The Role of The Non-Observance of Gricean Maxims in Producing Humor in The TV Series 'How I Met Your Mother'.

ii Maranatha Christian University

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... .... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ii

ABSTRACT……… ... iv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study………. . 1

Statement of the Problem………. ... 3

Purpose of the Study……… ... 4

Methods of Research. ... 4

Organization of the Thesis. ... 4

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Pragmatics. ... 5

2.2 Conventional Implicature. ... 5

2.3 Conversational Implicature. ... 6

2.4 Cooperative Principle. ... 6

2.5 Gricean Maxims. ... 7

2.5.1 Quantity. ... 7

2.5.2 Quality. ... 8

2.5.3 Relation. ... 9

2.5.4 Manner……….. 9

2.6 Types of Non-Observance of Maxims………... 10

2.6.1 Flouting a Maxim……… 10

2.6.2 Violating a Maxim………. ... 11

2.6.3 Infringing a Maxim……….. ... 11

2.6.4 Opting Out of Maxim………. ... 12

2.6.5 Suspending a Maxim………. ... 12 ...

iii Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER THREE: THE ROLE OF THE NON-OBSERVANCE OF GRICEAN MAXIMS IN PRODUCING HUMOR IN

THE TV SERIES HOW I MET YOUR MOTHER…..14

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION……….. ... 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY……….. 38

iv Maranatha Christian University

ABSTRACT

Tugas akhir ini berjudul The role of the Non-Observance of Gricean Maxims in Producing Humor in the TV Series How I Met Your Mother. How I Met Your Mother adalah sebuah serial drama berjenis komedi. Film ini mengisahkan persahabatan dan percintaan. Dalam serial televisi tersebut, saya mendapati para tokohnya melakukan pelanggaran bidal baik disengaja maupun tidak disengaja.

Untuk menganalisis pelanggaran-pelanggaran tersebut saya menggunakan teori bidal yang ditemukan oleh Grice. Bidal yang dilanggar di antaranya: bidal kualitas, kuantitas, relasi dan cara dengan jenis pelanggaran yang ditemukan berupa flouting, violating dan infringing. Ketika pelanggaran dilakukan, ujaran tersebut mengandung implikatur. Setelah menganalisis ujaran-ujaran dari para tokoh, ternyata saya menemukan bahwa bidal kualitas adalah bidal yang paling banyak dilanggar. Jenis pelanggaran yang sering digunakan adalah flouting. Pelanggaran yang dilakukan menimbulkan perbedaan tanggapan antara penonton dan masing-masing tokoh. Hal ini membuat film ini menjadi lebih lucu dan menarik. Tugas akhir ini bertujuan untuk memberitahu pembaca bahwa peran Gricean maxims dalam film How I Met Your Mother sangat penting karena pelanggaran bidal membuat film ini menjadi lebih menarik dan lebih lucu. Selain

v Maranatha Christian University itu agar komunikasi dapat terjalin dengan baik antara penutur dan mitra tutur, penutur sebaiknya menyampaikan secara langsung apa yang ingin ia sampaikan.

40

APPENDIX

NO

DATA

TYPE OF MAXIM

TYPE OF NON-OBSERVANCE OF MAXIM

1.

Robin : What are you doing here?

Ted : Just for shopping, for dip, I love dip, I know love

41 2

.

Marshall : Who says sexual can‟t be sensible? Robin : Well look like it‟s going to be just you and me. (2)

Barney : Really?

Robin : Actually, I was talking to my martini.(3)

(3) Quality (2) Infringing

(3) Flouting

3.

Lily : Nothing better than a weekend at good bed and breakfast (4)

Marshall : Yeah waking up for breakfast a 7.00 am sharp. (5)

Lily : Yeah, well. We‟d better get going. It is like four – hour drive.

Marshal : It‟s supposed to rain at night (6) Lily : Or we could just stay house?

Marshall : Maybe watch some TV. Lily : Order in some Chinese food.

(4) Manner (5) Quantity (6) Relation

(4,5,6) Flouting

42 Marshall : Are we really bailing

Lily : Yeah.

Marshall : Good, cause this thing is empty.

4.

Ted : The 18thcan‟t get here fast enough? Victoria : Wait, the 18th? Oh crap, I can‟t believe I forgot this. I‟m going to be out of town on the 18th.

Ted : Oh, well we can just wait until you get back. I mean the whole point was not to rush into this. Victoria : Or could we do it tonight?

Ted : 75th and Amsterdam. (7)

(7) Relation and Quantity

(7) Flouting

5.

Barney : Especially now that Ted can‟t drink. Robin : Why?

Barney : Because he‟s pregnant cause he‟s the girl. (8)

43 6.

Painter : Oh my god! This is best work of art. In

all my years teaching I‟ve never seen anything so… (9) Lily : Oh yes and?

Painter : Needless to say, this is art. I can‟t teach you anything. (10)

(8,9) Quality (8,9) Flouting

7.

Ted : After what she did to Marshall, she

should come back here devastated crawling on all fours over the broken glass own shame and regret.

Robin : You never chose sides. I respect that.

Ted : She is unbelievable

Marshall : Unbelievable? What‟s unbelievable? Robin : Ted found a penny on the sub way and it is old and that is interesting. (11)

44 8.

Virginia : I talked to Aunt Caroline the other day. Stacy is pregnant again.

Ted : Oh, good for her.

Virginia : Oh dear….oh boy, tell us what it‟s like being a journalist. (12)

Robin : I‟m just not ready.

(12) Relation (12) Flouting

9.

Ted : By the way, how‟s grandma? She has not returned my last couple calls.

Virginia : I „m gonna get some juice. (13)

Ted‟s father : You missed a great game last night real squeaker. (14)

(13, 14)

Relation (13,14)

45 10.

Barney : We‟re breaking up?

Shannon : Greg‟s pled, he‟s successful. He buys me all this cool stuff. (15)

Barney : But, I love you. Shannon : But he has a boat. (16)

(15) Quantity (16) Quantity and Relation

(15, 16) Flouting

11.

Robin : Hi Ted. It‟s Robin. Um, listen. I know it‟s late but do you want to come over?

Ted : Uh…yeah, hi. I‟m here. Robin : Do you want to come over? Ted : Why? What‟s up?

Robin : Well, um. I just finally set up my new juicer

and I was going to make some juicer and I was like, “you know who likes juice? Ted” (17)

Ted : I love juice.

(17) Quality (17) Flouting

Barney : Oh thank God, you are here. Girl : What is going on?

46 12.

Barney: I think there might be some internal bleeding, probably some feature. We get her to hospital. (18)

Girl : What are you talking about? Barney : You‟ve had terrible fall. (19) Girl : No, I haven‟t.

Barney : Really? Because I could swear, you fell straight out of heaven. Angel (20)

(18, 19, 20) Quality

(18, 19, 20) Flouting

13.

Marshall : So Barney, are you going to sing anything?

Barney : Nah, I‟m so over karaoke. (21)

Marshall : Really? Could you sing a song? Barney : Oh don‟t get me wrong. I‟m good, the best, really. (22)

(21) Quantity (22) Manner

(21, 22) Flouting

47 14.

Barney : Oh..I let you, but I don‟t have any room. Lily : You have two bed room apartments. You have one room just for your suit.

Barney: Hey, I‟m at point in my life where my suits are my life. (23)

(23) Manner (23) Flouting

15.

Ted : Girls, I got to go, but I‟m leaving you in very good, if slightly sullied hands

Girl : Don‟t go we don‟t even know your name to look out for your buildings

Barney : Yeah stay.

Ted : Excuse us for one second.

Barney : Okay you were right. The architect thing totally works.

Ted : But I‟ve girl friend and I‟ve get back to work. This project is getting harder and harder.

(24,25) Quality

(24,25) Violating

48 Barney : Sorry, uh… my intern had to leave. (24)

Girl : Oh well that‟s too bad. By the way I‟m Anna. Barney : Ted Mosby, Architect. (25)

16.

Lily : Hi, Mr. and Mrs. Mosby

Mr. and Mrs. Mosby : Lily! Hi, Marshall.

Lily : I was just stopping to pick up some of my things.

Mrs. Mosby : Yes, we were so sorry to hear about your …. You

know the…

Marshall : Lily calling off the wedding and dumping me.

Lily : I am begging Marshall to take me back and Marshall is rejecting me.

Mrs. Mosby : I love your hair. (26)

1 Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Communication is a way to exchange thoughts, messages or information. In communication, people can deliver what they think or want. In delivering people’s thoughts, sometimes the information is not communicated as desired. Such a condition is called miscommunication. Miscommunication is usually exploited in a comedy film to create a humorous scene.

Comedy is a genre of film in which the emphasis is on humor. In a comedy film, there are two ways to make people laugh, namely by visual and verbal humor. Visual comedy is a comedy in which the funny thing is built by the action; on the other hand, verbal comedy is built by the utterance (Steel).

Since this is a linguistic thesis, I do not discuss visual comedy. My thesis contains the role of the non-observance of Gricean maxims in producing humor in the television series How I Met Your Mother in characters’ utterances. In How I Met Your Mother television series the characters often misinterpret the other characters’ utterances, which will make people laugh. Sometimes the utterances contain ambiguity, stack up information or irrelevant response.

2 Maranatha Christian University My thesis is related to Pragmatics, the study of speaker’s meaning dealing with utterances. In Pragmatics, there is a principle called cooperative principle which is required to have a smooth and clear conversation. In Cooperative Principle, there are rules of speaking called Gricean Maxims.

A maxim is “the term Grice uses for the four sub principles of his cooperative principle” (Grundy 90). Grice has proposed four kinds of maxims, namely the maxim of Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. A speaker and a hearer must employ Cooperative Principle in order to be aware of the rules of conversation. In a conversation, a speaker’s message sometimes is not directly found so the hearer must find out the message that the speaker wants to deliver. This is called conversational implicature, which is put forward by H.P. Grice.

Gricean maxims are not only significant in analyzing the conversation in our daily life but also useful for analyzing the conversation in TV series. The non-observance of Gricean maxims may lead to suspense or humor.

How I Met Your Mother focuses on a group of friends living in New York. It is a comedy film which tells about the friendship of five main characters and how they fall in love. There are five characters who always fail to observe the maxims: Ted Mosby, Marshall Eriksen, Lily Aldrin, Robin Scherbatsky and Barney Stinson. The main character, Ted Mosby, is a romantic person who has a strong desire to get married as soon as possible. Another character is Marshall Ericksen, Ted Mosby’s best friends. Marshall Eriksen is a lawyer and Lily’s husband, who has a dream to open a law office for saving the environment. Lily Aldrin is a kindergarten teacher. She has a dream to become an artist but she cannot make her dream come true because she is not good at drawing. Another

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reporter at Metro news. Becoming a reporter makes her happy because she can know Ted and finally she ties her relationship with him. The last character is Barney. He is a person who makes the atmosphere become clamorous. His best friends, Ted and Marshall, call him a womanizer.

The reason why I choose How I Met Your Mother instead of other comedy films as my data source is that in most episodes of this film the non-observance of maxims creates humor. Besides, the characters also have unique personalities when they are falling in love or in a difficult situation. They say something that is untrue, give an irrelevant response, give more or less information as well as unclear information. Because of those reasons, the film becomes interesting and funny.

My thesis is significant to make people understand what they mean through the utterances. Sometimes in a conversation, the hearer must guess what the speaker means to avoid misunderstanding between the speaker and the hearer. Thus, hopefully both the speaker and hearer will be able to understand each other more in a particular context of utterances.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The problems that I will discuss are formulated as follows: 1. What kind of non-observance of maxim is done by the character?

2. What implicature is generated from the utterance when the speaker fails to observe the maxim?

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1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purposes of doing the research are:

1. To find out the kind of non-observance of maxim done by the character. 2. To find out the implicature that is generated from the utterance when the

speaker fails to observe the maxim.

3. To know how the failure to observe the maxim leads to humor.

1.4 Methods of Research

In writing my thesis, I begin by watching How I Met Your Mother, my data source. While watching these TV series, I write down the utterances which contain non-observance of maxims. Then, I analyze them based on the type of non-observance and the type of maxims failed to be observed. After that, I find out the non-observance of maxims which leads to humor. Lastly, I write a research report.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

My thesis consists of four chapters. Chapter One is the Introduction, which contains the Background of the Study, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, Method of Research, and Organization of the Thesis. Chapter Two is the Theoretical Framework; it deals with the explanation of the Pragmatics area. Chapter Three is the analysis of the data and Chapter Four is the Conclusion, in which I write my personal comments and opinion of the findings. The thesis ends with the Bibliography and Appendices.

34 Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION

In this chapter I would like to draw my conclusion based on the findings that I have got after doing the analysis of the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother TV series. Based on the data that I have analyzed, the conversational maxims that the character fails to observe are the maxim of quality (11 data), relation (7 data), quantity (5 data) and manner (3 data). The maxim of quality fails to be observed most frequently because the characters want to cover up his/her embarrassing moments. It happens when the characters approach a girl or a boy or when they fall in love. Besides, it also happens when the characters have a secret and they tend to lie to others. For example, Barney always approaches girls while the girls do not want to be Barney’s girl friends. As a result, Barney usually lies to the girls in order that he can get them.

The next maxim which is frequently not observed is the maxim of relation. In How I Met Your Mother TV series there are five characters with different characteristics. In my opinion, the maxim of relation is not observed basically because the characters try to sound less offensive. They change the topic of conversation to avoid talking about things that might lead them to a fight.

35 Maranatha Christian University The other maxim which the characters fail to observe is the maxim of quantity. The characters give more information which is not required. It mostly occurs when the characters feel ashamed to express what they want. For example in data (5), Marshall feels ashamed because he does not have any money but he does not want to tell this to his wife.

The maxim that is not observed least frequently is the maxim of manner. In How I Met Your Mother TV series, it happens when the characters respect the other characters’ feeling. They tend to speak not in an orderly way. The example occurs in data (22), Barney does not want to admit that he feels ashamed singing in front of people. Thus, he says something in an orderly way. In this way, the audience feels entertained while watching How I Met Your Mother as the fact that the characters do not say the things properly makes this scene funny.

Having analyzed the rise of humor due to the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother TV series, I conclude that there are three types of non-observance of maxims which the speakers fail to observe, and those are flouting (20 data), violating (4 data), and infringing (2 data). In my analysis, I do not find opting out of a maxim and suspending a maxim because this TV series only focuses on daily activities which have nothing to do with cultures or ethical things.

From the finding above, the most common type of non-observance is flouting a maxim. I am of the opinion that this happens because the story of How I Met Your Mother tells about daily life and love of five people; therefore, in most data there is no intention to mislead the characters. The fact that the audience is involved in finding out the hidden meaning behind the characters’ utterances

36 Maranatha Christian University series.

Violating a maxim is another type of non-observance done in How I Met Your Mother TV series. It occurs when the characters are confused to answer the question about their secret or real background and thus, they do the misleading to cover up their secret or real background. From this I conclude that a person who has the intention to achieve his/her purpose will try to drive into something that he/she wants.

Infringing a maxim is the least type of non-observance of maxim which the characters do in How I Met Your Mother TV series. It happens when a woman has a problem about love and she does not have any idea how to solve it. Therefore, she gets drunk and says unclear things. This happens for example in data (2). Besides, this also happens when a man has a deep feeling for a woman but he cannot express his feeling because of his nervousness as seen in data (1). From this I conclude that a person who has a deep feeling for a girl or a boy tends to be nervous and thus, infringing a maxim happens.

In How I Met Your Mother humor is created when the audience knows the real purpose of the characters’ utterances but the characters do not understand the meaning correctly. Therefore, there are differences in the responses of the audience and characters. The different responses can cause How I Met Your Mother to be funnier. One of the examples is seen in the data (7) when Ted thinks that girls should not have the sexual relationship before the age of 18. The audience actually knows Ted’s real purpose but Ted acts as if he has a strict

37 Maranatha Christian University principle not to have a sexual relationship under 18. When it is revealed that he is not very strict about his principle, the audience can see that his words are not true.

The conversations between one character and the other characters in How I Met Your Mother series contain non-observance of Gricean maxims. When the character answers by another character’s question, he or she usually fails to observe the maxim. The non-observance of maxims makes people aware that they do not follow the cooperative principle in speaking. The hearer must look for the implied meaning from the speaker’s utterance. Finally, I am of the opinion that the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother has an important role to produce the humor effect and this is something that makes the TV series more attractive and entertaining.

38 Maranatha Christian University

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

Grice, H.P. Logic and Conversation. New York. 1975

Grundy, P. Doing Pragmactics. New York : Oxford University Press.1999

Thomas, J. Meaning in Interaction: an Introduction to Pragmatics. London and New York: Longman Group Limited. 1995

Yule, G. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996

Internet Sources

Cutting, J. Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students. London. 2002. 1 Maret 2010

<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=KFELwzkFhYC&dq=Example+ Non+observance+maxim+of+infringing+a+maxim&hl=en&source=gb s_navlinks_sLoos, Eugene. Glossary of Linguistics Terms. 2004>. Levinson, S. C. “Presumptive Meanings: The Theory of Generalized

Conversational Implicature.“Cambridge. 2000. 25 February 2010 <http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAR elevanceImplicature.htm>.

Mey, J. “Pragmatics: An Introduction.” 2001. 20 February 2010 <http://www.answers.com/topic/gricean-

maxims#Grice.27s_Maxims>.

Mooney, A. “Co-operation, Violation and Making Sense. Journal of Pragmatics” 2004. 2 Maret 2010

39 Maranatha Christian University <http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3AyMioM qZtoyoJ%3Akau.divaportal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A5829 %2FFULLTEXT01+example+infringing+from+dialog+of+maxim&hl =en&gl=id>.

Steel, M. “The Comedy Material of Mick Steel.” 2007. 1 Maret 2010 <http://steelcomedy.com/>.

Wee, L–H and Cheung, W.H. Y. “An Animated and Narrated Glossary of Terms used in Linguistics.” 2009. 2 Maret 2010

<http://people.ucsc.edu>.

34 Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION

In this chapter I would like to draw my conclusion based on the findings that I have got after doing the analysis of the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother TV series. Based on the data that I have analyzed, the conversational maxims that the character fails to observe are the maxim of quality (11 data), relation (7 data), quantity (5 data) and manner (3 data). The maxim of quality fails to be observed most frequently because the characters want to cover up his/her embarrassing moments. It happens when the characters approach a girl or a boy or when they fall in love. Besides, it also happens when the characters have a secret and they tend to lie to others. For example, Barney always approaches girls while the girls do not want to be Barney’s girl friends. As a result, Barney usually lies to the girls in order that he can get them.

The next maxim which is frequently not observed is the maxim of relation. In How I Met Your Mother TV series there are five characters with different characteristics. In my opinion, the maxim of relation is not observed basically because the characters try to sound less offensive. They change the topic of conversation to avoid talking about things that might lead them to a fight.

35 Maranatha Christian University

The other maxim which the characters fail to observe is the maxim of quantity. The characters give more information which is not required. It mostly occurs when the characters feel ashamed to express what they want. For example in data (5), Marshall feels ashamed because he does not have any money but he does not want to tell this to his wife.

The maxim that is not observed least frequently is the maxim of manner. In How I Met Your Mother TV series, it happens when the characters respect the

other characters’ feeling. They tend to speak not in an orderly way. The example occurs in data (22), Barney does not want to admit that he feels ashamed singing in front of people. Thus, he says something in an orderly way. In this way, the audience feels entertained while watching How I Met Your Mother as the fact that the characters do not say the things properly makes this scene funny.

Having analyzed the rise of humor due to the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother TV series, I conclude that there are three types of non-observance of maxims which the speakers fail to observe, and those are flouting (20 data), violating (4 data), and infringing (2 data). In my analysis, I do not find opting out of a maxim and suspending a maxim because this TV series only focuses on daily activities which have nothing to do with cultures or ethical things.

From the finding above, the most common type of non-observance is flouting a maxim. I am of the opinion that this happens because the story of How I Met Your Mother tells about daily life and love of five people; therefore, in most data there is no intention to mislead the characters. The fact that the audience is involved in finding out the hidden meaning behind the characters’ utterances

36 Maranatha Christian University

makes the audience entertained more while watching How I Met Your Mother TV series.

Violating a maxim is another type of non-observance done in How I Met Your Mother TV series. It occurs when the characters are confused to answer the question about their secret or real background and thus, they do the misleading to cover up their secret or real background. From this I conclude that a person who has the intention to achieve his/her purpose will try to drive into something that he/she wants.

Infringing a maxim is the least type of non-observance of maxim which the characters do in How I Met Your Mother TV series. It happens when a woman has a problem about love and she does not have any idea how to solve it. Therefore, she gets drunk and says unclear things. This happens for example in data (2). Besides, this also happens when a man has a deep feeling for a woman but he cannot express his feeling because of his nervousness as seen in data (1). From this I conclude that a person who has a deep feeling for a girl or a boy tends to be nervous and thus, infringing a maxim happens.

In How I Met Your Mother humor is created when the audience knows the real purpose of the characters’ utterances but the characters do not understand the meaning correctly. Therefore, there are differences in the responses of the audience and characters. The different responses can cause How I Met Your Mother to be funnier. One of the examples is seen in the data (7) when Ted thinks that girls should not have the sexual relationship before the age of 18. The audience actually knows Ted’s real purpose but Ted acts as if he has a strict

37 Maranatha Christian University

principle not to have a sexual relationship under 18. When it is revealed that he is not very strict about his principle, the audience can see that his words are not true.

The conversations between one character and the other characters in How I Met Your Mother series contain non-observance of Gricean maxims. When the character answers by another character’s question, he or she usually fails to observe the maxim. The non-observance of maxims makes people aware that they do not follow the cooperative principle in speaking. The hearer must look for the implied meaning from the speaker’s utterance. Finally, I am of the opinion that the non-observance of Gricean maxims in How I Met Your Mother has an important role to produce the humor effect and this is something that makes the TV series more attractive and entertaining.

38 Maranatha Christian University

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

Grice, H.P. Logic and Conversation. New York. 1975

Grundy, P. Doing Pragmactics. New York : Oxford University Press.1999

Thomas, J. Meaning in Interaction: an Introduction to Pragmatics. London and New York: Longman Group Limited. 1995

Yule, G. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996

Internet Sources

Cutting, J. Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students. London. 2002. 1 Maret 2010

<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=KFELwzkFhYC&dq=Example+ Non+observance+maxim+of+infringing+a+maxim&hl=en&source=gb s_navlinks_sLoos, Eugene. Glossary of Linguistics Terms. 2004>. Levinson, S. C. “Presumptive Meanings: The Theory of Generalized

Conversational Implicature.“Cambridge. 2000. 25 February 2010 <http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAR elevanceImplicature.htm>.

Mey, J. “Pragmatics: An Introduction.” 2001. 20 February 2010 <http://www.answers.com/topic/gricean-

maxims#Grice.27s_Maxims>.

Mooney, A. “Co-operation, Violation and Making Sense. Journal of Pragmatics” 2004. 2 Maret 2010

39 Maranatha Christian University

<http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3AyMioM qZtoyoJ%3Akau.divaportal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A5829 %2FFULLTEXT01+example+infringing+from+dialog+of+maxim&hl =en&gl=id>.

Steel, M. “The Comedy Material of Mick Steel.” 2007. 1 Maret 2010 <http://steelcomedy.com/>.

Wee, L–H and Cheung, W.H. Y. “An Animated and Narrated Glossary of Terms used in Linguistics.” 2009. 2 Maret 2010

<http://people.ucsc.edu>.