Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:J-a:Journal Of Business Research:Vol47.Issue3.2000:
Practitioners of Risky Sports:
A Quantitative Examination
Aviv Shoham
ISRAEL INSTITUTE oF TECHNOLOGY
Gregory M. Rose
UNIVERSITY oF MISSISSIPPI
Lynn R. Kahle
UNIVERSITY oF OREGON
The consumption of risky sports continues to grow. Risky sports include
activities such as skydiving, deep-sea diving, and parachuting that entail
a high level of physical risk. To date, most studies of risky sports have
tended to be more qualitative than quantitative and were based on participant observation. The research described here builds on earlier research
by integrating the frameworks within which risky sports’ consumption
have been documented—drama, danger neutralization and peer identification, and extraordinary experiences—into an empirically testable
model. The model is tested on the basis of responses from 72 individuals,
who have been active in sports such as deep-sea diving, parachuting, and
rock or mountain climbing. Substantial empirical support is found for the
integrated, drama- and extraordinary-based frames of reference. The
findings are used to generate managerial implications, a topic mostly
neglected in previous research. J BUSN RES 2000. 47.237–251. 1999
Elsevier Science Inc.
The plane climbs slowly, until it reaches 11,000 feet. The
door opens, and a wave of fear strikes me. A strong, very
cold gust rushes inside and makes me jam into a corner.
I try to remember the instructions . . . Another second,
and Mordi [the instructor] jumps. We are falling. The wind
hits us and overpowers my facial muscles. I think that one
cheek engulfs an ear. A sharp pain shoots through my
lower stomach. The amazing speed of the fall accumulates.
Something very bad is happening. Mordi is late or has lost
control . . . Just then, not more than five seconds since we
left the plane, Mordi opens the tiny balancing canopy. The
Aviv Shoham is a lecturer of marketing at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa, Israel. Gregory M. Rose is an Assistant Professor of Marketing
at the University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi. Lynn R. Kahle is the
James H. Warsaw Professor of Marketing at the University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.
Address correspondence to Dr. Aviv Shoham, Technion–Israel Institute
of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, 32000
Technion City, Haifa, Israel.
Journal of Business Research 47, 237–251 (2000)
1999 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
awful fall stops. The much-anticipated tap of Mordi on my
shoulder starts 40 seconds of pure happiness . . . I am
engulfed with optimism, screaming with the feelings of
freedom and liberation. An addictive sensation. Birds feel
similarly [(Zundar, 1995), p. 68].
T
his first skydiving experience described by an Israeli
journalist is similar to that discussed by Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh (1993). Similar sensations of fear transformed into happiness have been described for river rafters
(Arnould and Price, 1993; Arnould, Price, and Tierney, 1998a,
1998b; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and Canadian
hang gliders (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983). Many leisure
activities involve some level of physical risk. Risky sports differ
from other sports in that consumers knowingly face the risk
of a serious injury and even death when judgment or equipment fail (Lyng, 1990). Annual deaths range between one of
250 ultra-light airplane pilots to one of 100,000 scuba divers,
the latter still twice the rate for football players (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993).
Risky sports are increasingly practiced in developed nations. This increase is due to the juxtaposition of a dramatic
world view, perpetuated by the mass media, with the specialized and bureaucratic social forms of the twentieth century.
Thus, risky sports may provide a release from the tensions of
the modern era. The popularity of risky sports has created
market opportunities for emergent industries, such as clubs,
equipment stores, and magazines. The interest of marketing
scholars in the study of risky sports parallels the popularization of these sports. Prior research has described the experience of rafting, hang gliding, and skydiving (Arnould and
Price, 1993; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993; Celsi, 1992) and has provided thick descripISSN 0148-2963/00/$–see front matter
PII S0148-2963(98)00093-9
238
J Busn Res
2000:47:237–251
tions of the hedonic aspects of risky sport consumption. Arnould and Price (1993) and Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993)
use induction to suggest two frameworks for understanding
the seeming paradox between rational behavior and the consumption of risky sports. They link the transcendent nature
of risky sport to increased participation (Celsi, Rose, and
Leigh, 1993) and satisfaction (Arnould and Price, 1993). Individual and group variables are combined with insights from
the extraordinary experience model to provide an excellent
basis for a managerially oriented, empirical examination of
this paradoxical consumer behavior.
This article explores the frequency of participation in risky
sports. It synthesizes findings from previous research into an
empirically testable model. The framework used here integrates the drama-form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), dangerneutralization and peer-identification explanations (Brannigan
and McDougall, (1983), and the extraordinary experience
model (Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney,
1995). We adopt a managerial focus in developing our model.
Arnould and Price (1993) and Price, Arnould, and Tierney
(1995) focus on the attitudinal outcome of satisfaction. We
examine the behavior (frequency of engagement in current
risky sports) and future behavioral intention (probability of
entering other risky sports). The frequency of risky sport’s
practice can be used in segmentation and positioning by identifying the characteristics and preferences of heavy versus light
practitioners. The probability that practitioners of one risky
sport will enter into others is also managerially relevant, because if engagement in new risky sports is predicated on
similar explanatory constructs as participation in current risky
sports, then firms catering to one risky sport could target
practitioners of other risky sports. As previous research has
mostly ignored managerial implications, generation of such
implications is an important part of this article.
Theoretically, sensation seeking and risky sport consumption are frequently treated as stable traits. However, skydiving
motivations evolve over time. While an individual may initially
join to comply with a friend’s request, efficacy, identity-construction, higher-order group motives, such as communitas,
become more important over time. Thus, empirically examining the association between various needs and motives for
participating in risky sports and the expected probability of
participating in other risky sports should help identify the
extent to which specific needs are sport-specific, providing
additional evidence in the trait versus process debate.
Finally, we use an Israeli sample of practitioners. This choice
should help to extend the generalizability of findings from
previous research beyond the U.S. samples used in the past.
Theory and Research Hypotheses
Substantial research on joining risky sports is based on two
theories. The first is a trait theory based on an individual’s
need for sensation (Zuckerman, 1979). Sensation seeking is
A. Shoham et al.
viewed as a need for thrill, adventure, and novel experiences
(Zuckerman, 1983, 1984; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum, and Murphy, 1980; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob, 1964). It is
trait-based in that individuals have given levels of needs for
sensation. The scale for measuring sensation seeking (SSS-V;
Zuckerman, 1979) includes sub-dimensions for thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, boredom susceptibility,
and disinhibition. The scale exhibits acceptable reliability and
convergent validity (Wahlers, Dunn, and Etzel, 1986; Whalers
and Etzel, 1990). Sensation seeking has been linked to higher
consumption of drugs, smoking (Burns, Hampson, Severson,
and Slovic, 1993; Severson, Slovic, and Hampson, 1993),
and risky sports (Hymbaugh and Garrett, 1974; Zuckerman,
Buchsbaum, and Murphy, 1980).
Telic dominance, a state-based theory, is a second theory
used to explain the probability of engaging in risky sports
(Apter, 1976, 1982; Smith and Apter, 1975). It has been
operationalized by measuring individual differences based on
one’s propensity toward two stable states (telic and paratelic).
The dominance of either of these states has been viewed as a
personality trait (Murgatroyd et al., 1978). In a telic state,
individuals try to gain arousal (felt as pleasant); in a paratelic
state, individuals try to reduce arousal (seen as unpleasant).
While telic dominance and reversal theory, on which it is
based, are state-based, the Telic Dominance Scale assesses
three trait sub-dimensions: arousal avoidance, serious-mindedness, and planning orientation (Murgatroyd et al., 1978).
Telic dominance and arousal avoidance differ between risky
sports practitioners and the general population (Kerr, 1991).
In marketing, sensation seeking and telic dominance belong to studies of optimal stimulation levels. These studies
assume that there exist one (homeostatic) level of sensation
or two (bi-stable) levels of stimulation (telic or paratelic) with
which individuals are comfortable. Deficiency or surplus of
environmental stimulation will result in individual behavior
to increase or reduce stimulation (Raju, 1980; Wahlers and
Etzel, 1990).
The purpose of this study is to identify differentiating factors for individuals, who already practice risky sports. Such
individuals are expected to score high on sensation seeking
and low on arousal avoidance. Although sensation seeking
and telic dominance have been used mostly to predict risktaking behavior in the general population, we use them to
establish validity. Comparing sensation seeking in our sample
with levels in previous studies can substantiate the generalizability of our findings. Furthermore, inclusion of the two
scales can be used to identify sub-populations within risky
sport practitioners.
We synthesize findings from Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993),
Brannigan and McDougall (1983), Arnould and Price (1993),
and Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995). They view risky
sport participation as a continuous process and describe the
evolution of motives throughout this process. We integrate
their findings into a model of continuous involvement in risky
Practitioners of Risky Sports
sports. This model has an advantage in that comparisons can
be made within the group of practitioners. All three approaches share four building blocks, which explain the consumption of risky sports: the need for identity construction,
efficacy, camaraderie, and experience. We examine each of
the four separately, although they are related.
Identity Construction
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 11] discuss identity construction as a motive for continuous involvement in risky
sports. They refer to this opportunity as “. . . a well-defined
context for personal change, as well as a clear-cut means to
organize a new, and sometimes central, identity.” Initiation
is a structured process, similar to a pilgrimage (Arnould and
Price, 1993) or rite of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993).
Participation in the sport is seen as special or unique. This
structured opportunity for self-construction through a unique,
extraordinary experience provides a powerful motive in the
late twentieth century, where adult roles are frequently routine, bureaucratic, and hard-to-change.
Arnould and Price (1993) identify extension and renewal
of self as a theme associated with satisfying river rafting trips.
Part of this growth is acquiring a new sport-specific jargon.
Newcomers to ultra-light plane flights start using terms such
as “air pocket,” “lower the nose,” “throttle,” and “flaps” (Kafra,
1995). Skydivers use “free fall,” “secondary canopy,” and
“main canopy” (Zundar, 1995). The new terms are used to
signify one’s membership, acceptance, and understanding of
the special viewpoint of risky sport participants (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993). Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995) used
identity construction as a measure of provider performance,
which led to satisfaction. Brannigan and McDougall (1983)
identify the ego-gratifying aspects of continuous involvement
in risky sports. Ego gratification results from internal, subculture-based status and from external, media-based attention.
In sum, given identity construction’s important role in
explaining continuous risky sport participation and satisfaction, it is hypothesized that:
H1: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
identity construction needs in a risky sport and both
the frequency of engagement in it and future probability of engaging in other risky sports is positive.
Efficacy
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 10] suggest efficacy as a
motive for “sticking with it.” They define the need for efficacy
as “a desire to develop technical skill for both personal satisfaction and social status within the sky-diving community.” Consumers are motivated to stay involved with the sport because
they get getter at it (Branningan and McDougall, 1983). Furthermore, standards shift and become more demanding with
increased expertise. Thus, self-expectations increase with expertise, maintaining the importance of efficacy over time
J Busn Res
2000:47:237–251
239
(Bandura, 1965; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993).
Arnould and Price (1993) also argue for the importance
of efficacy. River rafting guides help rafters acquire new skills.
Progressive mastery continues throughout the rafting trip.
Because of its long duration, one river rafting experience affords the individual an opportunity to satisfy needs for efficacy
within a single trip. In contrast, similar needs are satisfied
over multiple consumption activities for skydivers due to the
short duration of a jump. In both cases, the need for efficacy
is a motive for continuous involvement. Thus:
H2: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
efficacy needs in a risky sport and both the frequency
of engagement in it and future probability of engaging
in other risky sports is positive.
Camaraderie
The importance of the group within which a risky sport is
practiced is an additional motive for practicing it. Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh [(1993), p. 12] use group camaraderie as one of
three transcendent motives-flow, communitas, and phatic
communion. They define communitas as “a sense of community that transcends typical social norms and convention.” It
provides a sense of camaraderie for people from differing
backgrounds; they can regard their joint activities as sacred
(Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry, 1989). Communitas develops
when shared experiences transcend the drudgery of everyday
life and provide shared rituals or extraordinary experiences.
Group members recognize the irrelevancy of external roles and
develop expertise and specialized roles within the community,
maintaining the separation between the everyday world and
the extraordinary risky sport experience.
Arnould and Price (1993) include communitas as a theme
of satisfying rafting trips. In the process of negotiating whitewater rivers, team members develop feelings of belonging to
the group. The group is united by its devotion to a single,
transcendent goal. In the process, rafters dispose of personal,
non-task-related possessions, in favor of shared and goalrelevant ones. The process is aided by rafting guides, who
provide reinforcement for teamwork. Consequently, Price,
Arnould, and Tierney (1995) use a measure of the service
provider having created a team spirit in their performance
scale. Positive social relationships serve to reinforce participants’
continuous involvement (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983).
Communitas is manifested in identity construction and
efficacy in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), the
danger neutralization and peer identification (Brannigan and
McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary experience models
(Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).
Initiation processes in the pilgrimage metaphor (Arnould and
Price, 1993) and in rites of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,
1993) are important aspects of satisfaction of identity construction needs. Identity construction takes place within
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groups with common interests and goals. Further, efficacy
involves the development of sport-related skills and expertise
(Arnould and Price, 1993). Such skills differentiate the experienced from novices and from non-participants. Efficacy contributes to one’s standing within the community. In sum, the
group motivates members to continue and increase their level
of involvement:
H3: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
camaraderie needs within a group of practitioners of
a given sport and both the frequency of engagement
in it and future probability of engaging in other risky
sports is positive.
Experience
The importance of experience in determining present and
future behavior is multi-faceted. It runs through Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh’s discussion (1993) of the need for efficacy and
identity construction. Efficacy is predicated on developing the
prerequisite technical skills and jargon of the sport. During
this process, attention shifts from anxiety about the physical
risks involved in the sport to achieving greater performance
through the successive mastery of greater challenges (Celsi,
Rose, and Leigh, 1993).
The importance of experience is also evident in the process
of identity construction. Sustained participation provides an
individual with an opportunity to construct a new self (Belk,
1988). The opportunity to construct a new self depends on
sufficient commitment to a new set of life tasks with associated
plans for implementation. Sticking with the sport (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993) is a form of such commitment. Arnould and
Price (1993) trace the evolution of three themes over the river
rafting experience. Communitas, communion with nature,
and extension and renewal of self make river rafting an extraordinary experience. Each of these themes changes as the trip
progresses because opportunities for their manifestations accumulate. As the rafting trip draws to an end, “participants’
embodiments of communitas become particularly evident and
striking. [Field notes] disclose the depth of emotional attachments formed among the members of the trip” [Arnould and
Price (1993), p. 35].
In sum, experience plays a role in risky sport consumption.
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh’s (1993) satisfaction of participants’
motives and Arnould and Price’s (1993) evolution of themes
are related to experience. Sport-specific expertise and experience is a progressive process—successive stages of mastery
lead to a desire for greater challenges (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,
1993). Thus, experience should be related positively to the
frequency of engagement. Experience in a given sport, however, should be related negatively to the probability of consumption of other risky sports. Experience and expertise in
one sport are not transferable, which forces an individual to
start participation in any new risky sport from scratch. In sum:
H4a: The relationship between the experience in a risky
sport and the frequency of engagement in it is positive.
A. Shoham et al.
H4b: The relationship between the experience in a risky
sport and the future probability of engaging in other
risky sports is negative.
Finally, we controlled for age in our analyses because it
can have opposite effects. Older people may not be as fit for
the physical demands of many risky sports. Therefore, the
frequency of practice of the sport and the probability of entering new risky sports in the future should decline with age.
In contrast, some of the needs Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993)
discuss may be more important for older individuals. They
have had more opportunity to face the tension emanating
from the workplace, causing them to look for the release and
catharsis that can be gained from a risky sport. Older people
may also have had more years to develop the skills relevant
to risky sports, thus reducing the risks. Given these conflicting
roles, age is used as a convariate, and no hypothesis is advanced about its effect.
To sum, perceived fulfillment of identity construction, efficacy, and camaraderie needs by a risky sport affects the frequency of engagement in it and the probability of engaging
in other risky sports positively. The relationship between experience is a risky sport and the frequency of engagement is
also positive, but the future probability of engaging in other
risky sports is negative.
Methods
Pretest
The pretest involved two stages. First, interviews were held
with practitioners of risky sports to assess the appropriateness
and clarity of the questionnaire. Then, the revised questionnaire was tested on a sample of 60 students. Since the questionnaire included items about non-risky sports as well, reliability
and validity of the various measures could be assessed by use
of responses to the non-risky sport scales. Respondents were
also asked to comment on the clarity of the instructions and
items. Examination of these responses resulted in a few
changes. Some items were deleted, others were replaced or
re-phrased, and new items were added. Additionally, a few
introductory questions were re-worded to clarify the instructions to respondents.
Sample
Data were collected in a survey of risky sports practitioners
in Israel. Respondents were active participants in at least one
of the main risky sports practiced in Israel: skydiving, rock and
mountain climbing, deep-sea diving, and gliding. Potential
participants were identified either through professional guides
or through national associations of the sports.
The sample (Table 1) includes more males (59, or 81.9%)
than females (13, or 18.1%). Most individuals have an undergraduate degree (47.9%), followed by high school graduates
(35.2%), elementary school (7.0%), and graduate degrees
Practitioners of Risky Sports
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Table 1. Sample Characteristics
Demographic Variable
Education
Up to 8 years
9–12 years
Up to undergraduate degree
Graduate studies
Gender
Male
Female
Marital Status
Single
Married with children
Married without children
Unmarried with children
Income Group
Up to US $1000
1000–1330
1330–1670
1670–2000
2000–2330
2330–2670
2670–3000
3000–3330
3330–3670
3670–4000
Over US $4000
n (%)
5 (7.0)
25 (35.2)
34 (47.9)
7 (9.9)
59 (81.9)
13 (18.1)
44
17
6
1
(64.7)
(25.0)
(8.8)
(1.4)
32
6
3
3
3
1
2
0
2
1
8
(52.5)
(9.8)
(4.9)
(4.9)
(4.9)
(1.4)
(2.8)
(0.0)
(2.8)
(1.4)
(13.1)
Note: Percentages do not add to 100.0 due to rounding off. Sub-sample sizes do not
add up to 72 due to a few missing values.
(9.9%). Most are unmarried and have no children (64.7%),
but married with children are also represented (25.0%) as are
married with no children (8.8%) and unmarried with children
(1.5%). Income is bimodally distributed with 52.5% at the
lowest end of the scale (up to $1000 gross per month), 9.8%
just above the lowest ($1000–1330 gross per month), and
13.1% at the highest end of the scale (above $4000 gross per
month). The high concentration of low-income respondents
suggests that many respondents are either students or very
young, which is consistent with the mean age (30.3) of the
sampled individuals. Finally, deep-sea diving was the most
popular (28 individuals), followed by gliding (20), rock and
mountain climbing (12), and skydiving (8).
Response Rate
Practitioners were contacted personally or by phone. Questionnaires were handed personally or mailed to practitioners
who indicated that they did not object to participation in the
survey. In all, 47 questionnaires were handed out, all of which
were returned. Of the 60 mailed questionnaires, one was
undeliverable, whereas 25 were returned for an effective mail
response rate of 42.4%. Total response rate was 72 of 106
(67.9%). Other studies of risky sports used similar or smaller
samples. Cronin (1991) used 20 mountain climbers and Hymbaugh and Garrett (1974) used 21 skydivers. Kerr (1991)
studied 63 surfers/wind-surfers, 39 parachutists/motorcyclists,
241
and 25 gliders. Finally, 27 risk-preferring individuals were
used in a sample. Calls to a sample of non-respondents yielded
questionnaire length (15 pages) as a main reason for nonresponse.
Development of Measures
The first step involved a development of multiple items for
the study’s constructs based on a literature review. Two scholars from the United States and one from Israel developed the
items in English. The items were translated from English to
Hebrew by one bilingual individual and back translated by a
second bilingual individual. Instructions to the two individuals emphasized the need to create equivalency on four dimensions: functional; operationalization; items; and scalar (Hui
and Triandis, 1985). The two English versions were compared
by a third bilingual individual (Brislin, 1970). Changes were
made by consultation of the three individuals. The items and
alphas for the scales are reported in the Appendix.
Analyses of the items and exploratory factor analyses were
used to clarify the scales. Items with high factor loadings and
item-to-total correlations were retained. This resulted in the
use of three items for the potential of the risky sport to satisfy
the need for efficacy, four for the need for identity construction, and three for the need for camaraderie. The three scales
were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to establish
unidimensionality (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988). Due to
sample size, separate analyses were performed for each scale.
In each, only one factor emerged and all items had high
loadings on the single factor.
Experience and age were measured by open-ended items.
The two measures should be highly correlated. This is because,
other things being equal the older the respondent, the longer
his (her) potential experience in the sport. This indeed was
the case, as the two are highly (but not perfectly) correlated
(r 5 0.80, p , 0.05).
Measures
The three scales for need satisfaction were introduced by an
identical question. “Different people have different motives for
being active in any given sport (such as soccer, swimming, or
jogging). Think about a risky sport that you are involved in
and indicate your agreement or disagreement with each of the
following statements. If you strongly disagree, you may mark
a ‘1’ or ‘2’; if you strongly agree, you may mark a ‘6’ or ‘7’.”
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR EFFICACY. Need for efficacy
was defined as a desire to develop technical skills for personal
satisfaction and group status. In line with this definition, the
potential of the risky sport to satisfy an individual’s need for
efficacy was operationalized based on three 7-point Likert
items. These include becoming a better person due to becoming an expert in the sport, being appreciated by peers because
of improving skills in the sport, and gaining satisfaction
through improved skills in the sport. The three items had a
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lower a (0.53) than advocated by Nunnally (1967), an issue
discussed further in the “Limitations” section.
Earlier, we suggested that satisfaction of the need for efficacy is related to the motive of satisfying communitas-related
needs in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993),
the danger-neutralization and peer-identification explanations
(Brannigan and McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary experience model (Arnould and Price, 1993). Thus, it was expected that the scale for efficacy will be related moderately and
positively to the frequency at which the sport and associated
experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, a related
measure from the data set. The scale and item were related
moderately and positively (r 5 0.41, p , 0.05), indicative of
the validity of the scale.
Identity construction was defined in terms of the existence of a
well-defined context for personal change, including the means
for organizing the new identity. Therefore, the potential of
the risky sport to satisfy a need for identity construction was
operationalized based on four 7-point Likert items. The items
were: the sport having changed one’s life perspective; being
able to measure one’s improvement in the sport helping develop skills; becoming a better person since joining the sport;
and not having changed much since joining (reversed). The
scale’s a (0.65) is close to the level advocated by Nunnally
(1967).
Identity construction should be related to sharing of one’s
experiences within and outside of the club. To assess the
scale’s validity, its correlation with four related items designed
to measure the frequency at which the sport and associated
experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, with family, with non-club friends, and in general was examined. Moderate and positive correlations were expected, which indeed
was the case as all four correlations were positive, moderate,
and significant (0.39 < r < 0.41, p , 0.05).
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION.
The potential
of the risky sport to satisfy a need for camaraderie was assessed
by three 7-point Likert items. The items were: having close
relationships with fellow practitioners, practitioners forming
a close group, and having a pleasant and important relationship with fellow practitioners. The scale showed acceptable
reliability (a 5 0.85).
On the basis of the need to interact with fellow practitioners
to satisfy the need for camaraderie, we anticipated a positive
and moderate relationship between camaraderie and an item
measuring frequency of discussing the sport with club members. This indeed was the case (r 5 0.61, p , 0.05), substantiating the validity of the scale.
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR CAMARADERIE.
Two measures were used. The first
was a mean standardized monthly frequency of engagement
in risky sports (some individuals indicated more than one
type). Standardization of the four type-specific frequency variables was needed to remove the potential confounding effect
DEPENDENT MEASURES.
A. Shoham et al.
of income and seasonality. Some sports may be more costly
than others. Skydiving, for example, necessitates a flight,
whereas other sports require lower access costs. By standardization, these potential effects are removed. The second dependent variable is the probability of entering other risky sports
in the future, operationalized as the average future probability
of joining new risky sports. For each non-practiced risky sport,
respondents were asked to indicate on 7-point scales (very
probably not to very probably yes) the probability of joining
in the future. We preferred these measures to percentage
probabilities, which were also included in the questionnaire,
because of their lower item non-response. However, the correlation between the 7-point scale and the percentage-based
scale is high (r 5 0.71, p , 0.05) suggesting acceptable reliability.
Given the mostly similar structures of explanatory constructs for the two dependent variables, it was expected that
both will be related to the measures of talking about the
experiences with friends in and out of the club discussed
above; and that these correlations would be positive and moderate. This indeed was the case. The two correlations for
averaged frequency were both positive and significant (r 5
0.40; 0.30, p , 0.05). The two for future probability are also
positive and significant (r 5 0.20; 0.21, p , 0.05). This
pattern of correlations strengthens the argument for validity
of the two dependent variables.
Analysis and Results
Statistical Technique
Analysis of the findings began with an examination of the interconstruct correlation coefficients. Then, a structural equations’
model, specifically LISREL 8 with maximum likelihood estimation, was used to test the hypotheses. This methodology
allowed the simultaneous estimation of a series of interdependent relationships, incorporated measurement error between
latent and observed variables, and allowed for the assessment
of overall model fit. Model constructs were represented by
single indicators using averaged scales (for efficacy, identity
construction, and camaraderie) and direct measures (for age
and experience). The use of single indicators was preferred,
given the complex structure of the hypothesized relationships,
the large number of required estimates for the specified model,
and the small sample size (Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).
Within-Sample Differences on Sensation
Seeking and Telic Dominance
As expected, the sample means for the scales that have been
found to differentiate risky sport practitioners from others in
previous research (total Sensation Seeking Scale [SSS] and
Thrill and Adventure Seeking [TAS]) were high in our sample:
0.77 (TAS) and 0.56 (total SSS). These values are similar to
those reported in other studies [SSS 5 0.60 in Hymbaugh
and Garrett (1974); SSS 5 0.58 and TAS 5 0.86 in Cronin
Practitioners of Risky Sports
J Busn Res
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243
Table 2. Within-Sample Mean Differences
Total Sample
Gender:
Male (n 5 59)
Female (n 5 13)
F-ratio (p 5 value)
Marital Status:
Single
Married, No children
Married, with children
F-Ratio (p 5 value)
Correlation Coefficients
Age
Income
a
TAS (SD)
Arousal Avoidance (SD)
0.77 (0.25)
0.32 (0.14)
0.81 (0.24)a
0.62 (0.25)a
6.93 (0.01)
0.33 (0.15)
0.30 (0.13)
0.35 (0.56)
0.80 (0.21)
0.74 (0.35)
0.75 (0.16)
0.33 (0.72)
Thrill and Adventure Seeking
20.18 (0.07)
20.04 (0.37)
0.28 (0.12)a
0.37 (0.15)a
0.38 (0.15)
3.18 (0.05)
Arousal Avoidance
0.28 (0.01)b
0.36 (0.01)b
The two sub-groups differ at p , 0.05.
Significant r (p , 0.05).
b
(1991)]. The mean score for Arousal Avoidance—the Telic
Dominance sub-scale reported to differentiate risky sport practitioners from others—was low in our sample (0.32). This is
similar to the means reported by Kerr (1991): mean 5 0.32
for surfers and motor-cyclists; mean 5 0.35 for gliders.
Given the important role of TAS and AA in explaining risky
sport consumption, we assessed the differences on these scales
on the basis of gender, family status, age, and income. ANOVA
was used for gender and family status and correlations were
computed for age and income. The results were useful in
generating managerial implications (Table 2). Males have
higher scores (0.81) than females (0.62) on TAS. This is the
only significant demographic correlate of TAS. Singles report
lower (0.28) AA than married (0.37) individuals. Lower scores
on AA are also associated with younger, less affluent individuals. These demographic differences are discussed in the “Implications” section.
Tests of Research Hypotheses
Table 3 provides the means and correlation coefficients for the
study constructs. The correlation matrix was used to provide
additional insights to the LISREL analysis (see the “Discussion”
section). The results of the LISREL maximum likelihood estimation are shown in Table 4 (for the original and the respecified model, discussed below) and Figure 1 (for the original model). With the correlation matrix used as input, the
model appears to fit the data well. The model chi-squared
(14.75, 7 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is significant (p ,
0.04). Notably, the use of chi-squared has been questioned
(Loehlin, 1987). Based on Loehlin (1987), we assessed other
fit statistics. The value for chi-squared/degrees of freedom
(2.11), the normed fit index (0.93), non-normed fit index
(0.89), and standardized root mean squared residuals (0.08)
suggest acceptable fit.
We also tested a trimmed model by eliminating the nonsignificant paths from identity construction and efficacy to
mean future probability of engagement. Notably, the model
chi-squared (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is not
significant (p , .07). Additionally, the chi-squared to degrees
of freedom ratio improved to 1.77. Other fit statistics remained
substantively the same (normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normed
fit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residuals 5 0.09) and also suggest acceptable fit. Notably, none of
the substantive results changed in the trimmed model. These
statistics show that the data do not deviate from the re-specified model. We examined the modification indexes for possible changes to the model. None could be justified theoretically.
Additionally, re-specifying the model to account for modification indexes carries the risk of maximizing the fit for the
idiosyncrasies of our data. Therefore, only the original and
trimmed models are discussed below.
H1 posited that the relationship between the perceived
satisfaction of identity construction needs in a risky sport and
both the frequency of engagement in it and future probability
of engaging in other risky sports in positive. H1 was partially
supported. Identity construction was unrelated to the frequency of practice of the sport (b 5 0.08, t 5 0.57). However,
the relationship is positive and significant for future probability of engagement (b 5 0.46, t 5 3.91 in the original and the
trimmed model). In other words, the higher the individual’s
perceived satisfaction of identity construction needs in one
risky sport, the higher the probability that the same individual
will engage in other risky sports in the future.
The perceived satisfaction of efficacy needs in a risky sport
was expected to be related positively to both the frequency
of engagement in it and future probability of engaging in
other risky sports (H2). The relation was insignificant in the
frequency model (b 5 0.07, t 5 0.46) and significant (but
opposite expectations) in the future model (b 5 20.33, t 5
22.71 in both models). Thus, H2 was disconfirmed.
The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of camaraderie needs in a given sport and both the frequency of
244
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A. Shoham et al.
Table 3. Means and Correlation Coefficients for Study Constructsa,b
Mean frequency of engagement in
risky sports
Mean future probability of entry to
new sports
Satisfaction of need for identity
construction
Satisfaction of need for efficacy
Satisfaction of need for camaraderie
Age
Experience
a
b
MF
MP
IC
EF
CAM
AGE
EX
0.03
(.97)
0.16
(.20)
0.40
(.00)
0.35
(.01)
0.45
(.00)
0.26
(.04)
0.03
(.84)
3.57
(1.90)
0.33
(.01)
0.13
(.30)
0.24
(.05)
2 0.38
(.00)
20.51
(.00)
4.11
(1.26)
0.69
(.00)
0.47
(.00)
0.24
(.05)
0.00
(.98)
4.92
(1.08)
0.50
(.00)
0.09
(.45)
20.04
(.75)
5.06
(1.48)
0.20
(.11)
0.13
(.32)
30.25
(11.26)
0.80
(.00)
6.78
(7.30)
Means (standard deviations) are on the diagonal; correlation coefficients are off the diagonal (p-values in parentheses).
All correlatioins above 0.23 are significant (p , 0.05; two-way tests).
engagement in it and future probability of engaging in other
risky sports was expected to be positive (H3). The model
substantiates this hypothesis. Both coefficients are positive
and significant (bfrequency 5 0.35, t 5 2.93, bfuture 5 0.26, t 5
2.62 in the original model; bfrequency 5 0.41, t 5 4.10, bfuture 5
0.26, t 5 2.62 in the trimmed model).
H4 hypothesized that experience in a risky sport would
be positively related to the frequency of engagement in it (H4a)
and negatively related to the future probability of engaging in
other risky sports (H4b). Experience was negatively related
to the frequency of practicing the sport (b 5 20.42, t 5
22.56 in the original model; b 5 20.48, t 5 22.88 in
the trimmed model)—disconfirming H4a—and to the future
engagement in new risky sports (b 5 20.38, t 5 22.76 in
both models)—confirming H4b.
No hypothesis was advanced for the influence of age on
either of the dependent variables. Interestingly, age was a
positive and significant predictor of frequency (b 5 0.51, t 5
3.11 in the original model; b 5 0.57, t 5 3.43 in the trimmed
model), but an insignificant predictor of future probability of
entering new sports (b 5 20.19, t 5 21.40 in both models).
The questionnaire included an open-ended question that
asked respondents to explain their choice and practice of a
risky sport. In all, 47 respondents of the total sample of 72
provided between one and six motives. The distribution of
responses is shown in Table 5. The two general and generic
motives were the most popular. Fifteen practitioners reported
fun as a major motive and 11 reported that it has been a lifelong dream. Nature also played a role in motivating practitioners. However, it has opposite effects on two-sub-groups
of respondents. Some respondents emphasize the need to
enjoy nature and become one with it. Others point out their
attempt to overcome and conquer nature by their acts.
The three themes included in this research are also present
in Table 5. The ability to become better at a given sport and
measure one’s improvement (efficacy) was important to many
respondents. The importance of challenge, thrill, and adventure was also evident, as was the satisfying group experience
during practice (camaraderie). In sum, the need for efficacy,
identity construction, and camaraderie were all used in response to the open-ended question.
Discussion
We expected the potential of a risky sport to satisfy identity
construction needs to have a positive effect within two time
frames. First, it was expected to affect present behavior, resulting in a higher frequency of practicing the sport. Second,
it was expected to affect future behavioral intentions through
its hypothesized relationship with the probability of engaging
in other risky sports. The latter relationship was substantiated
by the data. The potential of one risky sport to aid in identity
construction carries through to other, non-practiced risky
sports. This implies that respondents view new risky sports
as providing similar contexts in which they can evolve and
their identity develop (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). The
importance of identity construction may well depend on Arnould and Price’s (1993) extension and renewal of self. In other
words, entering into new risky sports provides an opportunity
to move from self-extension to self-renewal within the novel
sport.
Interestingly, identity construction potential did not have
a significant effect on the frequency at which individuals practice their chosen sport. As can be seen in Table 3, the correlation between the need for identity construction and the frequency of practice is positive and significant (r 5 0.40, p ,
0.01). However, this relationship does not carry through to
the LISREL analysis. It may be that the path estimates were
reduced due to inter-scale correlations. If this is the case, the
bivariate correlation coefficient may be a better measure for
Practitioners of Risky Sports
J Busn Res
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245
Table 4. Frequency of Practice and Future Probability of Entering New Sports: LISREL Maximum Likelihood, Standardized Estimates
(t-values in Paranthesis)
Independent Variables
Satisfaction of need for identity constructionb
Satisfaction of need for efficacyc
Satisfaction of need for camaraderie
Age
Experience
Squared multiple correlations for structural equationsc
Mean Frequency of
Engagement in Risky Sportsa
Mean Future Probability
Of Entry to New Sports
0.08 (0.57)
0.07 (0.46)
0.35; 0.41 (2.93; 4.10)
0.51; 0.57 (3.11; 3.43)
20.42; 20.48 (22.56; 22.88)
0.29
0.46 (3.91)
20.33 (22.71)
0.26 (2.62)
20.19 (21.40)
20.38 (22.76)
0.50
a
Original model appears first, followed by the trimmed model.
These paths were excluded in the trimmed model.
c
Original model’s v2 (14.75, 7 degrees of freedom) is significant (p , 0.04). Its ratio of v2/degrees of freedom is 2.11. The normed fit index is 0.93, non-normed fit index is 0.89,
and the standardized root mean squared residuals equal 0.08. The trimmed model’s v2 (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom) is not significant (p , 0.07). The ratio of v2 to degrees of
freedom is 1.77. Normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normed fit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residuals 5 0.09.
b
the association between the two variables in support of the
first research hypothesis.
Alternatively, the potential of practice to contribute to identity construction may be subject to a ceiling effect. Once
individuals attain given levels of expertise and satisfy their
need for identity construction, the sport may lose its luster.
If a ceiling effect is operating, practice may be limited to levels
designed to maintain one’s standard of expertise (similar to a
minimal number of flights required of amateur pilots). This
explanation also agrees with the significant effect for future
probability discussed above. Engaging in new sports enables
consumers to break the barrier within the original sport.
Couched in the terminology of self-actualization (Bandura,
1965; Rogers, 1970), our findings show that the need for
identity construction does not affect practice frequency. Having achieved a level of competence in a sport may result
in sufficient satisfaction, thus reducing the need for further
improvement and practice. The distance between the ideal
and real selves (Rogers, 1980) when beginning a new sport
may be much larger than at latter stages. Initially, the novice
knows very little, especially when compared to experts and
professionals. As one becomes an expert, the distance between
real and ideal selves is reduced, resulting in a lower motivation
for action (Rogers, 1970).
The need for efficacy was insignificant in the present frequency model and, contrary to expectations, was negatively
related to the future probability of engaging in new sports.
Notably, the bivariate correlation coefficients differed. The
Figure 1. LISREL maximum likelihood model estimates.
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A. Shoham et al.
Table 5. Motives for Entry and Continuous Involvement in Risky Sports
Motive
Number of Responses
General Motives
Personal
Fun and enjoyment
26
Life-long dream
11
Nature
Enjoying nature
14
8
Overcoming nature
Personal Motives
Efficacy
15
6
37
11
Challenge
8
Thrill
7
Interesting
6
Adventure
5
Group
Done with Others
4
4
need for efficacy was positively and significantly related to
the frequency of practice (r 5 0.35, p , 0.01), but not to
the future probability of engagement in additional sports (r 5
0.13, p , 0.30). However, we believe that in this case the
LISREL analysis provides a better measure for the direction
and strength of the two relationships. It is well documented
that structural equation modeling has advantages when assessing the interdependent relationships between multiple dependent and independent variables. This may well be a case
in point.
Another possible explanation for the failure of efficacy to
have an effect on how frequently individuals practice risky
sports is similar to the one discussed above for identity construction needs, namely the existence of a ceiling effect. There
may exist some level of expertise beyond which frequent dives,
skydives, or climbs fail to contribute sufficiently to encourage
further practice (Bandura, 1965). Similar to the need for identity construction, the perceived distance between the original
ideal self and the evolving real self may result in a lower drive
for improvement (Rogers, 1970).
Efficacy is negatively related to the probability of engaging
in new risky sports. Efficacy is closely related to competence
in a given risky sport. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, (1993), for
example, link personal satisfaction and enhanced social standing to the development of expertise in skydiving. There is
no reason to expect skydiving-related skills to enhance one’s
competence or social standing in another sport such as deepsea diving. For an exposition of differences between two such
Examples
1.
1.
2.
3.
It’s a lot of fun
Flying is a life-long dream of mine.
I loved flying since I was a child.
I have always seen myself as a bird.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Becoming one with nature.
The view changes.
Being alone opposite nature and using it to the limit.
Fighting nature.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
The ability to become better at it.
Knowing the improvements and growth I gain.
It’s a challenge.
Pushing myself to the limit.
This is a very thrilling experience.
Adrenaline flowing.
It fills my life with something interesting.
The interesting discoveries I make.
Every dive is an adventure.
I chose it because of the adventures it provides.
1. It requires cooperation between practitioners.
2. It exposes me to new people.
sports, compare the skills in river rafting (Arnould and Price,
1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and those in skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). Furthermore, because
skills are not transferable, having mastered one sport hinders
the probability that one will initiate a new sport and start the
apprentice phase all over again.
Camaraderie positively affected both present frequency and
future probability of engagement in risky sports, as hypothesized. The significant correlation coefficients in Table 3 carried
through to the LISREL analysis. The strong effect of communitas on skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993) and on
satisfaction with river rafting experiences (Arnould and Price,
1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) carries through to
this study’s dependent variables. Stated differently, not only
does the potential of a risky sport affect satisfaction with a
given instance of consumption of the s
A Quantitative Examination
Aviv Shoham
ISRAEL INSTITUTE oF TECHNOLOGY
Gregory M. Rose
UNIVERSITY oF MISSISSIPPI
Lynn R. Kahle
UNIVERSITY oF OREGON
The consumption of risky sports continues to grow. Risky sports include
activities such as skydiving, deep-sea diving, and parachuting that entail
a high level of physical risk. To date, most studies of risky sports have
tended to be more qualitative than quantitative and were based on participant observation. The research described here builds on earlier research
by integrating the frameworks within which risky sports’ consumption
have been documented—drama, danger neutralization and peer identification, and extraordinary experiences—into an empirically testable
model. The model is tested on the basis of responses from 72 individuals,
who have been active in sports such as deep-sea diving, parachuting, and
rock or mountain climbing. Substantial empirical support is found for the
integrated, drama- and extraordinary-based frames of reference. The
findings are used to generate managerial implications, a topic mostly
neglected in previous research. J BUSN RES 2000. 47.237–251. 1999
Elsevier Science Inc.
The plane climbs slowly, until it reaches 11,000 feet. The
door opens, and a wave of fear strikes me. A strong, very
cold gust rushes inside and makes me jam into a corner.
I try to remember the instructions . . . Another second,
and Mordi [the instructor] jumps. We are falling. The wind
hits us and overpowers my facial muscles. I think that one
cheek engulfs an ear. A sharp pain shoots through my
lower stomach. The amazing speed of the fall accumulates.
Something very bad is happening. Mordi is late or has lost
control . . . Just then, not more than five seconds since we
left the plane, Mordi opens the tiny balancing canopy. The
Aviv Shoham is a lecturer of marketing at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa, Israel. Gregory M. Rose is an Assistant Professor of Marketing
at the University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi. Lynn R. Kahle is the
James H. Warsaw Professor of Marketing at the University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.
Address correspondence to Dr. Aviv Shoham, Technion–Israel Institute
of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, 32000
Technion City, Haifa, Israel.
Journal of Business Research 47, 237–251 (2000)
1999 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
awful fall stops. The much-anticipated tap of Mordi on my
shoulder starts 40 seconds of pure happiness . . . I am
engulfed with optimism, screaming with the feelings of
freedom and liberation. An addictive sensation. Birds feel
similarly [(Zundar, 1995), p. 68].
T
his first skydiving experience described by an Israeli
journalist is similar to that discussed by Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh (1993). Similar sensations of fear transformed into happiness have been described for river rafters
(Arnould and Price, 1993; Arnould, Price, and Tierney, 1998a,
1998b; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and Canadian
hang gliders (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983). Many leisure
activities involve some level of physical risk. Risky sports differ
from other sports in that consumers knowingly face the risk
of a serious injury and even death when judgment or equipment fail (Lyng, 1990). Annual deaths range between one of
250 ultra-light airplane pilots to one of 100,000 scuba divers,
the latter still twice the rate for football players (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993).
Risky sports are increasingly practiced in developed nations. This increase is due to the juxtaposition of a dramatic
world view, perpetuated by the mass media, with the specialized and bureaucratic social forms of the twentieth century.
Thus, risky sports may provide a release from the tensions of
the modern era. The popularity of risky sports has created
market opportunities for emergent industries, such as clubs,
equipment stores, and magazines. The interest of marketing
scholars in the study of risky sports parallels the popularization of these sports. Prior research has described the experience of rafting, hang gliding, and skydiving (Arnould and
Price, 1993; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993; Celsi, 1992) and has provided thick descripISSN 0148-2963/00/$–see front matter
PII S0148-2963(98)00093-9
238
J Busn Res
2000:47:237–251
tions of the hedonic aspects of risky sport consumption. Arnould and Price (1993) and Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993)
use induction to suggest two frameworks for understanding
the seeming paradox between rational behavior and the consumption of risky sports. They link the transcendent nature
of risky sport to increased participation (Celsi, Rose, and
Leigh, 1993) and satisfaction (Arnould and Price, 1993). Individual and group variables are combined with insights from
the extraordinary experience model to provide an excellent
basis for a managerially oriented, empirical examination of
this paradoxical consumer behavior.
This article explores the frequency of participation in risky
sports. It synthesizes findings from previous research into an
empirically testable model. The framework used here integrates the drama-form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), dangerneutralization and peer-identification explanations (Brannigan
and McDougall, (1983), and the extraordinary experience
model (Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney,
1995). We adopt a managerial focus in developing our model.
Arnould and Price (1993) and Price, Arnould, and Tierney
(1995) focus on the attitudinal outcome of satisfaction. We
examine the behavior (frequency of engagement in current
risky sports) and future behavioral intention (probability of
entering other risky sports). The frequency of risky sport’s
practice can be used in segmentation and positioning by identifying the characteristics and preferences of heavy versus light
practitioners. The probability that practitioners of one risky
sport will enter into others is also managerially relevant, because if engagement in new risky sports is predicated on
similar explanatory constructs as participation in current risky
sports, then firms catering to one risky sport could target
practitioners of other risky sports. As previous research has
mostly ignored managerial implications, generation of such
implications is an important part of this article.
Theoretically, sensation seeking and risky sport consumption are frequently treated as stable traits. However, skydiving
motivations evolve over time. While an individual may initially
join to comply with a friend’s request, efficacy, identity-construction, higher-order group motives, such as communitas,
become more important over time. Thus, empirically examining the association between various needs and motives for
participating in risky sports and the expected probability of
participating in other risky sports should help identify the
extent to which specific needs are sport-specific, providing
additional evidence in the trait versus process debate.
Finally, we use an Israeli sample of practitioners. This choice
should help to extend the generalizability of findings from
previous research beyond the U.S. samples used in the past.
Theory and Research Hypotheses
Substantial research on joining risky sports is based on two
theories. The first is a trait theory based on an individual’s
need for sensation (Zuckerman, 1979). Sensation seeking is
A. Shoham et al.
viewed as a need for thrill, adventure, and novel experiences
(Zuckerman, 1983, 1984; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum, and Murphy, 1980; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob, 1964). It is
trait-based in that individuals have given levels of needs for
sensation. The scale for measuring sensation seeking (SSS-V;
Zuckerman, 1979) includes sub-dimensions for thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, boredom susceptibility,
and disinhibition. The scale exhibits acceptable reliability and
convergent validity (Wahlers, Dunn, and Etzel, 1986; Whalers
and Etzel, 1990). Sensation seeking has been linked to higher
consumption of drugs, smoking (Burns, Hampson, Severson,
and Slovic, 1993; Severson, Slovic, and Hampson, 1993),
and risky sports (Hymbaugh and Garrett, 1974; Zuckerman,
Buchsbaum, and Murphy, 1980).
Telic dominance, a state-based theory, is a second theory
used to explain the probability of engaging in risky sports
(Apter, 1976, 1982; Smith and Apter, 1975). It has been
operationalized by measuring individual differences based on
one’s propensity toward two stable states (telic and paratelic).
The dominance of either of these states has been viewed as a
personality trait (Murgatroyd et al., 1978). In a telic state,
individuals try to gain arousal (felt as pleasant); in a paratelic
state, individuals try to reduce arousal (seen as unpleasant).
While telic dominance and reversal theory, on which it is
based, are state-based, the Telic Dominance Scale assesses
three trait sub-dimensions: arousal avoidance, serious-mindedness, and planning orientation (Murgatroyd et al., 1978).
Telic dominance and arousal avoidance differ between risky
sports practitioners and the general population (Kerr, 1991).
In marketing, sensation seeking and telic dominance belong to studies of optimal stimulation levels. These studies
assume that there exist one (homeostatic) level of sensation
or two (bi-stable) levels of stimulation (telic or paratelic) with
which individuals are comfortable. Deficiency or surplus of
environmental stimulation will result in individual behavior
to increase or reduce stimulation (Raju, 1980; Wahlers and
Etzel, 1990).
The purpose of this study is to identify differentiating factors for individuals, who already practice risky sports. Such
individuals are expected to score high on sensation seeking
and low on arousal avoidance. Although sensation seeking
and telic dominance have been used mostly to predict risktaking behavior in the general population, we use them to
establish validity. Comparing sensation seeking in our sample
with levels in previous studies can substantiate the generalizability of our findings. Furthermore, inclusion of the two
scales can be used to identify sub-populations within risky
sport practitioners.
We synthesize findings from Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993),
Brannigan and McDougall (1983), Arnould and Price (1993),
and Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995). They view risky
sport participation as a continuous process and describe the
evolution of motives throughout this process. We integrate
their findings into a model of continuous involvement in risky
Practitioners of Risky Sports
sports. This model has an advantage in that comparisons can
be made within the group of practitioners. All three approaches share four building blocks, which explain the consumption of risky sports: the need for identity construction,
efficacy, camaraderie, and experience. We examine each of
the four separately, although they are related.
Identity Construction
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 11] discuss identity construction as a motive for continuous involvement in risky
sports. They refer to this opportunity as “. . . a well-defined
context for personal change, as well as a clear-cut means to
organize a new, and sometimes central, identity.” Initiation
is a structured process, similar to a pilgrimage (Arnould and
Price, 1993) or rite of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993).
Participation in the sport is seen as special or unique. This
structured opportunity for self-construction through a unique,
extraordinary experience provides a powerful motive in the
late twentieth century, where adult roles are frequently routine, bureaucratic, and hard-to-change.
Arnould and Price (1993) identify extension and renewal
of self as a theme associated with satisfying river rafting trips.
Part of this growth is acquiring a new sport-specific jargon.
Newcomers to ultra-light plane flights start using terms such
as “air pocket,” “lower the nose,” “throttle,” and “flaps” (Kafra,
1995). Skydivers use “free fall,” “secondary canopy,” and
“main canopy” (Zundar, 1995). The new terms are used to
signify one’s membership, acceptance, and understanding of
the special viewpoint of risky sport participants (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993). Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995) used
identity construction as a measure of provider performance,
which led to satisfaction. Brannigan and McDougall (1983)
identify the ego-gratifying aspects of continuous involvement
in risky sports. Ego gratification results from internal, subculture-based status and from external, media-based attention.
In sum, given identity construction’s important role in
explaining continuous risky sport participation and satisfaction, it is hypothesized that:
H1: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
identity construction needs in a risky sport and both
the frequency of engagement in it and future probability of engaging in other risky sports is positive.
Efficacy
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 10] suggest efficacy as a
motive for “sticking with it.” They define the need for efficacy
as “a desire to develop technical skill for both personal satisfaction and social status within the sky-diving community.” Consumers are motivated to stay involved with the sport because
they get getter at it (Branningan and McDougall, 1983). Furthermore, standards shift and become more demanding with
increased expertise. Thus, self-expectations increase with expertise, maintaining the importance of efficacy over time
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239
(Bandura, 1965; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993).
Arnould and Price (1993) also argue for the importance
of efficacy. River rafting guides help rafters acquire new skills.
Progressive mastery continues throughout the rafting trip.
Because of its long duration, one river rafting experience affords the individual an opportunity to satisfy needs for efficacy
within a single trip. In contrast, similar needs are satisfied
over multiple consumption activities for skydivers due to the
short duration of a jump. In both cases, the need for efficacy
is a motive for continuous involvement. Thus:
H2: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
efficacy needs in a risky sport and both the frequency
of engagement in it and future probability of engaging
in other risky sports is positive.
Camaraderie
The importance of the group within which a risky sport is
practiced is an additional motive for practicing it. Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh [(1993), p. 12] use group camaraderie as one of
three transcendent motives-flow, communitas, and phatic
communion. They define communitas as “a sense of community that transcends typical social norms and convention.” It
provides a sense of camaraderie for people from differing
backgrounds; they can regard their joint activities as sacred
(Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry, 1989). Communitas develops
when shared experiences transcend the drudgery of everyday
life and provide shared rituals or extraordinary experiences.
Group members recognize the irrelevancy of external roles and
develop expertise and specialized roles within the community,
maintaining the separation between the everyday world and
the extraordinary risky sport experience.
Arnould and Price (1993) include communitas as a theme
of satisfying rafting trips. In the process of negotiating whitewater rivers, team members develop feelings of belonging to
the group. The group is united by its devotion to a single,
transcendent goal. In the process, rafters dispose of personal,
non-task-related possessions, in favor of shared and goalrelevant ones. The process is aided by rafting guides, who
provide reinforcement for teamwork. Consequently, Price,
Arnould, and Tierney (1995) use a measure of the service
provider having created a team spirit in their performance
scale. Positive social relationships serve to reinforce participants’
continuous involvement (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983).
Communitas is manifested in identity construction and
efficacy in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), the
danger neutralization and peer identification (Brannigan and
McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary experience models
(Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).
Initiation processes in the pilgrimage metaphor (Arnould and
Price, 1993) and in rites of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,
1993) are important aspects of satisfaction of identity construction needs. Identity construction takes place within
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groups with common interests and goals. Further, efficacy
involves the development of sport-related skills and expertise
(Arnould and Price, 1993). Such skills differentiate the experienced from novices and from non-participants. Efficacy contributes to one’s standing within the community. In sum, the
group motivates members to continue and increase their level
of involvement:
H3: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of
camaraderie needs within a group of practitioners of
a given sport and both the frequency of engagement
in it and future probability of engaging in other risky
sports is positive.
Experience
The importance of experience in determining present and
future behavior is multi-faceted. It runs through Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh’s discussion (1993) of the need for efficacy and
identity construction. Efficacy is predicated on developing the
prerequisite technical skills and jargon of the sport. During
this process, attention shifts from anxiety about the physical
risks involved in the sport to achieving greater performance
through the successive mastery of greater challenges (Celsi,
Rose, and Leigh, 1993).
The importance of experience is also evident in the process
of identity construction. Sustained participation provides an
individual with an opportunity to construct a new self (Belk,
1988). The opportunity to construct a new self depends on
sufficient commitment to a new set of life tasks with associated
plans for implementation. Sticking with the sport (Celsi, Rose,
and Leigh, 1993) is a form of such commitment. Arnould and
Price (1993) trace the evolution of three themes over the river
rafting experience. Communitas, communion with nature,
and extension and renewal of self make river rafting an extraordinary experience. Each of these themes changes as the trip
progresses because opportunities for their manifestations accumulate. As the rafting trip draws to an end, “participants’
embodiments of communitas become particularly evident and
striking. [Field notes] disclose the depth of emotional attachments formed among the members of the trip” [Arnould and
Price (1993), p. 35].
In sum, experience plays a role in risky sport consumption.
Celsi, Rose, and Leigh’s (1993) satisfaction of participants’
motives and Arnould and Price’s (1993) evolution of themes
are related to experience. Sport-specific expertise and experience is a progressive process—successive stages of mastery
lead to a desire for greater challenges (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,
1993). Thus, experience should be related positively to the
frequency of engagement. Experience in a given sport, however, should be related negatively to the probability of consumption of other risky sports. Experience and expertise in
one sport are not transferable, which forces an individual to
start participation in any new risky sport from scratch. In sum:
H4a: The relationship between the experience in a risky
sport and the frequency of engagement in it is positive.
A. Shoham et al.
H4b: The relationship between the experience in a risky
sport and the future probability of engaging in other
risky sports is negative.
Finally, we controlled for age in our analyses because it
can have opposite effects. Older people may not be as fit for
the physical demands of many risky sports. Therefore, the
frequency of practice of the sport and the probability of entering new risky sports in the future should decline with age.
In contrast, some of the needs Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993)
discuss may be more important for older individuals. They
have had more opportunity to face the tension emanating
from the workplace, causing them to look for the release and
catharsis that can be gained from a risky sport. Older people
may also have had more years to develop the skills relevant
to risky sports, thus reducing the risks. Given these conflicting
roles, age is used as a convariate, and no hypothesis is advanced about its effect.
To sum, perceived fulfillment of identity construction, efficacy, and camaraderie needs by a risky sport affects the frequency of engagement in it and the probability of engaging
in other risky sports positively. The relationship between experience is a risky sport and the frequency of engagement is
also positive, but the future probability of engaging in other
risky sports is negative.
Methods
Pretest
The pretest involved two stages. First, interviews were held
with practitioners of risky sports to assess the appropriateness
and clarity of the questionnaire. Then, the revised questionnaire was tested on a sample of 60 students. Since the questionnaire included items about non-risky sports as well, reliability
and validity of the various measures could be assessed by use
of responses to the non-risky sport scales. Respondents were
also asked to comment on the clarity of the instructions and
items. Examination of these responses resulted in a few
changes. Some items were deleted, others were replaced or
re-phrased, and new items were added. Additionally, a few
introductory questions were re-worded to clarify the instructions to respondents.
Sample
Data were collected in a survey of risky sports practitioners
in Israel. Respondents were active participants in at least one
of the main risky sports practiced in Israel: skydiving, rock and
mountain climbing, deep-sea diving, and gliding. Potential
participants were identified either through professional guides
or through national associations of the sports.
The sample (Table 1) includes more males (59, or 81.9%)
than females (13, or 18.1%). Most individuals have an undergraduate degree (47.9%), followed by high school graduates
(35.2%), elementary school (7.0%), and graduate degrees
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Table 1. Sample Characteristics
Demographic Variable
Education
Up to 8 years
9–12 years
Up to undergraduate degree
Graduate studies
Gender
Male
Female
Marital Status
Single
Married with children
Married without children
Unmarried with children
Income Group
Up to US $1000
1000–1330
1330–1670
1670–2000
2000–2330
2330–2670
2670–3000
3000–3330
3330–3670
3670–4000
Over US $4000
n (%)
5 (7.0)
25 (35.2)
34 (47.9)
7 (9.9)
59 (81.9)
13 (18.1)
44
17
6
1
(64.7)
(25.0)
(8.8)
(1.4)
32
6
3
3
3
1
2
0
2
1
8
(52.5)
(9.8)
(4.9)
(4.9)
(4.9)
(1.4)
(2.8)
(0.0)
(2.8)
(1.4)
(13.1)
Note: Percentages do not add to 100.0 due to rounding off. Sub-sample sizes do not
add up to 72 due to a few missing values.
(9.9%). Most are unmarried and have no children (64.7%),
but married with children are also represented (25.0%) as are
married with no children (8.8%) and unmarried with children
(1.5%). Income is bimodally distributed with 52.5% at the
lowest end of the scale (up to $1000 gross per month), 9.8%
just above the lowest ($1000–1330 gross per month), and
13.1% at the highest end of the scale (above $4000 gross per
month). The high concentration of low-income respondents
suggests that many respondents are either students or very
young, which is consistent with the mean age (30.3) of the
sampled individuals. Finally, deep-sea diving was the most
popular (28 individuals), followed by gliding (20), rock and
mountain climbing (12), and skydiving (8).
Response Rate
Practitioners were contacted personally or by phone. Questionnaires were handed personally or mailed to practitioners
who indicated that they did not object to participation in the
survey. In all, 47 questionnaires were handed out, all of which
were returned. Of the 60 mailed questionnaires, one was
undeliverable, whereas 25 were returned for an effective mail
response rate of 42.4%. Total response rate was 72 of 106
(67.9%). Other studies of risky sports used similar or smaller
samples. Cronin (1991) used 20 mountain climbers and Hymbaugh and Garrett (1974) used 21 skydivers. Kerr (1991)
studied 63 surfers/wind-surfers, 39 parachutists/motorcyclists,
241
and 25 gliders. Finally, 27 risk-preferring individuals were
used in a sample. Calls to a sample of non-respondents yielded
questionnaire length (15 pages) as a main reason for nonresponse.
Development of Measures
The first step involved a development of multiple items for
the study’s constructs based on a literature review. Two scholars from the United States and one from Israel developed the
items in English. The items were translated from English to
Hebrew by one bilingual individual and back translated by a
second bilingual individual. Instructions to the two individuals emphasized the need to create equivalency on four dimensions: functional; operationalization; items; and scalar (Hui
and Triandis, 1985). The two English versions were compared
by a third bilingual individual (Brislin, 1970). Changes were
made by consultation of the three individuals. The items and
alphas for the scales are reported in the Appendix.
Analyses of the items and exploratory factor analyses were
used to clarify the scales. Items with high factor loadings and
item-to-total correlations were retained. This resulted in the
use of three items for the potential of the risky sport to satisfy
the need for efficacy, four for the need for identity construction, and three for the need for camaraderie. The three scales
were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to establish
unidimensionality (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988). Due to
sample size, separate analyses were performed for each scale.
In each, only one factor emerged and all items had high
loadings on the single factor.
Experience and age were measured by open-ended items.
The two measures should be highly correlated. This is because,
other things being equal the older the respondent, the longer
his (her) potential experience in the sport. This indeed was
the case, as the two are highly (but not perfectly) correlated
(r 5 0.80, p , 0.05).
Measures
The three scales for need satisfaction were introduced by an
identical question. “Different people have different motives for
being active in any given sport (such as soccer, swimming, or
jogging). Think about a risky sport that you are involved in
and indicate your agreement or disagreement with each of the
following statements. If you strongly disagree, you may mark
a ‘1’ or ‘2’; if you strongly agree, you may mark a ‘6’ or ‘7’.”
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR EFFICACY. Need for efficacy
was defined as a desire to develop technical skills for personal
satisfaction and group status. In line with this definition, the
potential of the risky sport to satisfy an individual’s need for
efficacy was operationalized based on three 7-point Likert
items. These include becoming a better person due to becoming an expert in the sport, being appreciated by peers because
of improving skills in the sport, and gaining satisfaction
through improved skills in the sport. The three items had a
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lower a (0.53) than advocated by Nunnally (1967), an issue
discussed further in the “Limitations” section.
Earlier, we suggested that satisfaction of the need for efficacy is related to the motive of satisfying communitas-related
needs in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993),
the danger-neutralization and peer-identification explanations
(Brannigan and McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary experience model (Arnould and Price, 1993). Thus, it was expected that the scale for efficacy will be related moderately and
positively to the frequency at which the sport and associated
experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, a related
measure from the data set. The scale and item were related
moderately and positively (r 5 0.41, p , 0.05), indicative of
the validity of the scale.
Identity construction was defined in terms of the existence of a
well-defined context for personal change, including the means
for organizing the new identity. Therefore, the potential of
the risky sport to satisfy a need for identity construction was
operationalized based on four 7-point Likert items. The items
were: the sport having changed one’s life perspective; being
able to measure one’s improvement in the sport helping develop skills; becoming a better person since joining the sport;
and not having changed much since joining (reversed). The
scale’s a (0.65) is close to the level advocated by Nunnally
(1967).
Identity construction should be related to sharing of one’s
experiences within and outside of the club. To assess the
scale’s validity, its correlation with four related items designed
to measure the frequency at which the sport and associated
experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, with family, with non-club friends, and in general was examined. Moderate and positive correlations were expected, which indeed
was the case as all four correlations were positive, moderate,
and significant (0.39 < r < 0.41, p , 0.05).
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION.
The potential
of the risky sport to satisfy a need for camaraderie was assessed
by three 7-point Likert items. The items were: having close
relationships with fellow practitioners, practitioners forming
a close group, and having a pleasant and important relationship with fellow practitioners. The scale showed acceptable
reliability (a 5 0.85).
On the basis of the need to interact with fellow practitioners
to satisfy the need for camaraderie, we anticipated a positive
and moderate relationship between camaraderie and an item
measuring frequency of discussing the sport with club members. This indeed was the case (r 5 0.61, p , 0.05), substantiating the validity of the scale.
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR CAMARADERIE.
Two measures were used. The first
was a mean standardized monthly frequency of engagement
in risky sports (some individuals indicated more than one
type). Standardization of the four type-specific frequency variables was needed to remove the potential confounding effect
DEPENDENT MEASURES.
A. Shoham et al.
of income and seasonality. Some sports may be more costly
than others. Skydiving, for example, necessitates a flight,
whereas other sports require lower access costs. By standardization, these potential effects are removed. The second dependent variable is the probability of entering other risky sports
in the future, operationalized as the average future probability
of joining new risky sports. For each non-practiced risky sport,
respondents were asked to indicate on 7-point scales (very
probably not to very probably yes) the probability of joining
in the future. We preferred these measures to percentage
probabilities, which were also included in the questionnaire,
because of their lower item non-response. However, the correlation between the 7-point scale and the percentage-based
scale is high (r 5 0.71, p , 0.05) suggesting acceptable reliability.
Given the mostly similar structures of explanatory constructs for the two dependent variables, it was expected that
both will be related to the measures of talking about the
experiences with friends in and out of the club discussed
above; and that these correlations would be positive and moderate. This indeed was the case. The two correlations for
averaged frequency were both positive and significant (r 5
0.40; 0.30, p , 0.05). The two for future probability are also
positive and significant (r 5 0.20; 0.21, p , 0.05). This
pattern of correlations strengthens the argument for validity
of the two dependent variables.
Analysis and Results
Statistical Technique
Analysis of the findings began with an examination of the interconstruct correlation coefficients. Then, a structural equations’
model, specifically LISREL 8 with maximum likelihood estimation, was used to test the hypotheses. This methodology
allowed the simultaneous estimation of a series of interdependent relationships, incorporated measurement error between
latent and observed variables, and allowed for the assessment
of overall model fit. Model constructs were represented by
single indicators using averaged scales (for efficacy, identity
construction, and camaraderie) and direct measures (for age
and experience). The use of single indicators was preferred,
given the complex structure of the hypothesized relationships,
the large number of required estimates for the specified model,
and the small sample size (Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).
Within-Sample Differences on Sensation
Seeking and Telic Dominance
As expected, the sample means for the scales that have been
found to differentiate risky sport practitioners from others in
previous research (total Sensation Seeking Scale [SSS] and
Thrill and Adventure Seeking [TAS]) were high in our sample:
0.77 (TAS) and 0.56 (total SSS). These values are similar to
those reported in other studies [SSS 5 0.60 in Hymbaugh
and Garrett (1974); SSS 5 0.58 and TAS 5 0.86 in Cronin
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243
Table 2. Within-Sample Mean Differences
Total Sample
Gender:
Male (n 5 59)
Female (n 5 13)
F-ratio (p 5 value)
Marital Status:
Single
Married, No children
Married, with children
F-Ratio (p 5 value)
Correlation Coefficients
Age
Income
a
TAS (SD)
Arousal Avoidance (SD)
0.77 (0.25)
0.32 (0.14)
0.81 (0.24)a
0.62 (0.25)a
6.93 (0.01)
0.33 (0.15)
0.30 (0.13)
0.35 (0.56)
0.80 (0.21)
0.74 (0.35)
0.75 (0.16)
0.33 (0.72)
Thrill and Adventure Seeking
20.18 (0.07)
20.04 (0.37)
0.28 (0.12)a
0.37 (0.15)a
0.38 (0.15)
3.18 (0.05)
Arousal Avoidance
0.28 (0.01)b
0.36 (0.01)b
The two sub-groups differ at p , 0.05.
Significant r (p , 0.05).
b
(1991)]. The mean score for Arousal Avoidance—the Telic
Dominance sub-scale reported to differentiate risky sport practitioners from others—was low in our sample (0.32). This is
similar to the means reported by Kerr (1991): mean 5 0.32
for surfers and motor-cyclists; mean 5 0.35 for gliders.
Given the important role of TAS and AA in explaining risky
sport consumption, we assessed the differences on these scales
on the basis of gender, family status, age, and income. ANOVA
was used for gender and family status and correlations were
computed for age and income. The results were useful in
generating managerial implications (Table 2). Males have
higher scores (0.81) than females (0.62) on TAS. This is the
only significant demographic correlate of TAS. Singles report
lower (0.28) AA than married (0.37) individuals. Lower scores
on AA are also associated with younger, less affluent individuals. These demographic differences are discussed in the “Implications” section.
Tests of Research Hypotheses
Table 3 provides the means and correlation coefficients for the
study constructs. The correlation matrix was used to provide
additional insights to the LISREL analysis (see the “Discussion”
section). The results of the LISREL maximum likelihood estimation are shown in Table 4 (for the original and the respecified model, discussed below) and Figure 1 (for the original model). With the correlation matrix used as input, the
model appears to fit the data well. The model chi-squared
(14.75, 7 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is significant (p ,
0.04). Notably, the use of chi-squared has been questioned
(Loehlin, 1987). Based on Loehlin (1987), we assessed other
fit statistics. The value for chi-squared/degrees of freedom
(2.11), the normed fit index (0.93), non-normed fit index
(0.89), and standardized root mean squared residuals (0.08)
suggest acceptable fit.
We also tested a trimmed model by eliminating the nonsignificant paths from identity construction and efficacy to
mean future probability of engagement. Notably, the model
chi-squared (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is not
significant (p , .07). Additionally, the chi-squared to degrees
of freedom ratio improved to 1.77. Other fit statistics remained
substantively the same (normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normed
fit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residuals 5 0.09) and also suggest acceptable fit. Notably, none of
the substantive results changed in the trimmed model. These
statistics show that the data do not deviate from the re-specified model. We examined the modification indexes for possible changes to the model. None could be justified theoretically.
Additionally, re-specifying the model to account for modification indexes carries the risk of maximizing the fit for the
idiosyncrasies of our data. Therefore, only the original and
trimmed models are discussed below.
H1 posited that the relationship between the perceived
satisfaction of identity construction needs in a risky sport and
both the frequency of engagement in it and future probability
of engaging in other risky sports in positive. H1 was partially
supported. Identity construction was unrelated to the frequency of practice of the sport (b 5 0.08, t 5 0.57). However,
the relationship is positive and significant for future probability of engagement (b 5 0.46, t 5 3.91 in the original and the
trimmed model). In other words, the higher the individual’s
perceived satisfaction of identity construction needs in one
risky sport, the higher the probability that the same individual
will engage in other risky sports in the future.
The perceived satisfaction of efficacy needs in a risky sport
was expected to be related positively to both the frequency
of engagement in it and future probability of engaging in
other risky sports (H2). The relation was insignificant in the
frequency model (b 5 0.07, t 5 0.46) and significant (but
opposite expectations) in the future model (b 5 20.33, t 5
22.71 in both models). Thus, H2 was disconfirmed.
The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of camaraderie needs in a given sport and both the frequency of
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A. Shoham et al.
Table 3. Means and Correlation Coefficients for Study Constructsa,b
Mean frequency of engagement in
risky sports
Mean future probability of entry to
new sports
Satisfaction of need for identity
construction
Satisfaction of need for efficacy
Satisfaction of need for camaraderie
Age
Experience
a
b
MF
MP
IC
EF
CAM
AGE
EX
0.03
(.97)
0.16
(.20)
0.40
(.00)
0.35
(.01)
0.45
(.00)
0.26
(.04)
0.03
(.84)
3.57
(1.90)
0.33
(.01)
0.13
(.30)
0.24
(.05)
2 0.38
(.00)
20.51
(.00)
4.11
(1.26)
0.69
(.00)
0.47
(.00)
0.24
(.05)
0.00
(.98)
4.92
(1.08)
0.50
(.00)
0.09
(.45)
20.04
(.75)
5.06
(1.48)
0.20
(.11)
0.13
(.32)
30.25
(11.26)
0.80
(.00)
6.78
(7.30)
Means (standard deviations) are on the diagonal; correlation coefficients are off the diagonal (p-values in parentheses).
All correlatioins above 0.23 are significant (p , 0.05; two-way tests).
engagement in it and future probability of engaging in other
risky sports was expected to be positive (H3). The model
substantiates this hypothesis. Both coefficients are positive
and significant (bfrequency 5 0.35, t 5 2.93, bfuture 5 0.26, t 5
2.62 in the original model; bfrequency 5 0.41, t 5 4.10, bfuture 5
0.26, t 5 2.62 in the trimmed model).
H4 hypothesized that experience in a risky sport would
be positively related to the frequency of engagement in it (H4a)
and negatively related to the future probability of engaging in
other risky sports (H4b). Experience was negatively related
to the frequency of practicing the sport (b 5 20.42, t 5
22.56 in the original model; b 5 20.48, t 5 22.88 in
the trimmed model)—disconfirming H4a—and to the future
engagement in new risky sports (b 5 20.38, t 5 22.76 in
both models)—confirming H4b.
No hypothesis was advanced for the influence of age on
either of the dependent variables. Interestingly, age was a
positive and significant predictor of frequency (b 5 0.51, t 5
3.11 in the original model; b 5 0.57, t 5 3.43 in the trimmed
model), but an insignificant predictor of future probability of
entering new sports (b 5 20.19, t 5 21.40 in both models).
The questionnaire included an open-ended question that
asked respondents to explain their choice and practice of a
risky sport. In all, 47 respondents of the total sample of 72
provided between one and six motives. The distribution of
responses is shown in Table 5. The two general and generic
motives were the most popular. Fifteen practitioners reported
fun as a major motive and 11 reported that it has been a lifelong dream. Nature also played a role in motivating practitioners. However, it has opposite effects on two-sub-groups
of respondents. Some respondents emphasize the need to
enjoy nature and become one with it. Others point out their
attempt to overcome and conquer nature by their acts.
The three themes included in this research are also present
in Table 5. The ability to become better at a given sport and
measure one’s improvement (efficacy) was important to many
respondents. The importance of challenge, thrill, and adventure was also evident, as was the satisfying group experience
during practice (camaraderie). In sum, the need for efficacy,
identity construction, and camaraderie were all used in response to the open-ended question.
Discussion
We expected the potential of a risky sport to satisfy identity
construction needs to have a positive effect within two time
frames. First, it was expected to affect present behavior, resulting in a higher frequency of practicing the sport. Second,
it was expected to affect future behavioral intentions through
its hypothesized relationship with the probability of engaging
in other risky sports. The latter relationship was substantiated
by the data. The potential of one risky sport to aid in identity
construction carries through to other, non-practiced risky
sports. This implies that respondents view new risky sports
as providing similar contexts in which they can evolve and
their identity develop (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). The
importance of identity construction may well depend on Arnould and Price’s (1993) extension and renewal of self. In other
words, entering into new risky sports provides an opportunity
to move from self-extension to self-renewal within the novel
sport.
Interestingly, identity construction potential did not have
a significant effect on the frequency at which individuals practice their chosen sport. As can be seen in Table 3, the correlation between the need for identity construction and the frequency of practice is positive and significant (r 5 0.40, p ,
0.01). However, this relationship does not carry through to
the LISREL analysis. It may be that the path estimates were
reduced due to inter-scale correlations. If this is the case, the
bivariate correlation coefficient may be a better measure for
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Table 4. Frequency of Practice and Future Probability of Entering New Sports: LISREL Maximum Likelihood, Standardized Estimates
(t-values in Paranthesis)
Independent Variables
Satisfaction of need for identity constructionb
Satisfaction of need for efficacyc
Satisfaction of need for camaraderie
Age
Experience
Squared multiple correlations for structural equationsc
Mean Frequency of
Engagement in Risky Sportsa
Mean Future Probability
Of Entry to New Sports
0.08 (0.57)
0.07 (0.46)
0.35; 0.41 (2.93; 4.10)
0.51; 0.57 (3.11; 3.43)
20.42; 20.48 (22.56; 22.88)
0.29
0.46 (3.91)
20.33 (22.71)
0.26 (2.62)
20.19 (21.40)
20.38 (22.76)
0.50
a
Original model appears first, followed by the trimmed model.
These paths were excluded in the trimmed model.
c
Original model’s v2 (14.75, 7 degrees of freedom) is significant (p , 0.04). Its ratio of v2/degrees of freedom is 2.11. The normed fit index is 0.93, non-normed fit index is 0.89,
and the standardized root mean squared residuals equal 0.08. The trimmed model’s v2 (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom) is not significant (p , 0.07). The ratio of v2 to degrees of
freedom is 1.77. Normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normed fit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residuals 5 0.09.
b
the association between the two variables in support of the
first research hypothesis.
Alternatively, the potential of practice to contribute to identity construction may be subject to a ceiling effect. Once
individuals attain given levels of expertise and satisfy their
need for identity construction, the sport may lose its luster.
If a ceiling effect is operating, practice may be limited to levels
designed to maintain one’s standard of expertise (similar to a
minimal number of flights required of amateur pilots). This
explanation also agrees with the significant effect for future
probability discussed above. Engaging in new sports enables
consumers to break the barrier within the original sport.
Couched in the terminology of self-actualization (Bandura,
1965; Rogers, 1970), our findings show that the need for
identity construction does not affect practice frequency. Having achieved a level of competence in a sport may result
in sufficient satisfaction, thus reducing the need for further
improvement and practice. The distance between the ideal
and real selves (Rogers, 1980) when beginning a new sport
may be much larger than at latter stages. Initially, the novice
knows very little, especially when compared to experts and
professionals. As one becomes an expert, the distance between
real and ideal selves is reduced, resulting in a lower motivation
for action (Rogers, 1970).
The need for efficacy was insignificant in the present frequency model and, contrary to expectations, was negatively
related to the future probability of engaging in new sports.
Notably, the bivariate correlation coefficients differed. The
Figure 1. LISREL maximum likelihood model estimates.
246
J Busn Res
2000:47:237–251
A. Shoham et al.
Table 5. Motives for Entry and Continuous Involvement in Risky Sports
Motive
Number of Responses
General Motives
Personal
Fun and enjoyment
26
Life-long dream
11
Nature
Enjoying nature
14
8
Overcoming nature
Personal Motives
Efficacy
15
6
37
11
Challenge
8
Thrill
7
Interesting
6
Adventure
5
Group
Done with Others
4
4
need for efficacy was positively and significantly related to
the frequency of practice (r 5 0.35, p , 0.01), but not to
the future probability of engagement in additional sports (r 5
0.13, p , 0.30). However, we believe that in this case the
LISREL analysis provides a better measure for the direction
and strength of the two relationships. It is well documented
that structural equation modeling has advantages when assessing the interdependent relationships between multiple dependent and independent variables. This may well be a case
in point.
Another possible explanation for the failure of efficacy to
have an effect on how frequently individuals practice risky
sports is similar to the one discussed above for identity construction needs, namely the existence of a ceiling effect. There
may exist some level of expertise beyond which frequent dives,
skydives, or climbs fail to contribute sufficiently to encourage
further practice (Bandura, 1965). Similar to the need for identity construction, the perceived distance between the original
ideal self and the evolving real self may result in a lower drive
for improvement (Rogers, 1970).
Efficacy is negatively related to the probability of engaging
in new risky sports. Efficacy is closely related to competence
in a given risky sport. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, (1993), for
example, link personal satisfaction and enhanced social standing to the development of expertise in skydiving. There is
no reason to expect skydiving-related skills to enhance one’s
competence or social standing in another sport such as deepsea diving. For an exposition of differences between two such
Examples
1.
1.
2.
3.
It’s a lot of fun
Flying is a life-long dream of mine.
I loved flying since I was a child.
I have always seen myself as a bird.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Becoming one with nature.
The view changes.
Being alone opposite nature and using it to the limit.
Fighting nature.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
The ability to become better at it.
Knowing the improvements and growth I gain.
It’s a challenge.
Pushing myself to the limit.
This is a very thrilling experience.
Adrenaline flowing.
It fills my life with something interesting.
The interesting discoveries I make.
Every dive is an adventure.
I chose it because of the adventures it provides.
1. It requires cooperation between practitioners.
2. It exposes me to new people.
sports, compare the skills in river rafting (Arnould and Price,
1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and those in skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). Furthermore, because
skills are not transferable, having mastered one sport hinders
the probability that one will initiate a new sport and start the
apprentice phase all over again.
Camaraderie positively affected both present frequency and
future probability of engagement in risky sports, as hypothesized. The significant correlation coefficients in Table 3 carried
through to the LISREL analysis. The strong effect of communitas on skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993) and on
satisfaction with river rafting experiences (Arnould and Price,
1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) carries through to
this study’s dependent variables. Stated differently, not only
does the potential of a risky sport affect satisfaction with a
given instance of consumption of the s