth od ologica l

Issu es in Dru g Use Prev en tion R esea rch : T h eo-retica l Con sid era tion s, Resea r ch Mon ogr a p h N o. 107, DH H S P u blica t ion N o. ADM 91-1761, N a t ion a l In st it u t e on Dr u g Abu se, Wa sh in g-t on , DC, p p. 81-109.

F lay, B., Rya n , K., Best , J ., Br ow n , K., Ker s ell, M., D’Aver n a s, J . a n d Za n n a , M. (1983), “Ciga r et t e s m ok in g: w h y you n g p eop le d o it a n d w ay s of p r even t in g it ”, in McGr a t h , P. a n d F ir est on e, P. (E d s ) , Ped ia tr ic a n d A d olescen t B eh a v iora l M ed icin e, Sp r in ger, N ew Yor k , N Y.

F u r s t en b er g, F., Mor ga n , S., Moor e, K. a n d P et er -s on , J . (1987), “Ra ce d iffer en ce-s in t h e t im in g of a d oles cen t in t er cou r se”, A m er ica n S ocio-logica l R ev iew , Vol. 52, p p. 511-18.

Gr im es, J . a n d Sw ish er, J . (1989), “E d u ca t ion a l fa ct or s in fl u en cin g a d oles cen t d ecision

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

m a k in g r e ga r d in g u se of a lcoh ol a n d d r u gs”, J ou r n a l of A lcoh ol a n d Dru g E d u ca tion , Vol. 35 N o. 1, p p. 1-15.

H a h n , A. (1987), “Rea ch in g ou t t o Am er ica ’s d r op ou t s: w h a t t o d o?”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n , Vol. 69 N o. 4, p p. 256-63.

H a leb sk y, M. (1987), “Ad oles cen t a lcoh ol a n d s u b -st a n ce a bu se: p a r en t a n d p eer effect s ”, A d oles-cen ce, Vol. 22 N o. 88, p p. 961-7.

H aw k in s, J ., Gt a la n o, R. a n d M iller, J . (1991), “Ris k a n d p r ot ect ive fa ct or s for a lcoh ol a n d ot h er d r u g p r oblem s in a d oles cen ce a n d ea r ly ch ild -h ood : im p lica t ion s for s u b s t a n ce a bu s e p r e-ven t ion ”, Psych ologica l B u lletin , Vol. 106, p p. 357-89.

H aw k in s, J ., Lish n er, D., a n d Ca t a la n o, R. (1985), “Ch ild h ood p r ed ict or s a n d t h e p r even t ion of a d olescen t su b st a n ce a bu s e”, in J on es, C. a n d Ba t t jes, R. (E d s), E tiolog y of Dru g A b u se: Im p lica tion s for Prev en tion , Res ea r ch M on o-gr a p h N o. 56, N a t ion a l In s t it u t e on Dr u g Abu se, Rock v ille, MD, p p. 46-125.

H ayes, C. (1987), R isk in g th e Fu tu re: A d olescen t S ex u a lity, Pregn a n cy, a n d Ch ild b ea r in g, Vol. 1, N a t ion a l Aca d em y P r es s, Wa s h in gt on , DC.

H ir sch i, T. (1969), Ca u ses of Delin qu en cy, Un iver -sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Ber k eley, CA.

H oa r e, C. (1991), “P sych osocia l id en t it y d evelop m en t a n d cu lt u r a l ot h er s ”, J ou r n a l of Cou n -selin g a n d Dev elop m en t, Vol. 70 N o. 1, p p. 45-53.

H u b a , G. a n d Ben t ler, P. (1982), “A d evelop m en t a l t h eor y of d r u g u se: d er iva t ion a n d a s sess -m en t of a ca u sa l -m od elin g a p p r oa ch ”, L ife-S p a n Dev elop m en t a n d B eh a v ior , Vol. 4, p p. 147-200.

H u b a , G., Win ga r d , T., a n d Ben t ler, P. (1980), “Ap p lica t ion s of a t h eor y of d r u g u s e t o p r even t ion p r ogr a m s”, J ou r n a l of Dru g E d u ca -tion , Vol. 10 N o. 1, p p. 25-38.

J essor, R. (1976), “P r ed ict in g t im e of on s et of m a r iju a n a u se: a d evelop m en t a l s t u dy of h igh sch ool you t h ”, in Let t ier i, D. (E d .), Pre-d ictin g A Pre-d olescen t Dru g A b u se: A R ev iew of th e L itera tu re, M eth od s, a n d Cor rela tes, Resea r ch Issu e N o. 11, ADM 77-299, N a t ion a l In st it u t e on Dr u g Abu s e, Wa s h in gt on , DC, p p. 285-98.

J essor, R. a n d J essor, S. (1977), Pr oblem B eh a v ior a n d Psych osocia l Dev elop m en t: A L on gitu d i-n a l S tu d y of You th , Aca d em ic P r es s, N ew Yor k , N Y.

J oh n st on , L., O’Ma lley, P. a n d Ba ch m a n , J . (1989), Dru g Use, Dr in k in g, a n d S m ok in g: N a tion a l S u r v ey R esu lts fr om H igh S ch ool, College a n d You n g A d u lt Pop u la tion s, 1975-1988, ADM 981638, N a t ion a l In st it u t e on Dr u g Abu s e, Wa s h -in gt on , DC,

J or esk og, K. a n d Sor b om , D. (1993), L IS R E L User ’s Gu id e, Scien t ifi c Soft w a r e, Ch ica go, IL. Ka n d el, D. (1980), “Dr u g a n d d r in k in g b eh av ior

a m on g you t h ”, A n n u a l R ev iew of S ociolog y, Vol. 6, p p. 235-85.

Ka n d el, D. (1982), “E p id em iologica l a n d p s ych oso-cia l p er s p ect ives on a d olescen t d r u g u se”, J ou r n a l of A m er ica n A ca d em ic Clin ica l Psy-ch ia tr y, Vol. 21, p p. 328-47.

Ka n d el, D., Kessler, R. a n d Ma r gu lies, R. (1978), “An t eced en t s of a d olescen t in it ia t ion in t o s t a ges of d r u g u se: a d evelop m en t a l a n a ly sis”, J ou r n a l of You th a n d A d olescen ce, Vol. 7 N o. 1, p p. 13-36.

Kella m , S. a n d Br ow n , H . (1982), S ocia l A d a p ta -tion a l a n d Psych ologica l A n teced en ts of A d o-lescen t Psych op a th olog y T en Yea rs L a ter, J oh n s H op k in s Un iver s it y, Ba lt im or e, MD. Kova ch , J . a n d Glick m a n , N. (1986), “Levels a n d

p s ych os ocia l cor r ela t es of a d oles cen t d r u g u s e”, J ou r n a l of You th a n d A d olescen ce, Vol. 15 N o. 1, p p. 61-77.

Leit h wood , K., J a n t zi, D., Sa lin s, H . a n d Da r t , B. (1993), “Usin g t h e a p p r a isa l of sch ool lea d er s a s a n in s t r u m en t for sch ool r est r u ct u r in g”, Peab od y J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion , Vol. 68 N o. 2, p p. 85-109.

M a r cou lid es, G. a n d H eck , R. (1993), “Or ga n iza -t ion a l cu l-t u r e a n d p er for m a n ce: p r op osin g a n d t est in g a m od el”, Orga n iz a tion S cien ce, Vol. 4 N o. 2, p p. 209-25.

M a r sh , H ., Bella , J . a n d McDon a ld , R. (1988), “Good n ess -of-fi t in d ices in con fi r m a t or y fa ct or a n a ly sis: t h e effect s of size”, Psych ologi-ca l B u lletin , Vol. 103, p p. 411-23.

M a son , M . a n d H od ge, M. (1995), “A m od el of d a t a collect ion on sch ool-b a sed a lcoh ol a n d ot h er d r u gs (AOD) p r even t ion p r ogr a m s ”, J ou r n a l of Ch ild a n d A d olescen t S u b sta n ce A b u se, Vol. 4 N o. 2, p p. 39-47.

M ilgr a m , G. a n d P a n d in a , R. (1981), “E d u ca t ion a l im p lica t ion s of a d olescen t su b st a n ce u se”, J ou r n a l of A lcoh ol a n d Dru g E d u ca tion , Vol. 26 N o. 3, p p. 13-22.

M ills, R., Du n h a m , R. a n d Alp er t , G. (1988), “Wor k -in g w it h h igh -r isk you t h -in p r even t ion a n d ea r ly in t er ven t ion p r ogr a m s : t ow a r d a com -p r eh en s ive w elln es s m od el”, A d olescen ce, Vol. 23, p p. 643-60.

M u r r ay, D. a n d P er r y, C. (1985), “T h e p r even t ion of a d oles cen t d r u g a bu se: im p lica t ion s of et io-logica l, d evelop m en t a l, b eh av ior a l, a n d en v i-r on m en t a l m od els ”, in J on es, C. a n d Ba t t jes, R. (E d s), E tiolog y of Dru g A b u se: Im p lica tion s for Prev en tion , Resea r ch Mon ogr a p h N o. 56, DH H S P u blica t ion N o. ADM 87-1335, N a t ion a l In s t it u t e on Dr u g Abu se, Wa sh in gt on , DC, p p. 236-56.

N ew com b, M . a n d Ben t ler, P. (1988), Con sequ en ces of A d olescen t Dru g Use: Im p a ct on th e L iv es

of You n g A d u lts, Sa ge, N ew bu r y P a r k , CA.

N ew com b, M ., Ma d d a h ia n , E ., Sk a ger, R. a n d Ben t ler, P. (1987), “Su b st a n ce a bu se a n d p s y -ch os ocia l r is k fa ct or s a m on g t een a ger s : a s so-cia t ion s w it h sex, a ge, et h n icit y, a n d t y p e of s ch ool”, A m er ica n J ou r n a l of Dru g a n d A lco-h ol A b u se, Vol.13 N o. 4, p p. 413-33.

Ro nald H. He c k and Ro be rt C. Vo lite r

Bac kgro und, psyc ho -so c ial fac to rs and substanc e use : the ir e ffe c ts o n high sc ho o l se nio rs’ pe rc e ptio ns o f the ir e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 2 0 –1 3 2

N u n n , G. a n d P a r ish , T. (1992), “T h e p s ych os ocia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of a t r is k h igh s ch ool s t u -d en t s”, A -d olescen ce, Vol. 27, p p. 435-40. Oet t in g, E . a n d Bea u va is, F. (1987), “P eer clu st er

t h eor y, socia liza t ion ch a r a ct er ist ics, a n d a d olescen t d r u g u se: a p a t h a n a ly s is ”, J ou r n a l of Cou n selin g Psych olog y, Vol. 34, p p. 205-13. Rh odes, J . a n d J a son , L. (1990), “A socia l str ess

m odel of su bsta n ce a bu se”, J ou r n a l of Cou n sel-in g a n d Clsel-in ica l Psych olog y, Vol. 58, pp. 395-401.

Se ga l, B. (1986), “Age a n d fi r st exp er ien ce w it h p s ych oa ct ive d r u gs ”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of th e A d d iction s, Vol. 21, p p.1285-306.

Tob ia s, J . (1986), S ch ools a n d Dru gs, P a n d a P r ess, An n a n d a le, VA.

Wa lla ce, J . a n d Ba ch m a n , J . (1991), “E xp la in in g r a cia l/ et h n ic d iffer en ces in a d oles cen t d r u g u s e: t h e im p a ct of b a ck gr ou n d a n d lifes t y le”, S ocia l Pr oblem s, Vol. 18 N o. 3, p p. 333-55.