Perspectives and social contacts between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India as seen in E.M Forster`s A Passage To India - USD Repository
PERSPECTIVES AND SOCIAL CONTACTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH
AND THE INDIANS DURING BRITISH COLONIALISM IN INDIA
AS SEEN IN E.M. FORSTER’S A PASSAGE TO INDIA
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By Maria Ratna Paranti
Student Number: 041214079
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
This thesis is dedicated to: My Lord Jesus Christ, my Father, my Mother, my Husband, and my Lovely Son…
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I firstly give my highest thankfulness to my Lord Jesus Christ for His never ending bless so that I can finally finish my thesis. Quoted from Celine Dion’s Because You Loved Me, ‘You were my strength when I was weak, you were my voice when I couldn’t speak, you were my eyes when I couldn’t see…’, these lines inspire me that He never let me fall, and love me more than anybody.
I also give my great, great thank to my parents, my father and mother, for always supporting me in every decision I make. I thank them for praying for me so that I can be who I am today. I thank my younger brother, Boni, who also becomes my younger classmate in this university, for being my information source in dealing with secretariat announcement and any other campus issues.
I dedicate my grateful to Henny Herawati S.Pd., M.Hum. for her guidance and patience in guiding me to do my thesis. I thank her for her kindness to give the best advice so that I can do my thesis easily.
My grateful next goes to my best friends, Anik, Riska, Rina, Aline, Dion,
Bekti, Susan, and my boarding house friends, Mbak Ani, mbak Lidya and
Mbak Erni, for bringing joys and cheers in my life. For Anik and Christina, I
thank them for supporting and helping me with the materials. My husband, Roosy, and my sweetest son, Raya, are my biggest inspiration in these few years. I thank them for always supporting and giving me motivation to finish my thesis. I love them much.
Finally, I thank all PBI lecturers and Secretariat Staff for being my second family during my study in this university. I thank them for teaching and helping me when I face difficulties during my study and administration problems.
Maria Ratna Paranti
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
TITLE PAGE ..................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGES ......................................................................................... ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .................................................. iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ............................................................. v
PAGE OF DEDICATION ................................................................................. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... xii
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... xvi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1 A. Background of the Study ............................................................................... 1 B. Problem Formulation .................................................................................... 4 C. Objectives of the Study ................................................................................. 4 D. Benefits of the Study ..................................................................................... 4 E. Definitions of Terms ...................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................ 9 A. Review of Related Theories .......................................................................... 9
1. Approach .................................................................................................. 9
2. Theory of Social Contacts ........................................................................ 10
a. Based on the Stimulus to Make Contact ............................................. 11 1) Physical Touch............................................................................... 11 2) Sensory Impressions ...................................................................... 11
b. Based on the Type of the Contacts ...................................................... 11
2) Negative Social Contacts .............................................................. 11
C. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 29
d. The Bureaucrat’s View ...................................................................... 38
c. The English Government’s Indians Civilization Program ................. 37
b. Christianity View ............................................................................... 37
a. Superordinate View ............................................................................ 36
1. The Perspectives of the English toward the Indians during British Colonialism in India ................................................................... 35
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ................................................................ 30
A. Subject Matter .............................................................................................. 30 B. Approach of the Study .................................................................................. 32 C. Method of the Study ..................................................................................... 33CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ............................................................................. 35
A. . The Perspectives of the English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India ..................................................................................... 35c. Organization of Welfare ................................................................ 24
c. Based on whether the Contacts are Made Directly or Not .................. 12 1) Primary Contacts ........................................................................... 12 2) Secondary Contacts ....................................................................... 12
b. Organization of Economic Life ..................................................... 21
a. Organization of Political Power ..................................................... 18
2. Organization of the Politics, Economy, and Welfare .......................... 17
1. British Colonialism in India ................................................................ 13
B. Review of the Historical Background ........................................................... 13
b) Indirect Secondary Contacts .................................................. 12
a) Direct secondary Contacts ..................................................... 12
2. The Perspectives of the Indians toward the English during British Colonialism in India ..................................................................... 40
c. Indians’ Response to English Government’s Civilization Program... 41
d. Maintaining Relationships with the Westerns for Certain Purposes .. 43
B. The Social Contacts between the English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India ......................................................................... 44
1. The Social Contacts Based on the Stimulus to Male a Contact between the English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India ................................................................................................... 44 a. Physical Touch ...................................................................................
44
b. Sensory Impressions .......................................................................... 45
2. The Social Contacts Based on the Type of the Contacts between the English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India ...................................................................................................
45
a. Positive Social Contacts ..................................................................... 45
b. Negative Social Contacts ................................................................... 47
3. The Social Contacts Based on whether the Contacts are Made Directly or not between the English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India ....................................................... 48 a. Primary Social Contacts ..................................................................... 48
b. Secondary Social Contacts ................................................................. 49 1) Direct Secondary Social Contacts .............................................. 49 2) Indirect Secondary Social Contacts ............................................. 50
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ............................. 52 A. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 52 B. Suggestions ................................................................................................... 54
1. Suggestion for Future Researchers .......................................................... 54
2. Suggestion for English Teachers.............................................................. 55
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 57 APPENDICES .................................................................................................. 58
ABSTRACT
Ratna Paranti, Maria. 2011. Perspectives and Social Contacts between the
English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India as Seen in E. M.
Forster’s A Passage to India. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis discusses the relationship between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India. A novel by E. M. Forster, A Passage to India, as the primary source of the thesis, tells about the relationship between an Indian doctor, Aziz, and Mr. Fielding, a school-master in Government College in the city of Chandrapore. The novel contains many cultural issues related to the interracial relationship.
This thesis contains two major problems. The first one is the perspectives of the English toward the Indians, and vice versa, during British colonialism in India as seen in E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India, and the second one is the social contacts that happen between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India as seen in E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India. The writer believes that perspective is a basis for someone to decide how he should make a social contact to others.
To analyze the thesis, the writer uses Sociocultural-historical Approach since this approach focuses on sociocultural condition and historical background that is suitable with the content of the novel and the problems in the thesis, which discusses the sociocultural issue between the English and the Indian during British colonialism in India. The writer also attaches the society conditions during British colonialism in India along with the Historical Background as supporting information when the writer analyzes the perspectives from both the English and the Indians during colonialism revealed in the novel. The writer uses Social Contacts Theories from Gillins to analyze the social contacts between the English and the Indian during British colonialism in India as seen in the novel.
The writer uses a library research as the method of the study, in which the writer uses books and related articles to analyze the thesis. The primary data of this thesis is the famous novel from E. M. Forster, titled A Passage to India, and the secondary data are books and other articles to support the novel. The writer took some steps in doing this thesis, such as reading the novel, brainstorming the specific topic, collecting the secondary data, analyzing the data, concluding the results of the study, and giving suggestions in the end of the thesis.
After analyzing the data, the writer gains some points to answer the problems of the study. There are some perspectives of the English toward the Indians, and vice versa, during British colonialism. The English generally mistreat Indians as their subordinate, but some of them view in Christianity values that Indians are just same as the English. The government keeps their words to civilize India. The officials tend to use their power to mistreat Indians, especially when it deals with racial issue. On the opposites, Indians indeed acknowledge the English built by the heart, some of Indian characters maintain their relationship with the English as a life insurance. All types of the Social Contacts Theories: Physical Touch, Sensory Impressions, Positive and Negative Social Contacts, Primary Social Contacts and Indirect Secondary Social Contacts, are applicable in the novel, except for the Direct Secondary Social Contacts for there is no evidence mentioned in the novel that neither the English nor the Indians ever make a contact to their opposite race by using telephone or telegraph.
ABSTRAK
Ratna Paranti, Maria. 2011. Perspectives and Social Contacts between the
English and the Indians during British Colonialism in India as Seen in E. M.
Forster’s A Passage to India. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini mendiskusikan tentang hubungan antara orang Inggris dan
India pada masa penjajahan Inggris di India. Novel A Passage to India karya E.
M. Forster, sebagai sumber utama dari penyusunan skripsi ini, menceritakan
tentang pertemanan antara seorang doktor India, yaitu Aziz, dan Mr. Fielding,
seorang kepala sekolah di sebuah perguruan tinggi negeri di kota Chandrapore.
Novel ini memuat banyak hal mengenai persoalan budaya yang menyangkut
hubungan antar ras.Skripsi ini memuat dua masalah yang utama. Yang pertama adalah
perspektif orang Inggris terhadap orang India, dan sebaliknya, pada masa
penjajahan Inggris di India seperti yang tertuang dalam novel A Passage to India
karya E. M. Forster, dan yang kedua adalah kontak sosial yang terjadi antara
orang Inggris dan India pada masa penjajahan Inggris di India seperti yang
tertuang dalam novel A Passage to India karya E. M. Forster. Penulis percaya
bahwa perspektif adalah dasar bagi seseorang untuk menentukan bagaimana dia
harus menjalin kontak sosial dengan orang lain.Untuk menganalisa skripsi ini penulis menggunakan pendekatan sosial
budaya dan sejarah karena pendekatan ini membahas tentang kondisi sosial
budaya dan latar belakang sejarah yang sesuai dengan isi cerita novel dan
masalah yang dibahas dalam skripsi ini yaitu mengenai persoalan budaya antara
orang Inggris dan India pada masa penjajahan Inggris di India. Penulis
mencantumkan kondisi masyarakat pada masa penjajahan Inggris di India pada
bagian Latar belakang Sejarah sebagai informasi pendukung saat penulis
menganalisa perspektif orang Inggris maupun India pada masa penjajahan
berdasarkan cerita pada novel. Penulis menerapkan Teori Kontak Sosial oleh
Gillin Bersaudara untuk menganalisa kontak sosial antara orang Inggris dan
India pada masa penjajahan Inggris di India seperti yang tertuang dalam novel.Penulis menggunakan metode Penelitian Pustaka, dimana penulis
menggunakan buku-buku dan artikel yang berhubungan untuk menganalisa
skripsi ini. Sumber utama dalam penulisan skripsi ini adalah novel terkenal dari
E. M. Forster yang berjudul A Passage to India, dan sumber pendukungnya
adalah buku-buku dan artikel lain yang mendukung novel tersebut. Penulis
menempuh beberapa langkah dalam penulisan skripsinya, antara lain: membaca
novel, merumuskan topik yang spesifik, mengumpulkan data pendukung,
mengolah data, menyimpulkan hasil penelitian dan memberikan saran-saran
pada bagian akhir dalam skripsi.Setelah melakukan analisa, penulis menemukan beberapa hal penting
yang dapat menjawab masalah-masalah dalam skripsi ini. Terdapat beberapa
orang India sebagai orang-orang bawahan yang tidak sederajat, tetapi ada juga
di antara mereka yang memandang dari nilai-nilai Kristiani bahwa orang India
juga sama berharganya seperti orang Inggris. Pemerintah menepati janjinya
untuk memajukan orang India. Para pegawai pemerintah, yang sebagian besar
adalah orang-orang Inggris, cenderung untuk menggunakan kekuasaan mereka
untuk memperlakukan orang India secara tidak pantas, terutama bila menyangkut
persoalan ras. Sebaliknya, orang India juga menerima orang Inggris sebagai
penguasa mereka, tetapi tidak tertutup kemungkinan bagi mereka untuk menjalin
pertemanan dengan orang Inggris. Orang India juga memberikan respon yang
baik dalam hal kemajuan peradaban. Tidak semua pertemanan dijalin dengan
tulus, ada pula diantara mereka yang menjalin pertemanan dengan orang Inggris
untuk memperoleh jaminan hidup. Semua tipe dalam Teori Sosial Kontak:
Physical Touch, Sensory Impressions, Positive dan Negative Social Contacts, Primary Social Contacts dan Indirect Secondary Social Contacts, dapat
diterapkan dalam novel, terkecuali Direct Secondary Social Contacts karena tidak
ada petunjuk dalam novel yang menyebutkan bahwa baik orang Inggris maupun
India pernah melakukan kontak dengan ras yang saling berlainan menggunakan
alat seperti telepon ataupun telegraf.LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Summary of A Passage to India ................................................................... 58
2. Biography of E. M. Forster ......................................................................... 64
3. Lesson Plan for Teaching Short Essay I ...................................................... 67
4. Materials of Short Essay I ............................................................................ 69
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the writer discusses background of the study, problem
formulation, problem limitation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms. Background of the study presents a description of the topic and the reasons why the writer chooses the recent topic. It is also a place for the writer to convince the readers why the study is worth conducting. Problem formulation formulates the problems to be discussed or analyzed in the form of question word questions. Problem limitation describes the focus and the scope of the study, in relation to the formulated problems. Objectives of the study state the purpose of the study undertaken in relation to the research questions. Benefits of the study identify which parties will benefit from the conducted study. Definition of terms elaborates on the key words used in the study in order to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretation. The definition presented must then be related to the study.
A. Background of the Study
So many literary works have been published discussing many aspects of life such as marriage life and its conflicts, political events, educational issues, sexual harassments and or sexual abuses, and cross- cultural issues. Among those aspects, the writer prefers reading novels which contain cultural issues because basically the writer is interested in studying culture, especially cultures from certain exotic countries such as Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian and Indian.
One cultural issue that the writer likes to discuss is about colonialism. Colonialism has caused many effects on both sides; the colonizer and the colonized. Most parts of life will change every time two different cultures are put together in the same place; the political rules, economic system, education system, and surely also the social system. There is no doubt that colonialism must bring suffers to the colonized as the defeated side. Wallbank (vii), as he says in his book “The Partition of India”, states that differences of groups (the colonizer and the colonized) can change societies and political units of each other.
A Passage to India, by E.M Forster, is one of the novels, which explains colonialism issues taken place in India. After reading this novel, the writer becomes more interested in the content of the novel, which is full of social issues that commonly happen in commonwealth country. Through exploring this novel, the writer can learn a lot about the social condition of commonwealth country, especially in India. The general story of the novel is about the British colonialism in India several decades ago. In this paper, the British ruled India around the eighteenth and nineteenth century. It is supported by a quotation from Wallbank’s (introduction part):
Out of the struggle for power that characterized eighteenth-century Indian political life, the British, in the form of the East India Company, emerged as the dominant force. The first important interference in Indian politics was signaled the battle of Plessey in 1757, which established the nominee of the East Indian Company on the throne of Bengal, and within a hundred years the British gained complete control of the whole This novel tells us about the life of Dr. Aziz, the main character of this novel and a Moslem Indian who makes a friendship with an English woman, Mrs.
Moore. The setting takes place primarily in Chandrapore, which is described as a city along the Ganges River notable only for the nearby Marabar caves. During the colonial period, it is very uncommon for an Indian to make a relationship with the English because of the hierarchy system. At that time, as the colonizer, the English is always the superordinate to the Indians. The relationship between Dr. Aziz and Mrs. Moore becomes the first contradiction that drags him into so many problems onward. One of the effects is that Dr. Aziz has to be in prison because of this social issue. Dr. Aziz is being arrested on the charge of assaulting Miss Adela Quested, an English woman who is interested in the social life of Indians, when they have an expedition on one of the Marabar caves. The trial of Dr. Aziz is not merely a problem between two individuals from different countries, but seems to be a racial problem between the English and the Indians. Racism issue, therefore, dominates very clearly in this novel.
Considering the content of the novel, which mostly exposes an important aspect that is the relations between the English and the native population of India during the colonial period in which Britain ruled India, the writer decides to emphasize or to focus her attention in analyzing this factor. It is said before that colonialism always has two opposite sides, the first is the colonizer, who has the power to control the government system and the other is the colonized, who is the one to be conquered. It is not easy for them to make an interaction one to another rule India, placing them in the first level of the society. On the lower level, the Indians, as the subordinate level is placed in the second place of every subject such as economy, politics, bureaucracy and education towards the English.
This study contains an explanation of the relations that happened between the English and the Indians in India during British colonial period, helping the readers who have an interest of India’s colonialism to observe India’s social condition. It is discussing not only about the relations between the English and the Indians but also the perspective of each side, so that this study is a guide to learn more about the social condition during British colonialism in India.
B. Problem Formulation
The writer analyzes the following questions:
1. What are the perspectives of the English toward the Indians, and vice versa, during British colonialism in India seen in E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India?
2. What are the social contacts between the English and the Indians seen in E. M.
Forster’s A Passage to India?
C. Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study is to explore the perspectives of the English towards the Indians, and vice versa, and to analyze the social contacts between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India.
The writer hopes this paper can give some benefits for the readers. First, this paper gives benefit to the readers who are interested in literary works, especially discussing sociohistorical issue. The writer hopes by reading this paper, the readers can learn the relations between the English and the Indians in India during British colonialism.
Second, this paper gives benefit to the readers who are interested in India’s history. The writer hopes by reading this paper, the readers can gain knowledge of Indian history, especially during British colonialism.
Third, this paper gives benefit to the students or lecturers who deal their study with literature. The writer hopes by reading this paper the students and or the lecturers can study and see Indian culture, including the social issues, and they can use it as a guide for their literature courses, such as Introduction to Literature, Book Report, Prose II, and Extensive Reading II.
E. Definition of Terms
There are some words and phrases that the writer has to explain in this paper in order to avoid the reader’s misconception when reading this paper.
1. Perspective (s) According to Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture (484) perspective is “the way in which a situation or problem is judged so that proper consideration and importance is given to each part.” It means that one observes, thinks, and learns a problem then he/she takes reaction which is appropriate problem. This definition is supported by the statement of Encyclopedia of Philosophy, discussing about the theory of Perspective Realism. In this theory, perspective means how someone judges something depends on his/her viewpoint or position. Every member of a group may see a same object in front of them, but each of them will definitely have a different judgment against the object for they have their own viewpoint.
In this paper, perspective is the way the English react to the existence of the Indians around them, and vice versa, during British colonialism in India. Let us say that every member of a group mentioned above is the English and the Indians that are put together in India’s land, and the object is the colonial situation that are experienced by both sides. The perspective that arises from each of them (the English and the Indians) might be different because they have different point of view.
2. Social contact According to John Lewis Gillin and John Philip Gillin (491) in their book
“Cultural Sociology”, social contact has a sense of “to be in touch with”, not only in physical terms but also “effective sensory contact”. It means that one can still aware of other’s condition/ location although they are not in the same location. Two or more parties can make a contact by using sensory organs such as eyes and ears. They can smell, watch, listen, touch or feel, depending on the stimulus and their reactions. Also, they can use “the invention and use of cultural means of extending the range of the senses- the telephone, telegraph, radio, postal service,
In this paper, the social contact means all contacts whether using sensory organs or communication devices that is structured between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India.
3. The English According to Percival Spear (114) in his book “India, Pakistan, and the West”, the English first came to India as traders after they followed the Dutch and were expelled from the East Indies, “… and owing to the Civil War and later conflicts never obtain redress.” The English then replaced their spice trade into cotton trade, and moved their merchants to North and became “Moghul Government’s naval auxiliaries”.
In this paper, the English refers to people of England who rule or travel to India during British colonialism. Some of them have positions in government office and or bureaucracies.
4. The Indians Spear (39) divides people of India based on four factors. First, the racial factor contains three main racial types (Dravidians, Caucasians, and Mongolians), who nowadays have intermixed one to another along with the invaders. Second factor is the caste. The Brahmins induce the lower caste to be ashamed of their sins in the previous lives, and the marriage only happens in the same occupation and race, making each race still keeps apart. The third is invasion factor.
From historic times there has been a series of such invasions and each has left its mark, whether in racial admixture as in Bengal, or in new caste groups as in the North West, in new communities altogether as with the Muslims in general, or in new tribal units as with the Rohillas. (39) The last is geographical factor. India has a hard surface in its most area which makes people have difficulties to travel faraway and thus, stay in groups.
In this paper, the Indians mean the native population of India from all races and castes, who live in the city of Chandrapore, during the colonial period in which Britain ruled India.
5. Colonialism According to Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (2-3) in their book
“Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory”, colonialism, as the Marxists state as “…, the conquest and direct control of other people’s land, …”, is a part of imperialism process. Colonialism is generally based on military power
In this study, the colonialism happens between the English and the Indian. The English conquered and controlled the Indian’s land. The colonialism is especially represented in the city of Chandrapore.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter, the writer discusses literature related to the paper. This chapter
consists of Review of Related Theories, Review on the Historical Background, and Theoretical Framework. Review of Related Theories reviews the theories applied in conducting the study. This section reviews the theories and approach underlying the analysis. Review on the Historical Background describes the historical condition when the novel is created. It only describes a particular time, place, and condition which are related to the novel. Theoretical Framework explains the contribution of the theories in solving the problem; why they are needed and how they are applied in the study.
A. Review of Related Theories
1. Approach This analysis uses an approach based on Rohrberger and Woods (3-15).
There are five kinds of critical approaches usually used in literary study. There are formalist approach, biographical approach, sociocultural-historical approach, mythopoeic approach, and psychological approach.
The formalist approach is an approach concentrated on the total integrity of the literary works. The involvement of each aesthetic part to the whole is seen as a harmony to the complete work. The technique and structure used in the story
The biographical approach is used when we intend to judge literary works based on the important of acknowledging the author’s personal life for a deep understanding to his writing. The proponents of this approach believe that the works of literature has its source within the biography of its writer, and the biographical provision itself supplies useful information that could facilitate them to a better understanding and appreciation of the works.
The sociocultural-historical approach examines a literary work by viewing the sociocultural condition and historical background when the work is created. The proponents of this approach assert the analysis of social, cultural, and historical background as reference to the further understanding of the story.
The mythopoeic approach is used when a critic attempts to find particular recurrent patterns of human thought, which are considered sharing the same universal belief to certain community mind. The mystical relationship found in a story can be explained by the use of this approach.
The psychological approach involves theories of psychology to explain the character’s personality in the story. The proponents of this approach insist that each character’s behavior can be referred to the psychology of human being. By the approach, the character’s thought and behavior can be traced more profoundly.
2. Theory of Social Contacts This theory is used to analyze the relations that happen between the English and the Indians during British colonialism in India. Social contact, as Gillin and
Gillin state, “is the first phase of interaction.” (492) We can say that all kinds of interaction is impossible to be done without firstly doing a contact.
There are several kinds of social contacts based on certain aspects.
a. Social contact based on the stimulus to make a contact can be classified as below: 1) Physical touch
It “is a very common aspect of rules of etiquette, which are largely directions in themselves for smoothing the way to contacts and for preserving them-handshaking, rubbed of noses, mutual washing of feet, embracing, and kissing may be mentioned.” (492) 2) Sensory impressions
This kind of contact involves other sensory organs of human beings such as eyes, and ears. It means that we give and accept the response by using our sensory impressions. The actions that are possible for the contact such as a smile, a wink, a wave of the hand, a bodily posture, even an unintelligible cry.
b. Based on the type of the contacts, they can be identified as positive and negative social contact.
1) Positive social contacts Positive social contacts enable the contacts to get further into associative interactions. Toleration, compromising, cooperative, and assimilative sort are the examples of associative interactions. 2) Negative social contacts
“Negative social contacts are those which lead to dissociative interactions or no interaction at all.” The examples are refusing to shake hands, decline to listen to somebody’s speaking, and winking at an unknown person.
c. Another kind of social contacts is based on whether they are made directly or not. Those types of contact are primary and secondary contacts.
1) Primary contacts In this type of contacts, both parties who make a contact can make impressions and responses directly to each other. We can spontaneously smile or laugh when we hear someone who speaks to us makes a ridiculous joke. 2) Secondary contacts
Secondary contacts need a third person or media to give and receive the contacts. One party cannot directly give a response to the other without any interference from their media.
The secondary contacts themselves can be classified into two types. They are direct and indirect contacts.
a) Direct secondary contacts These contacts only use media which can transmit the response and the stimuli directly to the parties involved, for example using telephone, and chatting using internet.
b) Indirect secondary contacts Indirect secondary contacts need agents that transmit the response and the stimuli indirectly to the parties involved. Usually, it takes some time to give and receive the response. The examples are post mail, facsimile, a courier, and personal columns in a newspaper.
B. Review on the Historical Background
The writer limits the discussion of India’s colonialism only when the British ruled upon India; from when the British for the first time came into the land until the India gained her independence. The writer also explains the condition of the politics, economy, and the welfare of the society at that time to give the writer and the readers an image of the situation.
1. British Colonialism in India For many centuries before the arrival of the British, India had been invaded by several invaders. The first one is Hindu society, which divided its social structure into horizontally caste system. The second one is the Muslims, which brought a wave of change in India’s political and social life. The Muslim invaders are such as Muslim Arab, Afghanistan and Turkestan. Their empire collapsed after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 (Wallbank, vii). The last and maybe the strongest of all is the British who first came to the land in the eighteenth century. The first battle was settled in 1757 at Plassey. The first goal of their arrival was as traders. After the defeat of the Portuguese at Surat in 1615, the Dutch was in charge of the trading in East Indies. “The English followed, but in Dutch eyes a common faith did not mean sharing profits. The English were ejected from East Indies, …” The English then moved to the north and made sea. (Spear, 114) Here, the English started their politic career in this sub continent. According to Spear, the English made three important functions in their role: “the creation of political unity; the introduction of western ideas; and the first tentative beginnings of representative government.” The Hindus and the Muslims responded the western in two different ways. The Hindus seemed to accept them as a new opportunity of life, but on the other hand, the Muslims opposed them by acting apathetic. For years, India had shown two different ways of life; Hindus and Muslims, which made them in two large groups of different language, religion, occupation, and historical origin that history usually called them as communal. One of the real examples of the clashes was the establishing of the Indian National Congress, which most of the position was taken by the non- Muslims while the minor called themselves the National Muslims.
The Indian scene from 1857 to 1914 was characterized by the expansion of modern communications and transportation, the growth and widening use of English as a lingua franca, the establishment of western education, and the rise of a professional and business middle class. These trends helped to stir a spirit of nationalism which was signalized by the founding of the National Congress in 1885. (viii)
The National Congress itself also majority consisted of Hindus, who was obviously anti-Muslims and anti-British. Because of the alienation by the Hindus, the Muslims rose up, began to adopt western education and found the Moslem League in 1906. The sense of nationality was so strong that it was misled to terrorism in the 1890’s, making the English responded to let Indians took a small part in the provincial and central legislatures by ratifying the Morely-Minto reforms. The significant event was the guaranteed seats for Muslims in the A nationalist such as Mohandas K. Gandhi insisted to have a change on the political system. The Lucknow Pact 1916 made the Hindus and Muslims cooperated together demanding a greater measure of self-government. Unfortunately, the cooperation was not lasting any longer and even it reached its climate from 1930 to 1934 in a series of Round Table Conferences held in London to draft India’s new constitution. India act of 1937 granted the Hindus six provinces and four for the Muslims. The clashes was still continued since the Congress did not allowed the Muslims to send their representatives in the cabinets and the League accused the Hindus that they misused the power and discriminate the Muslims in education and public services.
From year to year the sound of partition of India became stronger, especially yelled among the Muslims. The evident came from the Indian Muslim students of Cambridge University, who firstly declared Pakistan as the name of their nation in 1933. In 1940, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the Muslims, pronounced that the Muslims “were not a minority, but a distinct nation.’ (Wallbank, ix) The Second World War could change everything included the political situation in India. The British’s refusal of the immediate Indian self- government made the Congress ministries in the provinces resigned in 1939. British had to face the fact that Japan had almost defeated them in 1942. Sir Stafford Cripps was sent by the British War Cabinet to collect reinforcements from all parties as many as he could. The British asked the hands of the Indians to help them in the war, and as the compensation, the British promised the Congress proposal for their own reasons. Mahatma Gandhi as the leader of the Congress strived for Britain “Quit India” and led the actions of disobedience movement. For the consequence, the British arrested Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and most of other Congress leaders. 1944 was the year that once again the two leaders of the communal had different perceptions. Gandhi said that plebiscites should be held to determine what separate self-governing states should be established. Further, it was important to gain independence first before both groups decided the fate of their nation. While Jinnah as the opposite argued that his side would not take any kind of cooperation to make a central government with the Congress.
In order to prepare the independence, the British Government made surveys to observe the India’s political situation. In 1918 in the form of the British Secretary of State for India, they assessed the controversial communal voters, and they suggested staying. The second survey was in 1930, which the result was “that Britain’s only purpose was to act as a buffer and remain neutral in this antagonism.”(Wallbank, x) According to the survey, a basic trouble was not at the communal but the struggle for political power. Nehru claimed that the Muslims was actually forced to be Indianized. That was the reason why it was no change for the Muslims to integrate with the Hindus. For the Hindus, a provocative idea that only them who could govern India alone and aspirated the sounds of real India made them anti democratic and authoritarian and refused to made a coalition with the League in the 1937 election.
India’s independence process obtained some progress when the British, Mission, supporting the Indian leaders to prepare her independence. Started on March 24, 1946, the Cabinet Mission worked with its labors for three months. The Congress claimed three statements, vetoed by Jinnah, in a conference held by the Cabinet Mission on May 1946, which were a new constitution for a strong central government, the end of British era, and a fully Constituent Assembly. The Cabinet Mission had its own plan dealt with a notion of Pakistan, the forming of a new government, and an exercised power by a central government in a Union of India.