Greek and the other : narrative analysis on pseudo Callisthenes` Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena`s Alexiad.

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ABSTRACT

Indriyanto, Kristiawan, 2016, Greek and the Other: Narrative Analysis of

Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena’s Alexiad. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This thesis explores how colonial ideology is reflected in

Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena’s Alexiad. Greek colonialism which took place during antiquity until medieval era had certain parallel with modern colonialism of the European powers. As Alexander Romance and Alexiad were written during different time periods the focus is to compare and contrast the similarities and differences in ideological paradigm.

This thesis uses two main theories to analyze these two texts, narratology and postcolonialism. Narratology is used to probe the ideological position of both the narrator of Alexander Romance and Anna as the Greek through textual analysis. Several narratological concepts used are focalization, prolepsis, and pause. The use of these devices reflect the ideological position of the narrators. Secondly, several postcolonial concepts theorized by Said related with colonialism, imperialism, and the Other are used. As this thesis analyzes selected Greek texts, several concepts

related more with the Greeks are also used, mainly the Greeks’ conceptualization of

the barbarian. Based on these two theories, this thesis concludes that the narrators narrate Alexander Romance and Alexiad from the perspective of the Greek as colonizer.

The primary similarities between Alexander Romance and Alexiad are mainly linked with how the narrators proclaim the superiority of the Greeks through the deeds of Alexander and Alexius which are contrasted with the inferiority of the barbarian kings. While Alexander and Alexius are depicted as a model example of a Greek, their enemies are depicted stereotypically as ignorant and cowardly barbarian kings. The narrators claim that as Greeks, Alexander and Alexius is more intelligent and braver than their opponents, which become the reason for their victory. As both texts are separated by different time periods, there are also differences in ideological perspectives. Firstly, Greek colonialism during antiquity is fueled by religious drive in form of prophecies, on the contrary prophecies is discontinued during Byzantine period. Secondly, Alexander Romance emphasizes more on the conquest of Alexander, not only towards the real barbarians of Persia and India but also towards the mythical barbarians, such as the centaurs. On the contrary, Alexiad gives more emphasizes on how the barbarians are Hellenized in the depiction of semi-barbarians.

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ABSTRAK

Indriyanto, Kristiawan, 2016, Greek and the Other: Narrative Analysis of

Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena’s Alexiad. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma

Tesis ini membahas bagaimana ideologi kolonial tercermin dalam Alexander Romance yang ditulis Pseudo-Callisthenes and Alexiad karangan Anna Comnena. Kolonialisme Yunani yang berlangung selama zaman kuno hingga zaman pertengahan memiliki beberapa persamaan dengan kolonialisme Eropa modern. Karena kedua teks tersebut ditulis pada zaman yang berbeda, fokus tesis ini adalah membandingkan persamaan dan perbedaan dalam paradigma ideologis.

Tesis ini menggunakan dua teori inti untuk menganalisa kedua teks tersebut, narratologi dan poskolonialisme. Teori pertama, narratologi digunakan untuk menyelidiki posisi ideologis pengisah dari Alexander Romance dan Anna sebagai orang Yunani melalui analisa tekstual. Beberapa konsep narratologi yang digunakan adalah fokalisasi, prolepsis, dan jeda (pause). Penggunaan beberapa konsep narratologi ini merefleksikan posisi ideologis kedua pengisah. Teori kedua, beberapa konsep poskolonialisme yang diteorikan oleh Edward Said terkait dengan kolonialisme, imperialism dan liyan. Karena tesis ini menganalisa beberapa teks Yunani, tesis ini juga menggunakan beberapa konsep bagaimana orang Yunani mengkonseptualisasi orang barbar. Berdasarkan kedua teori pokok ini, tesis ini berkesimpulan bahwa kedua pengisah menceritakan Alexander Romance dan Alexiad dari sudut pandang Yunani sebagai penjajah.

Persamaan paling pokok antara Alexander Romance dan Alexiad adalah bagaimana kedua pengisah menyatakan keunggulan orang Yunani melalui perbuatan Alexander dan Alexius yang dibandingkan dengan inferioritas raja barbar. Alexander dan Alexius digambarkan sebagai sosok-sosok ideal orang Yunani, sedangkan lawan-lawan mereka digambarkan secara stereotipikal, sebagai raja barbar yang bodoh dan penakut. Pengisah-pengisah di kedua teks itu beranggapan bahwa Alexander and Alexius lebih pintar dan lebih berani dari lawan-lawan mereka sehingga mereka dapat menaklukkan raja-raja barbar. Karena kedua teks ini dipisahkan oleh perbedaan zaman, juga terdapat perbedaan dalam sudut pandang ideologis. Pertama, kolonialisme Yunani di zaman kuno dilandaskan oleh ramalan dewa-dewi, sebaliknya ramalan tidak lagi dipergunakan pada zaman Byzantium. Kedua, Alexander Romance lebih memberikan fokus bagaimana Alexander menaklukan kaum barbar, bukan hanya terhadap kaum barbar sebenarnya seperti orang Persia dan orang India tetapi juga kaum barbar mistis, seperti Kentaur. Sebaliknya, Alexiad lebih berfokus kepada kaum barbar mengadopsi gaya hidup Hellenisme.

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GREEK AND THE OTHER: NARRATIVE ANALYSIS ON PSEUDO

CALLISTHENES’ ALEXANDER ROMANCE AND ANNA COMNENA’S

ALEXIAD

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) in English Language Studies

Kristiawan Indriyanto Student Number: 146332017

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2016

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GREEK AND THE OTHER: NARRATIVE ANALYSIS ON PSEUDO

CALLISTHENES’ ALEXANDER ROMANCE AND ANNA COMNENA’S

ALEXIAD

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) in English Language Studies

Kristiawan Indriyanto Student Number: 146332017

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2016

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Yogyakarta, September 5,

2016

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TMSIS

GREEKAND THE OTHf,R: NARRATIVIE ANALYSIS oN PSETIDO

CALLISTHENES' _{ALEXANDER ROMANCE}_AI\TD_{ANNA COMNENA'S}

ALEXIAD

Kristiawan Indriyanto

Student Number: 146332017

Approved by

Paulus Sarwotoo Ph.D.

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A TEE,SIS

GREEKAI{D THE OTHER: NARRATTVE ANALY$S ON PSETIIX}

CALI.TSTHENES' ALET(AIYDER ROMANCE AND A}INA COMNENA'S

ALEXAD

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Kristiawea Indriyanto

Student Number: 116132017

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ORIGINALITY

This is to certiS that all ideas, phraBss, senteflces, ualess otherwise stated, are the ideas, and sentences

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJAAN PUBLIKASI KARYA

ILMIAH

ANTAK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

I/ang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Kristiawan Indriyanto

NIM

z 146332017

Derni pengembangan

ilmu

pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

GREEK AND TIIE OTHER: NARRATIVE ANALYSIS ON PSEUDO

CALLISTHENES' ALEXANDER ROMANCE AND ANNA COMNENA'S

LEXIAD

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan

dalam bentuk media

lain,

mengelolanya

dalam bentuk

pangkalan data,

mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di intemet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu maninta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan

royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan.ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 5 September 2016

Kristiawan Indriyanto

ang menyatakan

@

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I thank Jesus Christ for His blessing and guidance for the accomplishment of my thesis. I give my gratitude toward my thesis advisor, Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D for his insight, help, and correction during the writing of this thesis. I also thank my lecturers in English Language Studies especially Patrisius Mutiara Andalas, SJ., S.S., S.T.D. Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons), Ph.D and the late Prof. Dr. Bakdi Soemanto, S.U. Through their classes and discussions, I learn a lot. Furthermore, I thank my examiner, Arti Wulandari, Ph.D.

I would also thank both my parents, Prof. Dr. Teguh Prasetyo, S.H., M,Si. and Sri Indarti, S.H., for their kindness and support during my study. Many thanks are also attributed toward my friends in English Language Studies, especially from the B Class of 2014 and Literature Batch. I would like to thank my friends in Literature Batch, mas Adit, Pras, Ruly, Anggi, mas Tama, mbak Anis, mbak Rini, mbak Dian, mbak Melania, mbak Teti. During our class we all learn a lot. I also give my gratitude to my other friends who worked together to finish our thesis, Martha, Sari, Dangin, mbak Vita, mas Bayu and mas Ajay from IRB. I am also thankful toward the senior members of 2014 Batch, Pak Marwan, Pak Kosmas, and Pak Firmus for their wisdom. I also thank my friends in DOTA 2 Dictator Team, Pandu, Uya, Bryan, Richard, Li, We, Theo, Bli Putu, Anto. Lastly, I also thank the academic staff of ELS, Mbak Marni and Mas Mul for their helping hands.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

MOTTO ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii

ABSTRACT ... xi

ABSTRAK ... xii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

1. Justification of the Study ... 1

2. Historical Background ... 7

3. Objects of Study ... 10

B. Problem Formulation ... 16

C. Benefit of the Study ... 16

D. Thesis Outline ... 17

CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW ... 18

A. Review of Related Studies ... 18

B. Review of Related Theories ... 27

1. Narratology ... 28

a. Classical and Postclassical Narratology ... 28

b. Ideology in Narrative Devices ... 30

b.1 Ideology and Ideology in Narration ... 30

b.2 Ideology in Focalization ... 32

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c. Narratology in Non-Fictional Text ... 37

2. Postcolonial Theories ... 39

a. Colonialism, Colonial Complicity, and Imperialism ... 40

b. The Other and the Greek’s Barbarian Other ... 44

b.1 Said’s Analysis on European Concept of the Other ... 44

b.2 The Greek’s Concept of the Barbarian ... 46

CHAPTER III : IDEOLOGICAL SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ALEXANDER ROMANCE AND ALEXIAD ... 50

A. Comparison between Alexander and Alexius through the Narrators’ Focalization ... 51

1. Glorification of Alexander and Alexius as Noble Greek (Agathos) ... 51

2. Alexander and Alexius’ Hellenic Virtues... 54

a. Intelligence (xunesis) ... 55

b. Bravery (andreia) ... 59

c. Self-restrain (sophrosune)... 62

B. Comparison between Barbarian Kings through the Narrators’ Focalization ... 66

1. Depiction of Darius as Stereotypical Barbarian King ... 67

2. Depiction of Apelchasem as Stereotypical Barbarian King. ... 75

CHAPTER IV : IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALEXANDER ROMANCE AND ALEXIAD ... 79

A. The Presence and Absence of Prolepsis ... 79

1. The Presence of Prolepsis and the Myth of Colonial Complicity in Alexander Romance ... 80

a. Prolepsis in Sarepeum Prophecy ... 81

b. Prolepsis in Ammonian Prophecy ... 86

2. The Absence of Prolepsis in Alexiad ... 90

B. Different Barbarians by Different Narrators’ Focalization ... 95

1. Alexander Romance’s Depiction of Mythical Barbarians ... 96

2. Alexiad’s Depiction of Semi-Barbarians ... 101

a. Depiction of the Varangians ... 102

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CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION ... 109

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 115

APPENDICES ... 121

APPENDIX 1: SUMMARY OF ALEXANDER ROMANCE ... 121

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ABSTRACT

Indriyanto, Kristiawan, 2016, Greek and the Other: Narrative Analysis of

Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena’s Alexiad. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This thesis explores how colonial ideology is reflected in

related more with the Greeks are also used, mainly the Greeks’ conceptualization of

the barbarian. Based on these two theories, this thesis concludes that the narrators narrate Alexander Romance and Alexiad from the perspective of the Greek as colonizer.

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ABSTRAK

Indriyanto, Kristiawan, 2016, Greek and the Other: Narrative Analysis of

Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena’s Alexiad. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study 1. Justification of the Study

Colonialism and imperialism begins even further than the modern Western imperialism. Irwin St. John Tucker in his A History of Imperialism (1920) proclaims that,” empire is as old as history itself.”1 A less hyperbolic view is addressed by Michael W Doyle in Empires (1986). In Doyle’s view,

empires have been key actors in world politics for millennia. They helped create the interdependent civilizations of Europe, India, the Americas, Africa, and East Asia which form much of our cultural heritage. They shaped the political development of practically all the states of the modern world.2

Both theorists recognize the fact that imperialism has started since the dawn of human civilization. Imperialism is associated with a sense of superiority by the imperial powers which become their justification to conquer and control the so

called “weaker” civilization. The imperial subjugation causes the loss of

independence in the occupied nation, as the colonizer has total control and authority in ruling their colonized. Doyle states that

empire, I shall argue, is a system of interaction between two political entities, one of which, the dominant metro pole, exerts political control over the internal and external policy-the effective sovereignty- of the other, the subordinate periphery.3

This thesis seeks to explore the reflection of colonial ideology in selected Greek texts. Although Greek was not a major power in modern European

1_{Tucker, Irwin St. John. A History of Imperialism. (New York: Rand School of Social Science,}

1920) p. 134. PDF

2_{Doyle. Michael W. Empires. (New York: Cornell University Press, 1986) p. 12. PDF} 3_{Doyle. Michael W. p 12.}

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imperialism, Greek colonialism during antiquity until medieval era can also show the embodiment of colonial ideology in their literary texts. While the modern colonialism is marked more by the colonial empires of Britain, French, Dutch and also Germany, Greek colonialism occurs during the antiquity until the medieval era. The primary objects of study are two Greek texts, Pseudo-Callisthenes4’

Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena5’s Alexiad. Pepertua Nkamanyang

addresses how literature, especially narrative is loaded with the cultural background of its production, he said that

narrative itself functions as a tool for constructing specific cultural contexts (including history/ideology of a given period) since it provides formal structures for reproducing specific cultures from which it emanates.6

Similar with the way modern colonizer proclaim their superiority compared to the colonized, the Greeks also conceptualized the view of the superiority of Hellenic culture compared to the barbarian Other through literature.

Even though there are parallels between Greek colonialism and modern colonialism as literature is used to strengthen the propagation of the superiority of the colonizer, there exists a major difference. Orientalism, as stated by Edward Said in his Orientalism (1978) is the main ideological conception behind modern

4Even though Callisthenes, Alexander’s court historian writes Alexander’s history, Callisthenes is

executed before the end of the Indian Campaign. The person who continues Callisthenes’ work

remains unknown, hence the authorship of Alexander Romance is attributed to Pseudo-Callisthenes. In Indian Campaign Alexander led his army into India in 326 BC and defeated King Porus of the Paurava Kingdom. Alexander did not conquer the whole of India, at the River Hyphasis he turned back (mid-326), sailed down the Indus and marched through the Gedrosian desert to the Persian heartland.

5_{There is no standardized version of her name, it can be spelled either Anna Comnena (Latinized)}

or Anna Komnene (original Greek). This thesis uses Anna Comnena as Dawes’ version as the object of study uses the Latin version.

6_{Nkamanyang, Pepertua. Forms and Function of Narration and Focalization in some Selected}

Poems of Lord Bryon: A Narratological Analysis. Diss. University of Giessen, 2008. Web. 17 December 2015.

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imperialism. Said defines Orientalism as the idea of the West for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient7, the place of Europe’s greatest and richest colonies8_{in Asia and Africa. On the contrary, the Greeks denoted their}

antithesis, whom they considered as barbarian was not merely limited to the East. The word barbarians denote person or people who have different culture, language, and custom to what the Greek had. Hence, the anti-Greeks in the

Greek’s perception cover all the non-Greek ethnicity which do not have the same culture and custom (paideia) to the Greeks.

As a comparative analysis, this thesis focuses on comparing and contrasting two Greek texts which come from different time period. The first text is Alexander Romance, depicting the legend of Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) by Pseudo-Callisthenes. The second text is Alexiad, written by Anna Comnena. Alexiad tells a story of the life of Anna’s father, Emperor Alexius of the Byzantine Empire (1057-1118 AD). Both texts portray the Greeks’ conquest of the non-Greeks through the campaigns of Alexander the Great and Alexius of Byzantine Empire. As both texts were written by Greeks, the narrators narrate their story from the perspective of a Greek or through what Marie Louise Pratt

states as “imperial eyes9”. Through postclassical narratology as the main

framework for the analysis, this thesis focuses on how textual features of the text actually reflect the ideological positioning of the narrator as Greeks. Furthermore, as both texts were written during the different time periods, the emphasis is on the comparison between two Greek texts.

7_{Said, Edward. Orientalism. (London: Penguins Book, 1978, Reprint.1995) p. 3. Print.} 8_{Said, Edward. p. 1.}

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This thesis briefly explores the status of Alexiad as one of the object of study. There are two main reasons why this thesis asserts that Alexiad is comparable with Alexander Romance, although their genre is different. Firstly, Marjorie Perloff acknowledges how the term literature may not adequately describe the object of comparative literature, as literary phenomena are no longer the exclusive focus of comparative literature.10 Furthermore, literary texts are one discursive practice among many, and that the space of comparison today involves comparisons between various cultural constructions.11_{It shows how in the}

contemporary comparative analysis, the comparable materials are expanded.

According to Perloff’s understanding, literature is comparable with historical texts

as both are “cultural constructions”.

Secondly, although Alexiad is categorized as historical narrative or historiography, it differs from conventional Byzantine histories. John Davis analyzes how

Alexiad is notable due for its intricate blend of historical and linguistic awareness. On one hand it follows the pattern of serious historical composition, including research, considered assessment of the data and careful arrangement and exposition of the material; on the other, Alexiad

also shows a rich mantle of rhetorical and literary artifice…. This work

embodied the cultural spirit of the ancient Greco-Roman intellectual tradition.12

10 Perloff, Marjorie. “Literature in the Expanded Field”. _{Comparative Literature in the Age of}

Multiculturalism. (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1995) Ed. Charles Bernheimer.

p.176. Print.

11_{Perloff, Marjorie. p. 180.}

12 Davis, John. “Anna Komnene and Niketas Choniates ‘translated’ “the fourt_{eenth-century}

Byzantine metaphrases.” History as Literature in Byzantium: Papers from the Fortieth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, April 2007. Ed. R.J. Macrides.

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Neville argues also that Alexiad is “an unusual history”, Anna often makes allusion to the Greek epic Iliad, and Alexiad is also epic in scale.13 Similar with Neville, Mesko states also that Anna intends more on praising Alexius’ deeds and the precise narration of the historical events is only secondary.14 Summarizing several aforementioned opinions, this thesis concludes that Alexiad should not be classified as historiography, but as a “historical epic15”.

As a basis for the comparison, this thesis uses Siegbert Prawer’s understanding of comparative literature, quoted in Susan Bassnett’s Comparative Literature (1993). She states that two subjects of comparative analysis are the literary representation of that literary representation of named personages and recurring motifs are subjects of comparative analysis.16 Relating with the postclassical model of narratology used as the theory of analysis, it can be seen that narrative devices such as focalization reflected both narrators’ ideological positioning in how they portray Alexander and Alexius in their narration. In representing Alexander and Alexius as real persons in literary works, both narrators emphasize the superiority of Greek compared to barbarian through the achievements of both Alexander and Alexius.

Furthermore, both Alexander Romance and Alexiad have similarity in recurring motifs; both texts glorify the legend of two great man in Greek history

13_Neville, Leonora. “Lamentation, History, and Female Authorship in Anna Komnene’s _Alexiad”

Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 53 (2013) p.193. PDF.

14Mesko, Marek. “Anna Komnene’s Narrative of the War against the Scythians.” _{Graeco-Latina}

Brunensia 19 (2014) p. 54. PDF.

15_{Herman, David. Jahn, Manfred and Marie-Laure Ryan. Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative}

Theory. (London: Routledge, 2005) p. 214. PDF.

16_{Prawer, Siegbert. Quoted in Basnett, Susan. Comparative Literature. (Oxford: Blackwell}

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by their martial prowess. Alexander and Alexius are portrayed as agathos (noble man) and possess arête (heroic excellence). Arthur W.H Adkins in his book Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values (1975) elaborates more about

agathos and arête. Firstly, agathos is “the most powerful words of commendation

used of a man”17_{, an agathos is in possession of arête, the qualities most highly}

valued at any time by Greek society.18 Agathos is the most admired type of man; the man who possesses the skills and qualities of the warrior-chieftain in war….be brave, skillful, and successful in war.19_{A successful conqueror is considered to}

achieve glory (kleos) by their prowess in war.20 Through the narrators’ voice in

their focalization, both narrators emphasize Alexander and Alexius’ status as

agathos due to their success in war and their various Hellenic virtues. On the

other hand, Alexander and Alexius’ enemies are denigrated as barbarian kings,

tainted by various barbaric flaws.

Even though both texts are similar in several aspects, these two texts also differ due to the different circumstances and historical background. Alexander Romance focuses on the conquest of Alexander in the beginning of Hellenistic Age. Hellenistic Age refer to the era of the enlarged, cosmopolitan Greek world of appropriately 330 -31 BCE.21. Hellenistic Age22 can therefore be considered as the

17_{Adkins, Arthur W.H. Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values. (Oxford: Oxford}

University Press, 1960) Reprinted.1975. p. 30-31. PDF

18_{Adkins, Arthur W.H. p. 31} 19_{Adkins, Arthur W.H. p. 31} 20_{Adkins, Arthur W.H. p. 32.}

21_{Sacks, David. Murray, Oswyn, and Margaret Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World}

(New York: Facts on File, 1995) p. 169. PDF

22_{The differentiation of the term Hellenic and Hellenistic according to the Encyclopedia of Ancient}

Greek World is that while Hellenic refers to the Greeks itself, the word Hellenistic come from the

verb Hellazin –to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks. This thesis uses the term Hellenic to refer to the virtues, values, culture and heritage of ethnic Greeks, whereas the term Hellenistic is

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glory days of Greek civilization, where they ruled a large empire populated by non-Greek ethnicities.

Compared to Alexander Romance, the situation of Byzantium depicted in Alexiad is marked with discord and turmoil. Before Alexius usurped the throne during a coup in 1081, the reign of previous emperor Nikophoros III Botaneiates

corresponded with a sharp downturn in Byzantium’s economic and military

fortunes.23 Around 1081, several outside enemies such as the Normans in Italy, Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor and also internal threat by pretender such as Nicephorus Bryennius endangered the security of the empire. As stated by

Frankopan,” Byzantium is in a state of effective paralysis at the time of Alexius’

seizure of the throne.”24_{To summarize, while both Pseudo-Callisthenes and Anna}

emphasize the superiority of Hellenic culture through the achievement of Alexander and Alexius, there are also differences in the ideological perspectives due to the different time period, which will be further explored in the analysis.

2. Historical Background

Before moving into further explanation of the figure of Pseudo-Callisthenes and Anna and their works, there are some information regarding Greek colonialism. These aspects mainly cover the beginning of Greek colonialism, colonialism by conquest in the era of Alexander the Great, and about the interconnection between Greek and Roman culture after Greece was

used to refer to the era and the time period, especially as after Alexander’s conquest Hellenic

culture is not only confined to Greece but spread to the East.

23 Frankopan, Peter. “Kinship and the Distribution of Power in Komnenian Byzantium.” _The

English Historical Review. 122. (2007) Web, 7 September 2015. PDF

< http://www.jstor.org/stable/20108202> p. 1

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conquered by Rome. Even though the Greeks were subjugated by the Romans, their Hellenic identity did not perish and it fact it continued to flourish until their Hellenic heritage eventually replaced the Roman aspect during Byzantine period.

In many ways, Greek colonialism in antiquity and medieval era is more long-lasting than the modern colonial power. Greek colonists traveled all along the Mediterranean and established many cities which remained until the present era. Marseille in France, Taranto (Taras) in Italy, and Alexandria in Egypt is a small example of cities founded by Greek colonists before Common Era. M.H Hansen in his book Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State (2006) states that Greek colonies constitute around half of ancient Greek poleis or at least 500 cities in the archaic and classical periods.25 Furthermore, Scheidel estimates that 40 percent of all ancient Greek resides in colonial city-states.26 This illustration shows that colonialism is an essential part of Greek ideology to expand the boundaries outside Greece itself.

At first, Greek colonialism consists of peaceful contact and co-existence between Greek settlers and traders with the natives. Parmenter makes comparison between the early Greek colonialism and the early European colonialism of North America.27 He believes that both is disorganized, involves migrations, and has no state sponsorship. Greek colonialism began to change during the reign of Alexander the Great (330 BCE). Peter Green in his book Alexander the Great and

25_{Hansen, M.H. Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State. (Oxford, Oxford}

University Press, 2006) p. 84. PDF

26 Scheidel, W. “The Greek Demographic Expansion_:Models and Comparison.” _{Journal of}

Hellenic Studies 123 (2003) Web, 29 February 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3246263 p. 120-140. PDF

27_{Parmenter, Christoper S. Ethnography and the Colonial World in Theocritus and Lucian. MA}

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the Hellenistic Age (2007) states that Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Achaemenid Empire defines the start of the Hellenistic Age.28 In this era, Greek colonialism began to be identified by territorial conquest through warfare instead of following the early model of colonialism.

After reviewing the beginning of Greek colonialism and colonialism by conquest during the Hellenistic Age, this thesis explores the Greek identity in the Byzantine Empire, as Alexiad was written in this period. Modern historians coined the term Byzantine Empire to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The earliest use is from Hieronymous Wolf, who uses the word Byzantine in his book Corpus Historiae Byzantinae (1557) to characterize the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire.29 The name Byzantine derives from the original settlement before Constantinople, the capital was established which was named Byzantium. The Eastern Roman Empire, as their territory encompassed the former territorial conquest of Alexander and hence the Hellenistic world was especially influenced by their Greek paideia (education, culture, and custom). Vyrnois addresses the Hellenism of Byzantium, he states:

There are three fundamental aspects of Byzantine identity: (a) language, (b) education, and (c) monarchial institutions. The first two of these are clearly Greek, and directly descended from classical Greece through their Hellenistic forms. The third, the Roman imperial institution, is also in part descended from its Hellenistic precedents.30

Vyronis states that language and education –paideia- of the Byzantines are derived from classical Greece. He also offers some insight towards the Roman

28_{Green, Peter. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,}

2007) p. xvi. PDF

29_{Stathakopoulos, Dionysios. A Short History of the Byzantine Empire. (London, I.B.Tauris & Co.}

Ltd, 2014) p. 204. PDF

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imperial tradition, such as the monarchial institutions which are still used by the

Byzantines. In his opinion, the “Roman imperial institution”31_{are actually partly}

“descended from its Hellenistic precedent”32_{, mainly related with the}

establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms in the aftermath of the conquest of Alexander. It implies that the establishment of Roman imperial institution, Imperium Romanum is actually based on the previous model of Greek imperium of the East in the Hellenistic Age. It indicates that there was continuity between ancient Greeks during antiquity and Byzantine Greeks. Vyronis concludes:

There was indeed a Greek identity in Byzantium as witnessed by the identification with the Greek language and Greek education on the formal cultural level, but one which the Hellenistic absolutist political tradition in its Roman political form was the characteristic political features.33

3. Objects of Study

In this section, this thesis explores more about the objects of study used, Alexander Romance and Alexiad. Alexander Romance is a historical fiction about the legend of Alexander the Great during the 4th_{century BC. This story depicts}

the conquests of Alexander, not only towards the real barbarians such as the Persians and the Indians but also against mythical barbarians such as the centaurs. As the story is told from the perspective of a Greek narrator, the narrator glorifies the successful conquest of Alexander as the proof for the superiority of the Greeks. This work is considered as one of the most long-lived and influential work of Greek literature.34 Alexander’s fame and popularity persists until the

31_{Vyronis, Speros. p. 31} 32_{Vyronis, Speros. p. 31} 33_{Vyronis, Speros. p. 36}

34_{Callisthenes, Pseudo. The Greek Alexander Romance. (London: Penguins Books, 1991) p. 5.}

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modern era. In 2009, Alexander was voted as the greatest Greek of all time.35 This fact illustrates the modern Greeks still consider Alexander as their hero, an example of model Greek agathos which influenced how they vote Alexander as the greatest Greek of all time.

The authorship of Alexander Romance is usually attributed to Callisthenes,

a contemporary historian of Alexander. Callisthenes served as Alexander’s court historian; he annotated Homer’s Illiad that Alexander always reads before he sleeps.36 Callisthenes followed Alexander’s expedition to Egypt, Persia, but he

was executed before the end of Alexander’s expedition into India. For that reason,

the authorship of Alexander Romance in modern English translation is attributed

to Pseudo Callisthenes, as the person who complete Callisthenes’ work is still

unrecognized.37

The thesis uses the Greek version translated by Richard Stoneman. Greek

Alexander Romance emphasizes Alexander’s divinity by his descend from Greek

gods. He is believed as the son of Ammon and descends from Heracles and Zeus. The narrator of Alexander Romance uses Alexander’s divine parentage to help

legitimize Alexander’s territorial conquests. This thesis especially focuses on the use of prophecies or in narratological term prolepsis to argue that this device reflects the colonial ideology of the narrator through the justification for

Alexander’s conquest.

35“Alexander the Great was voted as the Greatest Greek of All Time.” Web, _{17 December 2015. <}

http://history-of-macedonia.com/2009/05/19/alexander-the-great-was-voted-as-the-greatest-greek-all-time> PDF

36_Stoneman, Richard. “Primary Sources from the Classical and Early Medieval Periods” _A

Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages. Ed. David Zuwiyya. (Leiden: Brill

Academic Pub, 2011) p. 12. PDF

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The second text used is Anna Comnena’s Alexiad which was written during medieval era (around 1148 AD), more than one millennium after Alexander Romance. Similar with the narrator of Alexander Romance, Anna also emphasizes the superiority of the Greeks through her depiction of her father as a model Greek (agathos). Her father’s success in war is considered by Anna to be caused by her father’s status as a Greek; Greeks are considered to be more intelligent than barbarians.

This thesis briefly explores Anna as a historical figure. Anna was born at dawn of Saturday, 1st December 1083.38 She was educated by her father Alexius Comnenus -Emperor of Byzantine Empire - in Greek literacy, rhetoric, and also philosophy.39 Shaffer and Marcopoulos compares Anna with Murasaki Shikibu, the author of The Tale of Genji, they state that both were highly educated persons in a day when most people were illiterate.40_{As a first born child and}

Porphyrogénnētos -born in the purple- an honorary rank for Byzantine prince/princess born in the purple chamber of the Imperial Palace, she expected herself to ascend the throne as Empress. Unfortunately for her, the birth of John, her younger brother placed her below John in the succession. After her father’s death, she tried to place her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius as Emperor and she as the Empress but her coup attempt was thwarted. Unwilling to execute his elder

38_{Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. (London: Routledge, 1928) Reprinted. (Ontario: In Parentheses}

Publication, 2000) Trans. Elizabeth A.S Dawes. p. 15. PDF

39_{Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. (London: Penguin Books, 1969) Reprint. Penguin Classics, 2003.}

Trans. E.R.A Sewter. p. 5. PDF

40_Shaffer, Lynda N and George J. Marcopouolos. “Murasaki and Comnena : Two Women and

Two Themes in World History.” The History Teacher. 19.4 (1986) Web. 23 May 2016. <

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sister, Emperor John ordered Anna to be banished at a monastery. It was the time

where she wrote an account of her father’s reign as emperor.

Lastly, this thesis explores how the Greek texts are translated. As this

thesis analyzes the Greek’s colonial ideology through the medium of translation

from Greek into English, it cannot be denied that the message transferred might change in the process of translation. Hence, certain consideration is needed to

make sure that the translated texts used do not differ too much with the narrator’s

original ideological position. In other words, more literal translation or word-by-word translation is preferred. In their book The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969) [1982] Eugene Nida and Charles R. Taber elaborates two types of translation, formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Nida and Taber define the characteristics of formal equivalence as

F-E translation attempts to reproduce several formal elements, including: (1) grammatical units, (2) consistency in word use, and (3) meaning in terms of the source context. The reproduction of grammatical units may consist in: (a) translating nouns by nouns, verbs by verbs, etc.; (b) keeping all phrases and sentences intact41

Formal equivalence tries to remain as close to the original text as possible, without adding the translator’s ideas and thoughts into the translation.42 It can be seen therefore that translation which employs formal equivalence methods will have more faithful translation to the original source,

41_{Nida, Eugene and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (Leiden: E. J.}

Brill, 1969) Reprinted. 1982. p. 165. PDF

42 Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s

(semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories” Merit Research Journals. 2.1 (2013) Web. 09 March 2016. >http://www.meritresearchjournals.org/er/index.htm> p. 2. PDF

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In her book, Translation in a Postcolonial Context (1999), Maria Tymoczko explores postcolonial translation of early Irish literature.43 A key point

she addresses is “signature concepts” of a culture, the cultural elements that are

important to both the social organization and the world view of a particular culture.44 She further adds:

The translation of early Irish literature into English was not only a matter of translating specifically literary elements of the texts within a charged ideological construct; there was also the matter of identifying and conveying the cultural beliefs, values, ideas, and ideals that make for distinct Irish views of the world embodied in the texts.45

It can be stated that in translating text, a translator should make careful

observation to make sure that the specific “signature concepts” of the original text

is able to be transmitted to the target audiences. Similar with what Tymoczko has stated, Lorna Hardwick and Eva Parisinou in their Translating Words, Translating Cultures (2000) also propose correlated view:

The act of translating also involves translating or transplanting into the receiving culture the cultural framework within which an ancient text is embedded. The task facing the translator of ancient texts is to produce translations that seek to articulate in some way the cultural framework within which that text is embedded.46

While Tymoczko focuses more on the translation of early Irish literature into English, Hardwick and Parisinou emphasize more on the translation of ancient

Greek texts. Hardwick and Parisinou state that the “task facing the translator of

ancient texts” is to articulate “the cultural framework” of a text which similar with

43_{Tymoczko, Maria. Translation in a Postcolonial Context. (Michigan: University of Michigan St.}

Jerome Publishing, 1999) p. 210. PDF

44_{Tymoczko, Maria. p. 213.} 45_{Tymoczko, Maria. p. 211.}

46_{Hardwock, Lorna and Eva Parisinou. Translating Words, Translating Cultures. (Oakland:}

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what Tymoczko coins as “signature concepts.” Hence, it is not only the translation of early Irish text that should translate the “signature concepts” of Irish into

English, but also the translation of classical Greek texts into English.

The debate in choosing which text to use is more particularly shown in the translation of Alexiad, as there are two different versions. In choosing which version of Alexiad to analyze here, this thesis prefers the translation which uses formal equivalence method. The translated version of Alexiad used here is the 1928 version of Alexiad translated by Elisabeth A.S Dawes.47 Dawes’ version is

the first translation of Alexiad into English, and another translator, E.R.A Sewter

published her translation in 1968. Dawes’ version is preferred because in this thesis’s perspective, Dawes’ Alexiad better captures the original essence of

Anna’s narration, her colonial ideology that is the main aspect of the thesis. One

review by Paul Halsall also emphasizes the closeness of Dawes’ translation to the

original Greek.48 The review says, “Dawes’ translation was a literal one that kept

very closely to the Greek text.” Halsall also reviews Sewter’ version and he states

that Sewter’s translation is a more fluid version than Dawes’”.49_{In her preface,}

Sewter herself acknowledges that “she tries to express in contemporary Anglo -American the ideas and language of a Byzantine princess who wrote some eight

47Dawes’s version is republished by In Parentheses publications in 2000 and available online at

www.yorku.ca/inpar/alexiad_dawes.pdf

48_{Hallsall, Paul. <Medieval Sourcebook: Anna Comnena: The Alexiad> Web, 23 May 2016. <}

http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/AnnaComnena-Alexiad.asp>

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hundred years ago”.50 Hence, this thesis uses the version translated by Dawes which is closer to the original Greek.

B. Problem Formulation

This thesis compares and contrasts the similarities and differences between

the Greek’s colonial ideology in antiquity and medieval era through the narrators’

use of several narrative devices. Although both texts are separated by different time periods, the imperial and colonial attitude of the Greek persists from antiquity until the medieval era. While there are similarities, the different historical background of Alexander Romance and Alexiad also causes difference in how the colonial ideology is depicted. There are two questions formulated here. The first question is intended to highlight the similarities of ideology from Alexander Romance and Alexiad. Second question is to explore the differences in ideological positioning. This thesis formulates the questions as:

1. How do Alexander Romance and Alexiad depict the similarities of ideology between ancient Greek and Byzantine Greek?

2. How do Alexander Romance and Alexiad depict the differences of ideology between ancient Greek and Byzantine Greek?

C. Benefit of the Study

This thesis aims to have theoretical benefit which is to increase awareness towards contemporary/postclassical narratology. Contemporary narratology particularly highlights how the form and contents of literature are socially constructed, related with the historical contexts concerning literary texts. Through

50_{Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. London: Penguin Books, 1969. Reprint. Penguin Classics, 2003)}

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the analysis of several narrative devices originally coined by structuralist narratology, contemporary narratology examines how the narrative devices reflect the ideological positioning of the narrator. Furthermore, as this thesis also uses several postcolonial concepts to analyze Greek colonialism in Alexander Romance and Alexiad, this study can also be defined as the application of postcolonial narratology. As stated by Gerald Prince, postcolonial narratology adopts and rely on the result of postclassical narratology, but would inflect and perhaps enrich it by wearing a set of postcolonial lenses to look as narrative.51_{It can be said}

therefore that the analysis of this thesis is conducted with postclassical narratology as the main framework, which is enhanced by several postcolonial terminologies.

D. Thesis Outline

This thesis is arranged thematically. Chapter one consists of background of the study, problem formulation, and benefits of the study. Chapter two covers the review of related studies and review of related theories. Chapter three analyzes the similarities in ideology between Alexander Romance and Alexiad. Chapter four deals with the differences of ideological perspective between Alexander Romance and Alexiad. The last chapter presents the conclusion of the analysis in the third and fourth chapter.

51 Prince, Gerald. “On a Postcolonial Narratology.” _{A Companion to Narrative Theory. (New}

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Review of Related Studies

Previously, this thesis summarizes background of the study which covers justifications for the study, historical background, and also objects of the study. On historical backgrounds, this thesis reviews the development of Greek colonialism from the early period of colonialism until colonialism through conquest which started during the reign of Alexander the Great. In this section, the focus is more on reviewing several previous studies on how the Greeks viewed the non-Greeks as barbarian. This section emphasizes on how the Greeks conceptualized the idea of barbarian in several Greek texts as few researches on colonialism in both Alexander Romance and Alexiad have been conducted. Several articles reviewed here argue that the concept of colonialism can be found in their reading of several Greek texts, either on historical accounts or literary texts.

Several studies have been conducted on how the Greek perceives the Other. Van der Vliet presents this issue in his reading of Strabo’s Geography.52_{He asserts}

that ethnicity is constructed on the basis of dichotomies, by which ‘us’ and ‘not us’

are distinguished.53 There was also dichotomy in how the Greeks viewed the

non-Greeks ethnicities based on Strabo’s account. The dichotomy was on strict opposition

52Van der Vliet, Edward Ch. L. “The Romans and Us, Strabo’s Geography and the Construction of

Ethnicity.” Mnemosyne. 56. (2003), Web, 7 October 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4433447 p. 257-272.

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between hostile and uncivilized native tribes facing Greek colonists. Strabo associates barbarism (barbaroi) with misery, poverty, a lack of capacity to civilize themselves and a lack of self-control and moderation.54_{Barbarian natives were described to have}

a wretched and simple existence. Therefore, uncivilized natives needed the guiding hand of Greek colonizer in order to improve their living condition. The Greeks believed that it was their duty to bring Hellenic culture to the untamed ethnicities by

the virtue of being the superior culture. In the Greeks’ perception, barbarian was their

antithesis or the opposite of the Greek.55_{Hence, the Greeks considered the}

non-Greeks ethnicities as the Other.

Another idea of how barbarian was portrayed in Greek historical account can

also be found in Herodotus’s Histories.56Van Amsterdam explores how Herotodus’s Histories presents the imagery of untidy hordes, incomprehensible speech, and the contrasting values between tyrannical Persians against the democratic Greeks.57

When the Greeks managed to hold the Persian’s expansion at Salamis and Platea it

was the victory of the superiority of the Greeks compared to the barbarian, despotic slave state.58_{Similar with what Van Der Vliet asserted before, the Greek perceived}

the non-Greeks as their antithesis. In this case, the Greek’s democratic government

was contrasted with the tyrannical monarchy of the Persians. Greek’s victory in the

54_{Van der Vliet, Edward Ch. L. p. 257} 55_{Van der Vliet, Edward Ch. L. p. 261}

56_Van Amsterdam, Katrina. “When in Greece, Do as the Persian Don’t: Defining the Identity of the

Greeks Against the Persian Imperial Order.” Hirundo XIII (2013), Web. 3 November 2015.

https://www.mcgill.ca/classics/files/classics/2013-14-02.pdf p. 1-16.

57_{Van Amsterdam, Katrina p.2} 58_{Van Amsterdam, Katrina. p. 4}

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Persian War (480-479 BC) was further used to strengthen the superiority of the Greeks compared with the Persian Other.

Previous two studies have reviewed the binary opposition between Greeks and non-Greeks based on the opposition between savagery and civilized and also democracy against tyranny. Another study explores that the Greeks’ perception toward the non-Greeks as the Other is not just limited to the East, but to all ethnicities which do not adopt Greek culture and custom. Holdsworth asserts that Diodorus

Siculus’s Bibliotheca Historia (59 BCE) consists of derogative view toward the Romans.59 While Siculus acknowledges the achievement of the Romans, he considers the Romans as barbarian due to the fact that their native language is not Greek but Latin.60 In the analysis of this thesis, how the Greek considers their Other as all non-Greek can be found in both Alexander Romance (300 AD) and Alexiad (1148 AD). The narrator in Alexander Romance and Anna both possess view that not just the East, but the West is also considered as ruled by barbarian savages.

The idea of barbarism was not only found in Greek historical accounts but also in Greek literary texts. Edith Hall in her book Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self Definition through Tragedy (1986) states that the ideological polarization of Hellene and barbarian started from the fifth century onwards, and drama is the source

59_{Holdsworth, Benjamin, Evans (2009) Reading Romans in Rome: A Reception of Romans in the}

Roman Context of Ethnicity and Faith. Doctoral thesis, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/214/

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for the Greeks’ conceptualization of the non-Greeks worlds.61Based on Hall’s view, it can be noted that several Greek literary works, especially drama also reflects the ideological binarism between Greeks and barbarians. Several Greek plays depicted the dichotomy between civilized Greek and savage barbarian. The opposition

between Greek and barbarian was first found in Aeschylus’s The Persian (472 BCE).62 Written in the aftermath of Persian War, Aeschylus differentiates between the Hellenes and the Persians. Hellenes live a free and simple life, while the Persian Barbarians are characterized by oriental despotism and lush opulence.63_Van

Amsterdam states that

Aeschylus’s The Persian and Herodotus’ Histories are written by Greeks for a Greek audience, and as such there is an undercurrent of the advantages of Hellenism over barbarism in the texts. Each expresses themes of order over irrationality, democracy over tyranny, and ultimately Greek over barbarian. It is these themes that became the focal point for the Greeks in creating a political and cultural separation on which to build their own identity.64

Both Greek historical accounts and literary works present the idea of the superiority of Hellenic culture compared to the barbarian. The superiority of the Greeks was used as a justification toward the condescending colonial attitude the Greeks possessed toward their Other.

61_{Hall, Edith. Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self Definition through Tragedy. (Oxford: Oxford}

University Press, 1989) p. x. PDF

62_{Hall, Edith. p. 73.}

63 Heit, Helmut. “Western Identity, Barbarians and the Inheritance of Greek Universalism.” _The

European Legacy, 10. 7. (2005), p. 726. Web. 02 September, 2015

<https://www.academia.edu/546983/Western_Identity_Barbarians_and_the_Inheritance_of_Greek_Un iversalism>

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The derogative attitude the Greeks had toward their Other was found also in

Odyssey 9. Rinon’s reading on book 9 of Odyssey epic employs Rimmon-Kenan’s

revised theory on Genette’s concept of focalization.65_{Rimmon Kenan asserts that}

Genette’s original concept is too narrow, she argues that focalizer is attributed also

with certain ideological facet, i.e. the values and how the focalizer perceives the world.66 In Rinon’s finding, Odyssey as a focalizer has colonial attitude, hence he

proposes the term “colonial focalization.”67_{This facet of focalization can be found in}

Odyssey’s attitude towards a recently discovered area as a potential area for settlement. Odyssey believes himself to be protected by the Gods, and in finding a new world which nobody lives, except for cyclops -one eyed monster- Odyssey perceives himself as the bringer of civilization. This way of thinking resembles how the European people perceived the rest of the world during the colonial era with

jargon like “mission to civilize” or in French mission civilistatrice. One French politician during the Third Republic Era, Ferry states that:

We must believe that if Providence deigned to confer upon us a mission by making us master of the earth, this mission consists not of attempting an impossible fusion of the races but simply by spreading or awakening among the other races the superior notions of which we are the guardian…The superior races have the right vis-à-vis the inferior races, they have the right to civilize them68

65Rinon, Yoav. “The Pivotal Scene: Narration, Colonial Focalization, and the Transition in Odyssey

9.” The American Journals of Philology. 128.3 (2007), p. 301-334. Web. 31 March 2015.

<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4496968>

66_{Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction, Contemporary Fiction. (London: Routledge Taylor &}

Francis Group. 1983. Reprinted. 2005) p. 79-81

67_{Rinon, Yoav. p. 303.}

68_{Ferry, Jules. Qtd in Conklin, Alice L. A Mission} _{to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in}

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Lastly, this thesis reviews the prior studies on Alexander Romance and Alexiad to highlight the missing space as none of the studies attribute the idea of colonialism in their reading. A study by McInerley applies narratology to compare Alexander Romance and the historical account of Alexander written by Arrian. The focus of his analysis is to argue that Alexander’s legend is enhanced by his portrayal as divinity in both account.69 McInerely believes that Alexander Romance uses the theme of hieros gamos, in which a God has sex with a mortal woman. In Alexander

Romance, Alexander’s mother Olympias is impregnated by the God Ammon and she

gives birth to Alexander. Similar portrayal can also be found in Arian’s historical

account of Alexander. In The Campaigns of Alexander, Alexander believes himself to

possess “the blood of Heracles and Perseus in his veins, and too had a feeling than in

some way he was descended from Ammon.”70_{McInerley therefore concludes that the}

boundaries between historical and fictional Alexander is blurry, as both accounts portray Alexander as descended from divinity.

The previous study by McInerely does not focus on the idea of Greek colonialism. McInerely focuses more on similarity between historical Alexander

based on Arrian’s account and fictional account of Alexander in Stoneman’s

Alexander Romance. Both texts emphasize Alexander’s divine lineage by his God

parentage. This thesis aims to expand McInerely’s study by arguing that the narrator

69McInerley, Jeremy. “Arian and _{The Greek Alexander Romance}.” _{The Classical World. 100.4 (2007).}

Web, 2 December 1015. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/25434052> p.424-430

70_{Arian. The Campaigns of Alexander. (London: Penguins Book, 1976) Trans. Aubrey De Selincourt.}

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of Alexander Romance highlights Alexander’s semi divine status to justify the conquests of Alexander. This is seen mainly by the narrator uses many prophecies; in narratological perspective, the use of foreshadowing such as prophecies can be

interpreted to hold the narrator’s ideological stance. In this case, the narrator justifies Alexander’s conquest by using many prophecies to proclaim that Alexander is the rightful ruler of the world.

The second text, Alexiad has also been analyzed by several scholars. Andrew R. Dyck focuses on how Anna makes several allusions to Greek antiquity epic Iliad as can be seen in the similarity of both titles.71 In Dyck’s argument, Anna provides certain parallel between her father Alexius as the protagonist in Alexiad with certain hero in Iliad. Alexius is compared to Agamemnon in how Alexius “did not require a

dream to spur him into battle, as Atreus’s son, Agamemnon did.”72_{Anna glorifies her}

father’s martial prowess in battle by placing him as superior from ancient Greek hero

such as Agamemnon.

While both this thesis and Dyck’s article focus on comparative study between

Alexiad and Greek antiquity text, the focus is different. Dyck emphasizes the intertextuality between Alexiad and Iliad. The intertextuality is in how Anna alludes to Greek heroes in Iliad as a comparison for her father’s brilliance. On the other hand, this thesis compares Alexiad with Alexander Romance to compare the Greeks’

71Dyck. Andrew R. “Iliad and Alexiad: Anna Comnena’s Homeric Reminiscences”_{Greek, Roman, and}

Byzantine Studies 27 (1986). p. 115-116. Web, 28 October 2015. <

http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/download/5121/5389>

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colonial ideology in two eras. Even though the overarching attitude of viewing the non-Greeks as inferior other remains the same, there are also some ways in which Hellenism in antiquity differs from medieval. The comparison between antiquity and medieval colonial ideology will be further explained in the analysis.

Different from Dyck, Vilimonovic uses narrative textual analysis to argue that Vilimonovic argues that Alexiad actually holds Anna’s resentment of being neglected in favor of his brother as successor to Emperor Alexius.73 Anna considers herself as the rightful successor, and her resentment manifests in her narration. Vilimonovic gives particular emphasis on the passage dealing with the birth of both Anna and John. In her narration Anna remarks that, “And at dawn on a Saturday a female child

was born to them who were exactly like her father, they said; that child was I.”74

Vilimonovic believes that “who were exactly like her father” is the way Anna rejects her brother’s claim to the throne, as Anna is more in the image of her father.75_In

Vilimonovic’s finding, Byzantine mosaics commonly depict a chosen imperial heir who was presented as an inheritor of his/her father’s physical feature.76_{Hence Anna}

emphasizes her physical appearance which resembles her father, the Emperor.

This study differs from Vilimonovic’s previous study in the focus on the

analysis. Vilimononic asserts that several quotations of Alexiad are a form of

73Vilimonovic, Larisa. “Observation of the Text and Context of Anna Comnena’s Alexiad” _Belgrade

Historical Review. V (2014), p. 43-58. Web, 1 June 2015.

<http://www.academia.edu/10361876/Observations_on_the_text_and_context_of_Anna_Komnenes_A lexiad>

74_{Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. Trans. Elizabeth A.S Dawes p. 107,} 75_{Vilimonovic, Larisa. p. 51}

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resistance Anna has toward the succession of the throne, her focus is more on the internal court intrigue of the Byzantine Empire. On the other hand, the emphasis of this thesis is not on the inside politics of Byzantine Empire but how Anna as a

medieval Greek writer still continue the Greek’s worldview which perceives the

non-Greeks as the Other. Anna’s status as the daughter of Byzantine emperor further

enhances the fact that she is speaking from a position of power and authority. Her ideology can be found not only in her passages and utterances but also in the structure of her narration. Another difference is that Alexiad is compared with another Greek text, Alexander Romance to compare the similarities and differences in how the

Greeks’ colonial ideology is depicted.

To summarize, the argument that both Alexander Romance and Alexiad reflect

the Greek’s colonial ideology is still unexplored. Previous studies on Alexiad focus either on the issue of intertextuality between Alexiad and Iliad or how Alexiad can be

considered as Anna’s resentment toward her younger brother’s succession as

Emperor. Prior study of Alexander Romance focuses on the portrayal of Alexander as semi-divine based on Pseudo-Callisthenes’ and Arian’s account. Hence, there is still missing space in how narrative analysis on Alexander Romance and Alexiad can

reflect both narrator’s ideological position as Greek.

While previous studies on Greek colonial perspective do not use narratology to focus on colonialism, Rinon proves that it is possible to use narratology in arguing that Odyssey as focalizer reflects the Greek’s colonial ideology. Rinon focuses on the focalization of Odyssey to argue that Odyssey is the representation of the Greek,

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Odyssey as a focalizer embodies the Greek’s colonial ideology. Starting from Rinon’s

argument, the narrator in Alexander Romance and Anna in Alexiad reflect the colonial ideology of the Greek as they are both narrator and focalizer.

There are several issues which differentiate this thesis from Rinon’s previous study. In the object of story, Rinon’s analysis is a re-reading of classical Greek epic, the Odyssey where he argues that actually Odyssey reflects colonial ideology in how Odyssey perceives the native, the cyclops. On the other hand, this thesis focuses on comparing two Greek texts written during different era. The argument is that the lasting idea of Greek colonialism, how the Greeks were portrayed as superior while non-Greeks were inferior spans from antiquity until medieval era. Greek’s colonial ideology also undergoes several changes by the span of centuries. Another difference

is that while Rinon’s study focuses on reflecting the colonial ideology based on focalization of a particular character, this thesis aims to analyze the Greek’s colonial

ideology through the focalization and also the temporal arrangement of the narrator in

Alexander Romance and Anna’s narrations.

B. Review of Related Theories

In this section, this thesis explores the theories used in analyzing Alexander Romance and Alexiad as theoretical foundation of the study. The main framework of this thesis is postcolonial narratology, which is divided into two main theories, narratology and postcolonialism. These two main theories are further explained in the next sections.

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1. Narratology

Narrative theory or narratology is used to probe the ideological position of both the narrator of Alexander Romance and Anna as the Greek through textual analysis. There are several narratological concepts reviewed here. Firstly, this thesis explores the shifting paradigm from classical narratology into the postclassical narratology. Secondly, the thesis focuses on reviewing ideology in narrative devices, mainly focalization, prolepsis and pause.

a. Classical and Postclassical Narratology

First section in the theoretical framework focuses on the changing perspective from the structural model of narratology into the contemporary narrative analysis.

Contemporary narratology in the modern era is defined as “postclassical narratology”

by David Herman in David Herman in The Cambridge Companion to Narrative (2007). Herman uses this term to differentiate from the classical model of narratology which is criticized for its scientificity and disregard for content.77 Rimmon-Kenan explores that,

like poetics, narratology saw itself as a theory, conceived at the time as an attempt to formulate a system of logically interrelated laws, underlying the regularity of phenomena or of a group of phenomena.78

77_{Herman, David. Jahn, Manfred and Marie-Laure Ryan. Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative}

Theory. (London: Routledge, 2005) p. 594. PDF

78_Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith . “Towards…Afterthoughts, _{Almost Twenty Years Later},” Narrative

Theory Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies. Ed. Mieke Bal. (New York: Routledge,

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Herman, David. Jahn, Manfred and Marie-Laure Ryan. Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory. London: Routledge, 2005. PDF.

Herman, Luc and Vervaeck, Bart. “Ideology” The Cambridge Companion to Narrative. Ed. David Herman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print.

Holdsworth, Benjamin, Evans (2009) Reading Romans in Rome: A Reception of Romans in the Roman Context of Ethnicity and Faith. Doctoral thesis, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/214/

Isocrates, Qtd in Kardellis, Anthony. Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformation of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. PDF.

Magdalino, Paul and Maria Mavroudi. The Occult Science in Byzantium Geneva: La Pomme d'or Publishing, 2006. p. 12. PDF

McInerley, Jeremy. “Arian and The Greek Alexander Romance.” The Classical World. 100.4 (2007). Web, 2 December 1015. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/25434052> p.424-430

Mesko, Marek. “Anna Komnene’s Narrative of the War against the Scythians.” Graeco-Latina Brunensia 19 (2014). PDF.

Mitchell, Lynette G. Panhellenism and the Barbarian in Archaic and Classical Greece. Swansea, Classical Press of Wales, 2007. PDF

Neville, Leonora. “Lamentation, History, and Female Authorship in Anna Komnene’s Alexiad” Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 53 (2013). PDF. Nicolaidis, Efthimios. Science and Eastern Orthodoxy: from the Greek Fathers to the Age of Globalization. The John Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 2011. Trans. Susan Emanuel. PDF

Nida, Eugene and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969. Reprinted. 1982. PDF

Nkamanyang, Pepertua. Forms and Function of Narration and Focalization in some Selected Poems of Lord Bryon: A Narratological Analysis. Diss. University of Giessen, 2008. Web. 17 December 2015.

Nunning, Ansgar. “Narratology of Narratologies? Taking Stock of Recent Developments, Critique and Modest Proposals for Future Uses of the

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118

Term” What is Narratology? Questions and Answers Regarding the Status of a Theory. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003. PDF

----. “Surveying Contextualist and Cultural Narratologies: Toward an Outline of Approaches, Concepts, and Potentials”. Narratology in the Age of Cross-Disciplinary Narrative Research. Walter de Gruyter: Berlin, 2009. PDF

Oxeites, John. Quoted in Stankovic, Vlade and Albrecht Berger. “The Komnenoi and Constantinople before the Building of the Pantokrator Complex.” The Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Inc, 2013. Ed. Sofia Kotzabassi. PDF

Parmenter, Christoper S. Ethnography and the Colonial World in Theocritus and Lucian. MA Thesis. University of Oregon, 2013. Web, 30 November 2016. PDF

Perloff, Marjorie. “Literature in the Expanded Field”. Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1995. Ed. Charles Bernheimer. Print.

Philophonus, Quoted in Nicolaidis, Ethimios. Science and Eastern Orthodoxy: from the Greek Fathers to the Age of Globalization.

Pratt, Marie Louise. Travel Writing and Transculturation. London: Routledge, 1992. PDF.

Prawer, Siegbert. Quoted in Basnett, Susan. Comparative Literature. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Ltd. 1993. Print.

Prince, Gerald. “On a Postcolonial Narratology.” A Companion to Narrative Theory. New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2005. Ed. James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz. PDF.

Richardson, Brian. Plural Focalization, Singular Voices; Wandering Perspectives in We- Narration.” Point of View, Perspective and Focalization, Modeling Mediation in Narrative. Ed. Peter Hühn, Wolf Schmid, and Jörg Schönert. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009. PDF

Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. “Towards…Afterthoughts, Almost Twenty Years Later,” Narrative Theory Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies. Ed. Mieke Bal. New York: Routledge, 2004. Print.

----. Narrative Fiction, Contemporary Fiction. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. 1983. Reprinted. 2005.

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Rinon, Yoav. “The Pivotal Scene: Narration, Colonial Focalization, and the Transition in Odyssey 9.” The American Journals of Philology. 128.3

(2007), p. 301-334. Web. 31 March 2015.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/4496968

Sacks, David. Murray, Oswyn, and Margaret Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World New York: Facts on File, 1995. PDF

Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. PDF ----. Orientalism. London: Penguins Book, 1978, Reprint.1995. Print.

Scheidel, W. “The Greek Demographic Expansion: Models and Comparison.” Journal of Hellenic Studies 123 (2003) Web, 29 February 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3246263 p. 120-140. PDF

Shaffer, Lynda N and George J. Marcopouolos. “Murasaki and Comnena : Two Women and Two Themes in World History.” The History Teacher. 19.4 (1986) Web. 23 May 2016. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/493874> PDF Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and

Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories” Merit Research Journals. 2.1 (2013) Web. 09 March 2016. >http://www.meritresearchjournals.org/er/index.htm> PDF

Stathakopoulos, Dionysios. A Short History of the Byzantine Empire. London, I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2014. PDF

Stoneman, Richard. “Primary Sources from the Classical and Early Medieval Periods” A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages. Ed. David Zuwiyya. Leiden: Brill Academic Pub, 2011. PDF

Tarn, W. W. Hellenistic Civilization. London, World Pub. Co, 1961. PDF.

Thomas, Joseph. The Universal Dictionary of Biography and Mythology: A-Clu. New York: Cosino Classics, 2009. PDF

Tucker, Irwin St. John. A History of Imperialism. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1920. PDF

Tymoczko, Maria. Translation in a Postcolonial Context. Michigan: University of Michigan St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. PDF

Van Amsterdam, Katrina. “When in Greece, Do as the Persian Don’t: Defining the Identity of the Greeks Against the Persian Imperial Order.” Hirundo

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XIII (2013), Web. 3 November 2015.

https://www.mcgill.ca/classics/files/classics/2013-14-02.pdf p. 1-16. Van der Vliet, Edward Ch. L. “The Romans and Us, Strabo’s Geography and the

Construction of Ethnicity.” Mnemosyne. 56. (2003), Web, 7 October 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4433447 p. 257-272.

Vilimonovic, Larisa. “Observation of the Text and Context of Anna Comnena’s Alexiad” Belgrade Historical Review. V (2014), p. 43-58. Web, 1 June 2015.

http://www.academia.edu/10361876/Observations_on_the_text_and_conte xt_of_Anna_Komnenes_Alexiad

Vuorela, Ulla. ““Colonial Complicity: The Postcolonial in a Nordic Context”. Complying with Colonialism: Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Nordic Region. Ashgate: Surrey, 2009. Ed. Suvi Keskiken et al. PDF

Vyronis, Speros. “Greek Identity in the Middle Ages” EB 6. (1999) p. 31. PDF Zonaras, John. Quoted in Kazhdan, Alexander and Simon Franklin. Studies on

Byzantine Literature of the Eleventh and Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 59. PDF

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: SUMMARY OF ALEXANDER ROMANCE

Nectanebo, the last pharaoh of Egypt is defeated by the barbarians and he escaped into Pella, Macedonia. In there he impregnates Queen Olympias, who later gives birth to Alexander. Alexander grows up, educated by Aristotle. After his father is assassinated, he ascends to the Macedonian throne and embarks on a Pan Hellenic expedition to conquer Persian Empire, ruled by Darius. Alexander first marches into Egypt, where an oracle of god Ammon gives him instructions where to found the city that will be named Alexandria. Alexander is received as the descendant of Nectanebo and the heir of Egypt.

Resuming his campaign against Darius, he crosses the Euphrates river and camps outside the Persian capital of Babylon. Alexander uses various tricks to demoralize the Persians and visits the Persian court in disguise. In a vicious battle, Darius is defeated and he flees into his Eastern provinces, He is killed by one of his satraps (governor) who is dissatisfied with him. By Darius’ death, Alexander claims the throne of the Persian Empire.

In his further expedition, Alexander ventures into India and encounters king Porus. After he defeats Porus, he journeys towards the strange regions of the East. He is described to meet strange beasts and encounters exotic lands. After his expedition, he returns to his new capital in Babylon where he is assassinated by his cupbearer Lolaus.

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122

APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF ALEXIAD

Alexius Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantine Empire has been campaigning since he was fourteen years old. During his services in several emperors he defeats many enemies and receiving much fame. Through a coup d’état, Alexius usurps the throne from Nicephorus Botaniates. Upon ascending to the throne, he finds that the empire is threatened in all directions. The Turks of the East are grievously harassing the frontiers, they even reached the outside of Constantinople itself. After Alexius managed to stabilize the situation, immediately he is called to counter another invasion, this time from the Normans in the West lead by Robert of Apulia. Although Alexius is unable to defeat Robert directly, after the death of Robert the Normans is able to be driven back.

Another opponent threatens the security of the empire, this time the nomadic Scythians (Pechenegs) from the North. The battles are hard fought and ranging several years, yet eventually Alexius managed to defeat and enslave the remaining Scythians. Although Alexius is a skillful general, the Byzantines are outnumbered by the Turks and unable to venture deeper into Anatolia (modern Turkey). He asks the Western European for military assistance, which nowadays is known as the Crusade. Through the help from the Crusaders, Alexius is able to regain control of much of Anatolia. Even until his old age, Alexius keeps on campaigning in the East. He died of illness, after his return from an eastern expedition.

Greek and the other : narrative analysis on pseudo Callisthenes` Alexander Romance and Anna Comnena`s Alexiad.

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