The application of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) principles in a web-based sentence writing class.

(1)

ABSTRACT

Yustina Priska Kisnanto. 2014. The Application of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Principles in a Web-Based Sentence Writing Class. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

With the advanced development of computer and Internet technologies, web-based learning, as one implementation of CALL, has been seen as a new alternative way in catering the needs of L2 writing learning. Specific descriptive investigation on how computer and web-based technologies should best be used to facilitate learning, however, is not yet fully developed, indicating a framework for teaching and learning using such technologies needs to be explored further. This study, therefore, aimed at verifying the theory of CALL principles, i.e. the eight conditions for optimal CALL environments by Egbert, Chao, and Hanson-Smith (1999), applied in a web-based writing class. It is elaborated into three research questions focusing on (a) investigating the intensity of the application of the CALL principles in a web-based Sentence Writing class as experienced by the students, (b) finding out whether the application of the CALL principles enhances

the students’ learning achievement, and (c) examining how the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhanced the students’ learning achievement.

document of the students’ scores. It employed triangulation as the validation

strategy using interview and a statistical t-test. The participants of the survey were 151 students while the participants for the experiment were 22 students. The students were the English Letters students of Sanata Dharma University, taking Writing 1 course, or Sentence Writing, in the first semester of the academic year 2013/2014.

validates the enhancement effect within the students’ achievement as they

experience the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class. The result, however, is not absolute because the experiment only involved one treatment and lacked a control group. Thus, there were possibly

interference factors which might also influence the enhancement of the students’

(2)

application of the CALL principles. The possible interference factors are not discussed in the present study. Further, the results of the open-ended questionnaire and interviews reveal that the application of the CALL principles in the

web-based Sentence Writing class enhances the students’ achievements regarding better grammar understanding, improved sentence writing skill, and improved passage writing ability. The application of the CALL principles in Sentence Writing class is realized through the features and facilities of the web-based class. As the students advantage the class facilities for learning, they experience the CALL principles applied and thus, achieve learning improvement.

The research findings confirm that CALL principles are applied with specific intensities and interactions in the web-based Sentence Writing class, a specific classroom implementing CALL. Moreover, they also confirm the positive implication of the CALL principles application; in that, it leads to optimal language learning as indicated by enhanced learning achievement. From here, in implementing a web-based writing class, teacher, web developer, and the educational institution should therefore ensure the CALL principles are met to facilitate students to achieve the best in learning.

(3)

ABSTRAK

Yustina Priska Kisnanto. 2014. The Application of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Principles in a Web-Based Sentence Writing Class. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Dengan perkembangan terkini teknologi komputer dan internet, pembelajaran berbasis web, sebagai salah satu implementasi CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning), telah dilihat sebagai cara alternatif baru dalam melayani kebutuhan pembelajaran menulis bahasa kedua. Meskipun demikian, studi-studi deskriptif yang spesifik membahas tentang bagaimana sebaiknya komputer dan teknologi berbasis web harus digunakan untuk memfasilitasi pembelajaran belum sepenuhnya dikembangkan. Hal ini menunjukkan kerangka kerja untuk mengajar dan belajar menggunakan teknologi tersebut perlu dieksplorasi lebih lanjut. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memverifikasi teori prinsip CALL, yaitu delapan kondisi untuk lingkungan CALL yang optimal oleh Egbert, Chao, dan Hanson-Smith (1999), dalam penerapannya di kelas menulis berbasis web. Hal ini dijabarkan dalam dua objektif penelitian yang berfokus pada (a) menyelidiki intensitas penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web dilihat dari sudut pandang para siswa, (b) menyelidiki apakah penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web meningkatkan prestasi belajar siswa, dan (c) meneliti bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web meningkatkan prestasi belajar siswa.

Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan penelitian mixed-method, dengan menerapkan survei dan eksperimen sebagai desain penelitiannya. Data penelitian didapat melalui kuesioner, yang terdiri dari item tertutup dan terbuka, wawancara, dan dokumen pengajar berisi nilai-nilai para mahasiswa. Penelitian ini menggunakan triangulasi sebagai strategi validasi berupa wawancara dan uji statistik t-test. Para partisipan survei adalah 151 mahasiswa, sedangkan partisipan untuk eksperimen berjumlah 22 mahasiswa. Partisipan penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Sastra Inggris di Universitas Sanata Dharma, yang mengambil mata kuliah Writing 1, atau Sentence Writing, pada semester pertama tahun akademik 2013/2014 .

Hasil penilitian menunjukkan bahwa kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web menerapkan semua (delapan) prinsip CALL, dengan beberapa prinsip yang diterapkan lebih dominan dari yang lain. Hasil kuesioner menunjukkan bahwa prinsip CALL yang diterapkan dengan intensitas tertinggi di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web ini adalah authentic task dan prinsip CALL yang diterapkan dengan intensitas terendah adalah authentic audience. Hasil wawancara juga menunjukkan bahwa intensitas penerapan prinsip dalam kelas menulis berbasis web ini berkaitan dengan orientasi pengajaran dari mata kuliah tersebut. Hasil uji t-test menunjukkan skor rata-rata dari tugas menulis bacaan yang terakhir secara signifikan lebih tinggi dari skor rata-rata tugas menulis bacaan yang pertama (t = -2,505 , P = 0,021), dan dengan demikian, hasil ini juga secara statistik memvalidasi efek peningkatan prestasi belajar siswa karena mereka mengalami penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL di kelas Sentence Writing

(4)

yang berbasis web. Meskipun demikian, hasil ini tidaklah absolut karena experimen di sini hanya melibatkan satu tritmen tanpa memiliki grup kontrol. Sehingga, ada kemungkinan terdapat faktor lain yang mempengaruhi peningkatan prestasi belajar siswa di kelas Sentence Writing berbasis web ini selain penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL. Adapun faktor-faktor lain yang mungkin mempengaruhi peningkatan tersebut tidak dibahas di penelitian ini. Selanjutnya, hasil kuesioner item terbuka dan wawancara mengungkapkan bahwa penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web ini meningkatkan prestasi siswa dalam pemahaman yang lebih baik akan tata Bahasa Inggris, meningkatkan kemampuan menulis kalimat, dan meningkatkan kemampuan menulis bacaan. Penerapan prinsip-prinsip CALL dalam kelas Sentence Writing diwujudkan melalui fitur dan fasilitas kelas berbasis web ini. Saat siswa memanfaatkan fasilitas kelas untuk belajar, mereka mengalami prinsip CALL yang diterapkan dan dengan demikian, mereka mencapai peningkatan pembelajaran..

Dapat disimpulkan, temuan penelitian ini mengkonfirmasi bahwa prinsip-prinsip CALL diterapkan dengan intensitas dan interaksi tertentu di kelas Sentence Writing yang berbasis web, suatu kelas spesifik yang menerapkan CALL. Selain itu, temuan penilitian ini juga mengkonfirmasi implikasi positif dari pengaplikasian prinsip-prinsip CALL, dalam hal ini, pengaplikasiannya mengarah pada pembelajaran bahasa yang optimal, seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh adanya peningkatan prestasi belajar. Dari sini, dalam mengimplementasikan kelas berbasis web untuk pembelajaran menulis (dalam Bahasa Inggris), para guru, pengembang web, dan pihak instistusi pendidikan harus memastikan prinsip-prinsip CALL terpenuhi untuk memfasilitasi siswa mencapai yang terbaik dalam belajar mereka.

(5)

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE

LEARNING (CALL) PRINCIPLES IN A WEB-BASED

SENTENCE WRITING CLASS

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree

in English Language Studies

Yustina Priska Kisnanto Student Number: 126332049

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2014

(6)

(7)

(8)

STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands of the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else‟s ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta, January 27, 2014

(9)

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Yustina Priska Kisnanto NIM : 126332049

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL) PRINCIPLES IN A WEB-BASED SENTENCE

WRITING CLASS

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelola dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikan di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu minta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal : 27 Januari 2014

Yang menyatakan

(10)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I would like to thank my Lord Jesus Christ for always staying by my side, loving me, and strengthening me to complete my thesis. My deepest gratitude also goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for his time, patience, help, and suggestions to finish my the thesis.

I am also thankful for having great lecturers while studying in the Graduate Program in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University. Especially to Dr. J. Bismoko, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D., Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. Fr. Alip, M.Pd., Prof. Dr. C. Bakdi Soemanto, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A.(Hons), Widya Kiswara, S.Pd., M.Hum., and Dr. Mutiara Andalas, S. J., I greatly express my gratitude and many thanks for sharing their precious knowledge and experiences in their classes.

This thesis would also not have been completed without the help and supports from many people. I would thank to my friend Yustinus Calvin and all of my research participants for being really helpful and cooperative during the data gathering of my research work. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation for my beloved father Pdt. Yohan Kisnanto, M.A., M.Th., my beloved mother Esther Kisnanto, my grandma Make, my sister Lusiana Kisnanto, and my brother Yefta K. Kisnanto. I thank them for all of their prayers, support, and love that have really strengthened and encouraged me to study hard and complete my thesis. To the big family of GBI Karangalit Salatiga, I would also like to express my thankfulness for always praying for me and my family.

(11)

vii

Finally, for the love, encouragement, and friendships, I send my special gratitude to my best friends Denyuk, Caca, Nina, Achenk, Pika, Mami, and Bibhow. To my lovely 2012 ELS friends, especially Pepy and Adesia, I thank them for their moral supports and kindness while studying together throughout the unforgettable moments at the Graduate Program in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University.

(12)

viii

TITLE PAGE... i

APPROVAL PAGE... ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE... iii

STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN UNTUK PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS... viii

LIST OF TABLES... xi

LIST OF FIGURES... xii

LIST OF APPENDICES... xiii

ABSTRACT... xiv

ABSTRAK... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION... 1

A. Background... 1

B. Problem Identification... 5

C. Problem Limitation... 7

D. Research Questions... 9

E. Research Objectives... 10

F. Research Benefits... 10

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW... 12

A. Theoretical Review... 12

1. Writing... 12

a. The Nature of Writing... 13

b. L2 Writing Teaching... 16

c. Sentence Writing... 18

d. Passage Writing... 22

e. Student Achievement in Writing... 23

2. Computer-Assisted Language Learning & the Principles... 26

a. Interaction... 28

b. Authentic Audience... 29

c. Authentic Tasks... 30

d. Opportunities for Language Exposure and Production... 31

e. Enough Time and Feedback... 32

f. Attention to the Learning Process... 33

g. Atmosphere with an Ideal Stress/Anxiety Level... 34

h. Learner Autonomy...34

3. Teaching Writing Using Web-Based Technology... 36

4. Web-Based Sentence Writing Class... 38

a. Sentence Writing Class... 38

b. Features by ELTGallery... 43

1) Topic Selection... 44

(13)

3) Grammar Practice... 47

4) Sentence Writing... 48

5) Check-Revise Sentence... 49

6) Passage Writing... 50

7) Sentence Review... 51

8) Passage Review... 52

9) Personal Page... 52

10) Sentence Comment... 53

11) Passage Comment... 54

12) Progress Record... 55

5. Sentence Writing Class‟ Students... 56

6. Review of Related Studies... 57

B. Theoretical Framework... 60

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY... 65

A. Research Method...65

B. Research Design... 67

C. Research Setting and Participants... 70

D. Data Gathering Techniques... 71

E. Data Analysis...74

F. Research Procedures and Validation... 77

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS... 81

A. The Application of CALL Principles by the Web-Based Sentence Writing Class... 81

1. Data Presentation... 82

a. Data from the questionnaire...82

b. Data from the interview... 88

2. CALL Principles in Sentence Writing Class... 92

a. Authentic tasks...93

b. Opportunities for language exposure and production... 96

c. Attention to learning process... 99

d. Learner autonomy... 102

e. Interaction... 105

f. Atmosphere... 108

g. Enough time and feedback... 113

h. Authentic audience... 116

B. The enhancement of the students‟ learning achievement in the web-based Sentence Writing class... 119

1. Data Presentation... 120

a. Data from the t-test... 120

b. Data from the questionnaire... 123

c. Data from the interview... 126

2. The Enhancement of the Students‟ Achievement... 127

a. Understanding of English Grammar... 129

b. Sentence Writing Skill... 132

(14)

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS... 141

A. Conclusions... 141

B. Suggestions... 145

BIBLIOGRAPHY... 148

(15)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Micro and macro skills of writing (Brown 2004: 221)... 15

Table 2.2 The principal orientations to L2 writing teaching (Hyland 2003: 23)... 16

Table 2.3 Potential advantages and disadvantages of computer-assisted writing (Ferris & Hedgcock 2005: 347)... 36

Table 2.4. ELTGallery features and the observable CALL principles... 62

Table 4.1. Degrees of agreement of the questionnaire...82

Table 4.2. Students‟ response distribution of the closed-ended questionnaire... 83

Table 4.3. Scoring criteria for data interpretation... 87

Table 4.4. The score interpretation of the CALL principles applied... 87

Table 4.5. Samples of interview about CALL principles applied... 89

Table 4.6. Paired sample t-test results... 121

Table 4.7. Aspects of the Sentence Writing class and students‟ achievement (from the open-ended items of questionnaire)... 123

Table 4.8. Samples of students‟ statements from interview regarding learning achievement... 126

(16)

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. The relationship of learning experience to learning outcomes

(Miller, Linn, & Gronlund 2009: 51)... 23

Figure 2.2. Syllabus of Writing 1 course... 39

Figure 2.3. Sentence Writing Classroom Situation... 41

Figure 2.4. ELTGallery‟s homepage... 43

Figure 2.5. Topic selection for Sentence Writing... 44

Figure 2.6. Sentence Writing class menu... 45

Figure 2.7. Topic explanation... 46

Figure 2.8. Grammar Practice ... 47

Figure 2.9. Writing Sentences... 48

Figure 2.10. Check and revise sentences... 48

Figure 2.11. Passage Writing Selection... 49

Figure 2.12. Passage Writing... 50

Figure 2.13. Sentence Review... 50

Figure 2.14. Passage Review... 51

Figure 2.15. Personal Page... 52

Figure 2.16. Sentence Comment... 52

Figure 2.17. Passage Comment... 53

(17)

xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: The Blueprint of Data Gathering... 152

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for the Data Collection... 155

Appendix 3: Interview Guideline... 153

Appendix 4: Complete Interviews... 160

Appendix 5: Complete scores of the closed-ended questionnaire results per item and the interpretation... 178

Appendix 6: Complete samples of interview about CALL principles applied in Sentence Writing class... 187

Appendix 7: Students‟ responses of the open-ended questionnaire... 194

Appendix 8: Complete samples of students‟ open-ended questionnaire responses... 231

(18)

xiv ABSTRACT

This study applied a mixed-method research approach using a survey and an experimental research designs. The data were collected through questionnaire, consisting of closed-ended and open-ended items, interviews, and teacher‟s document of the students‟ scores. It employed triangulation as the validation strategy using interview and a statistical t-test. The participants of the survey were 151 students while the participants for the experiment were 22 students. The students were the English Letters students of Sanata Dharma University, taking Writing 1 course, or Sentence Writing, in the first semester of the academic year 2013/2014.

The results show that the web-based Sentence Writing class applies all of the eight CALL principles, with some principles are applied more dominantly than the others. The questionnaire results reveal that the CALL principle applied with the highest intensity in the web-based Sentence Writing class is authentic task and the CALL principle applied with the lowest intensity is authentic audience. The result of the interview also indicates that the intensity of the principle application in the web-based writing class is related with the teaching orientations of the course. Next, the t-test result shows the mean score of the final passage writing assignment was significantly higher than the mean score of the first passage writing assignment (t value = -2.505; P = .021) and thus statistically validates the enhancement effect within the students‟ achievement as they experience the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class. The result, however, is not absolute because the experiment only involved one treatment and lacked a control group. Thus, there were possibly interference factors which might also influence the enhancement of the students‟ learning achievement in the web-based Sentence Writing class other than the application of the CALL principles. The possible interference factors are not

(19)

discussed in the present study. Further, the results of the open-ended questionnaire and interviews reveal that the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhances the students‟ achievements regarding better grammar understanding, improved sentence writing skill, and improved passage writing ability. The application of the CALL principles in Sentence Writing class is realized through the features and facilities of the web-based class. As the students advantage the class facilities for learning, they experience the CALL principles applied and thus, achieve learning improvement.

(20)

xvi ABSTRAK

(21)

xvii

(22)

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

In this study, I would like to investigate the implementation of a web-based Sentence Writing class for Writing 1 course at university level. Specifically, the study is concerned to explain the Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) principles that the web-based Sentence Writing class apply, seen from the students‟ perspective. Moreover, how the application of the CALL principles of the web-based Sentence Writing class enhances the students‟ writing achievement will be also investigated. This chapter provides readers with an introduction to my study consisting of six sections, i.e. the background to the research, problem identification, problem limitation, statement of the research questions, research objectives, and finally research benefits.

A. Background

Learning communicative skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing, is an inseparable part of language learning. Among the four language skills, writing is in fact considered as the most difficult skill for L2 learners to master (Richards & Renandya 2002). This is surely not a groundless view. Compared to speaking, for instance, writing has totally different natures. Speaking is “co-constructed and „messy‟” whereas writing “tends to be well-formed and pre-organized” (Harmer 2007: 46). Also, while learners are able to just “pick up” speaking skill as a natural process of language learning, with writing, learners need to be systematically taught (Raimes 1983: 4-5). In addition, Richards and Renandya (2002) state that the difficulty of writing takes place not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in delivering the ideas into readable text.

(23)

Complex skills are involved in writing. In that, L2 writers must “pay attention to higher level of planning and organizing as well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on” (p.303). Indeed, the nature and complexity of writing make the skill not easy to learn.

Both the higher and lower writing skills, or the “macro and micro skills” (Brown 2004: 221), are important in writing. At the university level, however, writing teachers in L2 environment tend to focus more on students‟ development and organization of ideas and concern much less on writing accuracy (Ferris 2002). As a result, although students‟ invention, organization, and revision may be improving, Ferris (2002) indicates that grammatical and lexical inaccuracies are still found in many of their writing products, leaving distractions and frustrations for instructors as well as other readers. The similar thing also happens with the students learning English at the university level such in Indonesia. Although teaching the lower writing skills has been generally the main concern in the students‟ first and second year curriculum, students still have problems with grammatical and lexical accuracies in their writing. Accuracy turns out to remain crucial in writing. Besides associated with the aspects determining one‟s progress in language acquisition (Ellis 2008, 2010), a number of studies also argue that a lack of accuracy, especially of grammar, in ESL student writing may hamper students‟ overall progression in the university (Janopolous 1992; Santos 1988; Vann, Lorenz, & Meyer 1991). From here, both generating and organizing students‟ ideas, or the macro skills, and writing accuracy, or the micro skills, should therefore be concerned in teaching L2 writing, including in such advanced level as the university.

(24)

In catering the L2 writing teaching need, nevertheless, traditional or regular writing class is bounded with limitations. While students need adequate practices for both the micro and macro skills of writing to improve their writing performance, the meeting hours of their writing class schedules seem to be insufficient to accommodate the need. With the advanced development of computer and Internet technologies, the use of these technologies in foreign and second language instructions has significantly expanded (Hubbard & Levy 2006). Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has been considered as one alternative way of learning, in addition to the traditional education. Particularly, CALL enables teacher-student interactions conducted both synchronously, i.e. in real time communication, and asynchronously, or in a delayed way (Chapelle 2003; Hyland 2003), providing answers to the time and space barrier problems as well as creating more opportunities to expand learning process. Accordingly, more and more language classrooms are now applying CALL, including for teaching writing.

One particular application of CALL discussed in this research is web-based language learning, especially for teaching writing. Advantaging the Internet and the World Wide Web, web-based learning has made it easy to access learning from almost anywhere, anytime, and at user (students‟) pace (Wald 1992 & Sutherland 2000, as cited in Jou 2008). Students can have „control‟ for their own learning while teachers can give out their time and energy in monitoring and facilitating the teaching learning process more effectively. Related to this, a web-based class is thus seen as promising to bridge the gap between the need of facilitating the complex writing skills and the traditional writing class‟ drawbacks.

(25)

Referring to the advantage of web-based learning, it is not a surprise that there are numerous websites developed to cater the learning of L2 writing. Challenges, however, still exist when implementing a web-based learning. They can be about students‟ computer anxiety, availability of features supporting learning, learning delivery, teacher-student and student-student interactions, or even the class activities. Such challenges thus leave a question on how computer and web-based technologies should best be used to facilitate learning, indicating a framework for teaching and learning using such technologies needs to be explored further.

As a young branch of applied linguistics, the theoretical framework of Computer-Assisted Language Learning is closely related with the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories. Egbert, Chao, and Hanson-Smith (1999) derive the eight principles of optimal CALL as in line with the conditions for optimal second language learning environment theories. The eight principles signify that students should be engaged with interaction, authentic audience, authentic tasks, exposure and language production language, enough time and feedback, attention to the learning process, atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level, and finally learner autonomy for optimal results in CALL environments. Accordingly, as one application of CALL, a web-based writing class should ensure the implementation of the computer and Internet technologies be directed to meet the eight principles for optimizing the students‟ learning in writing.

The eight condition principles for optimal CALL, however, do not stand separately. Therefore, by studying a specific classroom applying CALL, such as a

(26)

web-based writing class, we will be able to see how the eight conditions are being met and how the implementation leads to optimal learning achievement. For practical implications, it is expected that the results can help L2 writing teachers and educators to evaluate how optimal the use of web for improving students‟ writing learning achievement, identify the learning problems or obstacles students might face in a web-based learning environment they are engaged with, and figure out the specific aspects of a web-based writing class that need improvements. Finally, students will benefit the most. In that, their L2 writing needs can be catered well and eventually, their writing ability will improve.

B. Problem Identification

CALL is a young branch of applied linguistics and rich with areas in need of exploration. Research and practice in CALL focusing on surpassing the traditional and reaching the innovative are found in applications and practice that expand technological opportunities for teaching and learning new things in new ways (Beatty 2010). However, in language and learning context, CALL has now become “completely complementary to almost all classroom language teaching and learning activities” (Beatty 2010: 17). As a result, there is a changing focus of research in CALL. Beatty (2010) states that studies which investigate the need for computers in the classroom and that compare CALL and traditional (classroom) learning in terms of effectiveness are no longer the main concern of interest in CALL. He adds that research is now driven into “how computers should best be used and for what purposes” (p.15). In other words, the current studies in CALL now focus more on the actual implementation of the advanced learning condition.

(27)

As a part of CALL applications, research about web-based learning should correspondingly be directed more on the new direction.

Particularly about web-based writing class, a number of experimental studies claim the advantage of web-based writing class over the traditional or regular class in students‟ writing achievements (Al-Abed Al-Haq & Al-Sobh 2010; Chuo 2007; Yang 2004; Al-Jarf 2004; Tsou 2008). However, specific descriptive investigation on the implementation of web-based writing class, i.e. how the web is actually used and meet the CALL principles for optimal learning, is not yet fully developed. Related to the current focus of research in CALL and the gap in web-based writing studies, the necessity of investigating the implementation of a web-based writing class in applying the CALL principles becomes considerably significant.

One particular website used for writing class discussed in this study is ELTGallery. This website is used to facilitate English learning for the Sentence Writing class of Writing 1 course at the English Letters of Sanata Dharma University. Writing 1 is the first and basic writing course for the English Letters students in which they learn how to write grammatically acceptable sentences and simple passages. Consequently, the students‟ success in mastering the skills taught in this course is essential not only to pass the course but also to support their learning in the more advanced level of writing courses. Seeing the importance and in line with CALL theories, the implementation of a web-based Sentence Writing class in this course using ELTGallery should therefore be done productively, situating the students to experience the CALL principles, to help them achieve their best in learning.

(28)

Two previous studies about ELTGallery were conducted by Kurniawati (2012) and Dameria (2013). While the study by Kurniawati does not provide more detailed information on the use of the web and its implication on students‟ learning in Paragraph Writing class, the second study by Dameria focuses on the learner autonomy, only one aspect of CALL principles, in Sentence Writing class. There is a gap that the present study tries to investigate, that is, the implementation of a web-based Sentence Writing class for Writing 1 course, which uses ELTGallery, in terms of the application of CALL principles and the effect of such implementation in enhancing students‟ learning achievement. In addition, ELTGallery now provides a new feature for students to practice grammar. This grammar practice feature was not yet available in the earlier version of ELTGallery when the previous studies were conducted. The implementation of the new feature, thus, needs to be explored further, especially on how the students advantage the feature to improve their writing skills. In brief, related to the reasons as mentioned above, this study is therefore conducted to investigate the application of CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class and the effect of the implementation on enhancing students‟ writing achievement.

C. Problem Limitation

The roles of teacher, students, and tool (computer and software) are very important in CALL environments. In practice, however, CALL applications greatly emphasize on learner-centeredness (Levy 1997). Here, students are positioned as the center of learning, technology user, as well as audience. That is why, students‟ perception of learning a language or a particular language skill

(29)

online is considered as a crucial viewpoint to determine successful implementation of online language learning (Alberth 2010). Related to this, the present study therefore focuses on the Sentence Writing students experiencing the online writing learning to have better insights of the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class.

According to Chapelle (2001), a CALL evaluation focusing on learners‟ performance should be conducted “through examination of empirical data reflecting learners‟ use of CALL and learning outcomes” (p.54). As this study focusing on the students, the two factors of learners‟ use of CALL and learning outcomes become the main orientations in investigating the optimal implementation of the web-based Sentence Writing class. First, regarding the learners‟ use of CALL, the principles of CALL are addressed. The CALL principles here refer to the eight conditions for optimal CALL by Egbert, Chao, and Hanson-Smith (1999) which involve interaction, authentic audience, authentic tasks, exposure and encouragement to language production, enough time and feedback, attention to the learning process, atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level, and finally learner autonomy. Here, by finding out the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class according to what the students experience, the intencity and interactions among the principles in the web-based writing class will be clearly identified.

As for the learners‟ learning outcomes, I relate the CALL implementation with the students‟ learning achievement. In this case, the effect of the CALL principles application to the student achievement is examined to see how the actual web-based writing class implementation enhances students‟ writing ability.

(30)

As student achievement deals with the learning done in a particular course (Nation 2009), the students‟ learning achievement used in this study will be based on the course objectives as shown by their writing scores. The writing scores include the students‟ scores of grammar, sentence, and passage writing.

This study is an empirical research which applies a mixed-method research approach. The data were collected through questionnaire, interview, and teacher‟s documentary records of the students‟ writing scores. The study was conducted in the first semester of the 2013/2014 academic year. The participants of this research were the students of the English Letters at Sanata Dharma University, taking Writing 1 course, or Sentence Writing, in the first semester of the academic year 2013/2014. There were 151 students of Sentence Writing in total, who were grouped into four classes, i.e. A, B, C, and D. The students were chosen as the participants of the study because of their experience in learning writing in a web-based Sentence Writing class.

D. Research Questions

This study is focused on answering the following research questions:

1. What CALL principles are reflected in the web-based Sentence Writing class as seen from the students‟ perspective?

2. Does the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhance the students‟ learning achievement?

3. How does the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhance the students‟ learning achievement?

(31)

E. Research Objectives

The integration of computer and Internet technologies into language learning offers an alternative way of teaching communicative language skills, including writing. Since the web-based writing class‟ advantages in outperforming the traditional or regular one are already discussed in many studies, I am interested more to study the actual use of web for teaching. Specifically, this study basically aims at verifying the theory of CALL principles, i.e. the eight conditions for optimal CALL environments by Egbert, Chao, and Hanson-Smith (1999) in a specific classroom applying CALL, i.e. a web-based writing class.

The aim can be elaborated into two objectives. First, as the CALL principles are not applied in isolations, I would like to investigate the application of the CALL principles in a specific web-based writing class, i.e. Sentence Writing class, to see the interactions and intensity of the principles applied in the foundation writing class as experienced by the students. Second, since the implementation of CALL principles can lead to optimal language learning, I would also like to confirm the positive implication, i.e. whether the application of CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhances the students‟ achievement as well as investigate further how the application of the CALL principles in the web-based Sentence Writing class enhances the students‟ learning achievement.

F. Research Benefits

This study is expected to have some theoretical and practical benefits. At a theoretical level, identifying the interactions of CALL principles within a web-based writing class and how the application enhances the students‟ learning

(32)

achievement may contribute to further development and refinement of current CALL theories and studies, especially improving explanation in terms of web-based writing learning.

At a practical level, the result of the study may specifically help the web-developer and teacher of Writing 1 course in improving the web‟s performance for students‟ learning of Sentence Writing at the English Letters of Sanata Dharma University. For a broader context, this study may also provide a clearer overview for teachers and educators of the application of the CALL principles in a web-based writing class as well as on how to implement a web-based learning in their teaching optimally. In addition, this study can also be used by other researchers to conduct further studies regarding the implementation of a web-based L2 learning in general or L2 writing in particular.

(33)

12 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses the theories that support the present study. It consists of two main parts: theoretical review and theoretical framework. The theoretical review explores theories of the principal concepts in this study regarding writing, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and the principles, teaching writing using web-based technology, web-based sentence writing, and the characteristics of Sentence Writing class‟ students, as well as presents a review of related studies. Meanwhile, the second part of the chapter explains about the theoretical framework underlying the study, synthesized from the whole reviewed theories.

A. Theoretical Review

In this section, theories of the principal concepts in this study will be explored. The theories reviewed concern about writing, CALL and the eight principles of optimal CALL environment, teaching writing using web-based technology, web-based sentence writing class and the features provided by ELTGallery, and the characteristics of the Sentence Writing students. Finally, a review of related studies will be also presented.

1. Writing

In English language teaching, writing has become one of the primary skills that learners have to master, along with the other three language skills – reading, speaking, and listening. For further discussions, this subsection specifically presents several concepts regarding writing. They include the nature of writing,

(34)

teaching L2 writing, sentence writing, passage writing, and student achievement in writing.

a. The Nature of Writing

All of the four skills: reading, listening, speaking, and writing – are needed by learners in order to perform and communicate well in English. According to Harmer (2007: 265), listening and reading are classified as “receptive skills”, the skills “where meaning is extracted from the discourse”, and speaking and writing as “productive skills”, the skills that require students to produce language themselves. The four skills are not done in isolations to employ meaningful communication (Hinkel 2006). In terms of “input and output” (Harmer 2007: 266), for instance, what a learner writes in English is largely influenced by the language input, through what s/he hears or reads in English. In other words, writing can reflect what a learner already knows or acquires (of English). Correspondingly, in order to fully perform a target language learnt, a well-develop writing skill should be obtained.

Writing is often associated with the other productive skill, which is speaking. Though both skills are identified as productive skills, they are not fully identical. Raimes (1983) signifies how writing is different from reading in some ways. First, speech is universal, in the sense that everyone first acquires their L1 through spoken language; not everyone, however, learns how to read and write. Second, while spoken language has variations in terms of dialect, written language normally tends to require standard forms of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. Third, speakers use their voices and bodies to facilitate their ideas conveyed; writers, on the other hand, must rely only on the words on the page to

(35)

deliver meaning. Fourth, speakers use pauses and intonation to mark their speech whereas writers use punctuation. Fifth, in terms of production, speakers pronounce while writers spell. Next, speaking is usually spontaneous and unprepared; conversely, most writing takes time, unplanned, and the writers can always „revise‟ what they have written. Also, about the audience‟s response, a speaker speaks to a listener who is (usually) present at the moment of speaking, giving responses such as nodding or frowning, interrupting or questioning; for the writer, in contrast, the reader‟s response can be delayed or absent. Eighth, spoken language is usually informal and repetitive; writing, on the other side, is more formal and compact. Last, while speakers often use simple sentences, writers tend to use more complex sentences with transition words such as „however‟ and „in addition‟.

The term „writing‟ itself is also often related with „literacy‟. As Hyland (2002, as cited in Harmer 2007: 323) mentions, literacy is now seen as a certain social standard, in that, we often judge people as “literate” if they can read and write in particular situations and for functional purposes, some of which are considered as more prestigious than others. From here, being skillful in writing becomes necessary in terms of social contexts. Similarly, Hinkel (2006: 124) also states that achieving proficiency in writing is significant because “one‟s linguistic repertoire and writing skills often determine one‟s social, economic, and political choices”. Accordingly, such practitioners in L2 teaching as Celce-Murcia (2001), Christie (1998), and Martin (1992), as cited in Hinkel (2006: 124), firmly emphasize the importance of language quality in L2 writing for mainly two reasons: 1) because grammar and lexis are inextricable from meaning in written

(36)

discourse, and 2) because L2 writers are ultimately evaluated based on their control of language and text construction in their written discourse. This also clarifies how learners‟ L2 writing quality is substantial for it affects their social life and the generalization of their language performance evaluation.

In relation to L2 writing quality, complex skills are involved in order to produce „good‟ writing. In that, L2 writers must “pay attention to higher level of planning and organizing as well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on” (Richards & Renandya 2002: 303). Brown (2004: 221) discusses writing skills specifically classified into micro and macro skills of writing as shown in the following table.

Table 2.1 Micro and macro skills of writing (Brown 2004: 221)

Micro skills Macro skills

 Produce grapheme and orthographic patterns of English

 Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose;

 Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns;  Use acceptable grammatical systems

(e.g tense, agreement, pluralization patterns and rules);

 Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms;  Use cohesive devices in written

discourse

 Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse;  Appropriately accomplish the

communicative function of written texts according to form and purpose;

 Convey links and connection between events, and communicate such relation as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification;  Distinguish between literal and implied

meanings when writing;

 Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text;

 Develop and use of writing strategies, such accurately assessing the

audience‟s interpretation, using pre -writing devices, -writing the fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing.

(37)

In order to help students improve their L2 writing quality, it is thus important that they should be taught about both micro and macro skills of writing.

Another thing why writing skill is considered important is because “writing helps students learn” (Raimes, 1983: 3). In that, writing reinforces the language features that have been learnt to learners, gives learners opportunities to explore with the language, and practices their use of eye, hand, and brain in expressing ideas. Here, writing promotes language production and keeps students active physically and cognitively in learning. In brief, in English language teaching, writing is therefore significant for communication purpose, social acceptance, and promoting students in learning a language.

b. L2 Writing Teaching

The complex features of writing as explained in the previous subsection has made teaching the skill seem challenging. Generally, the teaching practices of writing in L2 classrooms are influenced by teacher‟s beliefs and knowledge about writing and teaching writing (Hyland 2003). Respectively, the theoretical and practical knowledge about writing and teaching writing should therefore be cleared out in order to teach the skill more effectively. In relation to this, Hyland (2003) highlights six principal orientations to L2 writing teaching which guide it toward a different focus. They are summarized in the table below.

Table 2.2 The principal orientations to L2 writing teaching (Hyland 2003: 23)

Orientation Emphasis Goals Main pedagogic techniques Structure Language

form

- Grammatical accuracy - Vocabulary

building - L2 proficiency

Controlled composition, gap-fill, substitution, error avoidance, indirect assessment, practice of rhetorical patterns

(38)

Function Language use

Paragraph and text organization patterns

Free writing, reordering, gap-fill, imitation of parallel texts, writing from tables and

graphs Expressivist Writer - Individual

creativity - Self-discovery

Reading, pre-writing, journal writing, multiple drafting, and peer critiques

Process Writer Control of technique

Brain-storming, planning, multiple drafting, peer collaboration,

delayed editing, portfolio assessment

Content Subject matter

Writing through relevant content and reading

Extensive and intensive reading, group

research projects, process or structure emphasis

Genre Text and context Control of rhetorical structure of specific text-types - Modeling-negotiation-construction cycle

- Rhetorical consciousness-raising

Although separated into sections, the orientations are not approached in isolations. Cumming (2003), as cited in Hyland (2003), states that it is rarely done by teachers to purely apply one theory only. He continues that commonly, they pick out and combine a number of conceptions to use complementary, though often they may indicate one orientation is applied more preferably than the others. Take, for example, focusing on the language form, i.e. the grammatical accuracy and vocabulary building, L2 writing teachers may encourage students to express their ideas creatively as well as direct them to organize the ideas in order to function well in a certain context, while in the writing process collaborations can take place through feedbacks. Whatever approaches taken, however, there are essentially three elements of a writing pedagogy which should be drawn on. They are the writer, dealing with understanding of the processes of producing a text; the text, which concerns about the purposes of writing and the way to express them effectively in terms of formal and rhetorical text forms; and the reader, related to

(39)

the contexts within which texts are written and read and which make them meaningful (Hyland 2002; 2003).

In addition, as L2 writing students have different needs and characteristics from L1 students (Weigle 2002; Ferris & Hedgcock 2005), determining the best ways to teach L2 writing requires “flexibility” and “support” from the teachers (Hyland 2002: 77). Hyland means that the teachers need to consider the individual instructional context, including the students‟ age, first language background, prior experience, L2 proficiency, writing purposes, target writing communities, and encourage them extensively by providing meaningful contexts, peer participation, prior texts, helpful feedback and control in the writing process. Therefore, in relation to L2 writing teaching orientations mentioned above, a combination, or a “synthesis”, such as by taking the best of the presented approaches, can be done to achieve maximum understanding and learning of writing (Hyland 2003: 26). It means that, in the classroom, teachers should concern not only with how to engage students more with texts and reader expectations, but also supporting them with the knowledge of writing processes, language forms, and genres.

c. Sentence Writing

Prior to producing an academic paper in university level, students should be able to organize ideas and put them into well-developed paragraphs. In order to form a well-developed paragraph, students should first be able to write sentences correctly. Surely, sentence writing is important as the basis of writing a paragraph and the other more complex compositions. Before identifying what makes a good sentence, it is better to take a look at some definitions and different purposes of a sentence.

(40)

According to Lock (1996), the word „sentence‟ in written language is defined as “a sequence of structurally related clauses normally begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop” (p.247). In other words, we can tell if a series of words put together is a sentence or not by examining the structural relation of the words, the capital letter, and the punctuation. This definition also signifies the importance of structure, the use of capital letters and punctuations in writing sentences. According to Harvey (2003), punctuation refers to “the use of signs to help readers understand and express written matter” (p.34). The signs include capital letters, commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, parentheses, and spaces between words. In paragraph writing level, Harvey also states that indented first lines of paragraphs, such as the use of direct or indirect question in the beginning of a paragraph, can also be used to help readers process reading quickly and accurately or as emphasis. Specifically about capital letters, Blass and Gordon (2010) provide several examples of when to use capital letters as follows.

1. For the pronoun I I am from Turkey.

2. For the first letter of the first word of all sentences They work in a school.

3. For the first letter of names, places, languages, and nationalities My name is Abbas. I am from Morocco. I speak Arabic and French.

(Blass & Gordon 2010: 20)

The examples above present the most common situations of using capital letters. Other situations may also require the use of capital letters, such as when dealing with titles of books, magazines, movies, etc, or when using abbreviations.

In addition to Lock‟s definition of sentence, from a syntactic point of view, Finegan (2004) states that “a (simple) sentence contains a single verb (or predicate) and any other expressions the verb requires as part of its structural

(41)

characteristics” (p.146). The other expressions can take a noun phrase as a subject and different complements, for some verbs require a noun phrase, such as, „Mom baked the cake.‟, and some do not, for example „John fell.‟ (the verbs are italicized). This definition also brings out the classification of a simple and complex sentence. While a simple sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause (a clause that can stand alone and are not structurally dependent on other clauses), a complex sentence is a sentence that consists of “more than one ranking (i.e. non-embedded or independent) clause” (a clause that is structurally dependent on another clause) (Lock 1996: 247, 261). Take, for example:

(1)You get off at the stop just before the beach.

(2)While it was cooling, they went into the woods in search of sweet honey.

(Lock 1996: 248) The first example is a simple sentence because it only consists of one independent clause (a subject noun phrase „You‟ and a finite verb „get‟). The second example is a complex sentence, containing a dependent clause „While it was cooling,‟ and an independent clause „they went into the woods in search of sweet honey.‟

Besides the complexity, sentences also vary based on the purposes. The purpose of a sentence depends largely on the mood (Lock 1996), such as the declarative mood will be typically realized in a statement while the interrogative mood will be realized in the form of a question. With different purposes, sentences can take different structures and also punctuations.

(42)

In relation to the definitions and purposes of a sentence above, a „good‟ sentence should thus meet several criteria. First, a good sentence should be syntactically well-structured. That is, it consists of at least one subject and one verb, agrees with the parts of speech (subject, predicate, object, complement, etc.), as well as corresponds with the structures based on the sentence purpose (a declarative sentence takes the form of a statement, an interrogative sentence takes the form of a question structure, etc). Second, a good sentence should be grammatically acceptable. This includes the rules for verbs (including tenses), subject and verb agreement, the use of articles, etc. Third, a good sentence must be mechanically correct, i.e. using correct punctuation and capital letters. In addition to these criteria, Sadler (2012) defines a good sentence should display clarity. In that, the sentence is understandable for the readers, uses the right words in delivering ideas to the readers, and expresses the writer‟s idea in an interesting way that the readers will enjoy.

Writing a good sentence is indeed an inevitable part of the overall writing process. In line with Raimes‟ (1983) statements that writing is not earned naturally and is structured and more systematic (compared to speaking), teaching writing systematically is thus a must. Students need to be introduced with the basic skills of writing, i.e. sentence writing, before moving on to make a paragraph or produce a longer composition. Therefore, teaching students how to write good sentences is important since it determines how they develop paragraphs and produce a more complex writing.

(43)

d. Passage Writing

The more complex stage than sentence writing will require students to express ideas into sentences and organize them into a paragraph or another simple piece of writing, such as a passage. In written language, „passage‟ can be defined as a smaller excerpt of a written work (Carlin 2013). Thus, in writing a passage of a story, for instance, a writer does not write an entire story. He or she will only write a segment of the whole story, taken from any part of the story. That is why, a passage generally only tells about a specific topic or event. For example, instead of writing about the whole story of a trip, a writer creating a passage can only talk about a particular funny or unforgettable moment during the trip.

Although seen as a considerably short written text, writing a passage requires the constructing sentences organized well and should consider many other aspects related to the writer, text, and reader(s) to produce a „good‟ passage. Raimes (1983) describes nine aspects that writers have to deal with in producing a piece of writing, also including a passage. First is content. It involves the relevance, clarity, originality, and logic of the substance. Second is the writer‟s process, covering the processes of getting ideas, getting started, writing drafts, and revising. Third, the production of a written text should think about the audience, i.e. the reader(s). Here, Hyland (2002) specifies the aspect into who the readers are and what background of understandings the readers have. The fourth aspect is the purpose, that is, the reason for writing, which can be for clarifying ideas, explaining arguments, telling stories, etc. Next is the word choice. It deals with the selected vocabulary, idioms, and tone of the text. Sixth, the writer should pay attention to the organization. That is, the arrangement of the sentences and

(44)

paragraphs, topic and support, as well as the cohesion and unity. Another point to concern is grammar. A writer should make the sentences constructing his or her writing are all grammatically acceptable, especially involving the things like the rules of verbs (also tenses), subject-verb agreement, articles, pronouns, etc., to ensure his or ideas are all delivered well and understandable for readers. The eighth aspect is syntax, including the sentence structure and boundaries, stylistic choices, etc. Last, the surface level should also be attended, i.e. the mechanics, which covers the spelling, punctuation, use of capital letters, etc. Indeed, writing a passage is not as simple as it seems to be for it involves so many aspects to consider concerning the writer, the text, and the reader(s).

e. Student Achievement in Writing

Within a teaching and learning process, students are expected to result in certain learning outcomes. As any types of instructional process are directed by the instructional goals and objectives (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund 2009), the learning outcomes therefore also reflect the objectives. The relationship of learning experience to learning outcomes can be seen in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. The relationship of learning experience to learning outcomes (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund 2009: 51)

In the figure above, what the students experience in the learning process is about “the knowledge of the specific course content” while objectives refer to “what we expect students to be able to do at the end of instruction”, as stated in terms of learning outcomes (p.51). Indeed, instructional objectives and learning outcomes

Student

Learning

Experience

(Process)

Learning

Outcomes

(45)

are closely related as the learning outcomes are directed by the objectives. When perceiving instructional objectives in terms of learning outcomes, Miller, Linn, and Gronlund (2009) add that it is the product of learning that is more concerned rather than the process of learning. Not suggesting that the process is insignificant, they state that the long-term instructional objective is more about the finished product, instead (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund 2009). Thus, as shown in the figure above, in determining students‟ success and effectiveness in learning, we can directly refer to the learning outcomes.

As the result of learning, learning outcomes do represent the learning objectives but cannot visibly tell how successful a student is in learning. It is the student‟s performance which is measurable and observable and indicates his or her learning achievement (Gronlund & Linn 2000). In terms of measurement, Cronbach (1990), as cited in Miller, Linn, & Gronlund (2009: 36), identifies two general categories on the root of the nature of measurement: “measures of maximum performance” and “measures of typical performance”. The first category deals with “a person‟s developed abilities or achievements” while the second category is related to “a person‟s typical behavior” and concerned with “what individuals will do rather that what they can do” (p.36).

Investigating about student achievement as one of the research variables, this study focuses on the maximum performance. In assessing maximum performance, Miller, Linn, & Gronlund (2009) suggest that the result shows “what individuals can do when they put forth their best effort” (p.36). Two types of tests, “aptitude test” and “achievement test,” are grouped in this performance category. The first is structured to “predict success in some future learning activity” while

(46)

the second is developed to signify “degree of success in some past learning activity”. Depending on the purpose, measuring student performance can emphasize on either achievement or aptitude or the combination of both. In short, assessing student achievement is done by measuring student performance which reflects the learning outcomes of what the students have learned as intended by the instructional objectives.

In line with the idea above is Nation (2009) claiming that measures of achievement should focus on how students do learning in a particular course. In other words, assessment of student achievement concerns with the actual performance of students. In that, if we want to determine whether students can perform a task, then we need to assign them perform the task (Gronlund, 2006). Related to writing tasks, for instance, if we want to see whether students can write a story, then we have them write a story.

Gronlund (2006) explains that for most types of performance, there is a knowledge component vital to the performance. Good writing, for instance, requires aspects such as knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc. He adds that a test separately assessing vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and punctuation can detect these weaknesses and is beneficial to improve writing skill. Therefore, in addition to “performance assessment” that measures writing ability by assessing the actual wiring (p.2), Gronlund highlights that testing provides direct measures of many significant learning outcomes, especially related to students‟ understanding of knowledge useful in writing, and presents required information for “assessing and improving actual performance tasks” (p.3). In brief, it takes both tests and performance-based tasks to thoroughly assess

(1)

Appendix 8: Complete samples of students’

open-ended questionnaire

responses regarding aspects of the Sentence Writing class and students’

achievement

No. Learning achievement

Aspects of the Sentence Writing

class

Samples of Students’ Answers

1. Better

understanding of English grammar

Grammar practice It truly helps me, especially the grammatical practice. It helps me understand English Grammar better. Yes I do, because I can much study in the web. When I have a free time, I can open the web and try to improve my skill. The facilities help me to improve my skill, those facilities are make a sentence, check grammatical, and write passage that can help us to express our imagination in English.

The true and false was good to improve my skill in grammar. The passages and sentences task were really great to improve my writing skill and my imagination.

I think the web helps me improve my ability in sentence and passage writing. The assignments force me to write more every week. The grammar practices help me improve my understanding about English grammar.

Yes it does. It has a lot of sentence exercises that make me understand more about grammar pattern. I believe now i have better accuracy in grammar. Grammar material Yes, this website helps me a lot. It gives

more explanation with understandable words. So, it does not make confuse. The website is very good. It contains many materials that help me to increase my ability in English.

I think this web help me to improve my grammar. Because in this web we have some explanations about the material and we can practice with some tasks that has given.

Clear examples Yes, i think so. so far ELTGallery helps me to understand grammar way much better because the explanation and examples before I do the grammatical challenges are good.

Teacher

explanation in the class

I can understand when the lecturer explained me more about it in the class I think the Web is really helping me to

(2)

improve my ability. Like the comments which the lecturer has given, and the explanation about the materials which Mr. Calvin has told us in the beginning of the class.

Sufficient number of exercise

The website has many assignments, it help me more to improve my English. The web provide a lot of exercises about grammar so I can try to be more good in grammar with the exercises.

Yes. It gives me a lot of practice and a large number of exercises which really build a diligent character but also a good way to learn English grammar. Still, there's a lot of room for improvement. 2. Improved sentence

writing ability

Grammar practice The facility to check every sentence makes us (especially me) have to be more careful to make the right sentence. Yes, it helps me improve my ability in sentence and passage writing because when I want to write, I will check the grammar first so that I could see whether my sentence is right or not.

Yes, the web helps me to improve my writing skill. The features which help me is the paragraph writing and sentence writing menu. In paragraph writing, I can practice writing regularly as assigned by the lecturer so that I have opportunity to improve my writing skills. I can learn how to put ideas in a good order and how to write a good paragraph. Moreover, in sentence writing menu I also get the benefit since I can practice my grammar. Sentence writing

exercise

I think ELTGallery website has improve my writing skills especially when I write sentences or passages. The aspects or features which help me in ELTGallery start from grammar correctness until make 15 sentences and some passages. Yes I do, because I can much study in the web. When I have a free time, I can open the web and try to improve my skill. The facilities help me to improve my skill, those facilities are make a sentence, check grammatical, and write passage that can help us to express our imagination in English.

I was demanded to be creative in making 15 sentences based on the topic for every unit. Sometimes I felt tired and didn't want to think anymore, but because of the

(3)

deadline, I was able to make the sentences in a short time. So, indirectly, it helped me improved my ability in writing. Yes. The web provides the features such as sentence and passage writing. These features can give me exercises to improve my writing skill.

Grammar material In each topic there is a clear example on how I should write my sentence.

This website helps me to improve my ability in sentence and passage writing. There are many facilities that I can use to improve my knowledge. There are also many examples that can guide me to do the exercises.

Peer and teacher comments

Meanwhile, some comments from my classmates or lecturer are really support my improvement about writing skill in this course.

Yes. Because if I have a mistake I now it because my classmates and my teacher give comments and tell the right sentence or passage or word.

It helps me to improve my writing skill because my writing can be seen by my classmates. Of course, I have to write well.

ELT Gallery improves my writing skills. The assessment part, especially from friend, makes me aware of my weaknesses in writing. I really pay attention if there is any suggestion related to my writing because it is the basic to have better writing skills.

3. Improved passage writing ability

Passage writing exercise

With the exercise that contained in this web, I can learn more and more about grammar and how to write the passage. Yes I do, because I can much study in the web. When I have a free time, I can open the web and try to improve my skill. The facilities help me to improve my skill, those facilities are make a sentence, check grammatical, and write passage that can help us to express our imagination in English.

Yes, because we write passage every week. We can improve our skill and be better soon.

Yes. The web provides the features such as sentence and passage writing. These features can give me exercises to improve my writing skill.

(4)

Yes, the web helps me to improve my writing skill. The features which help me is the paragraph writing and sentence writing menu. In paragraph writing, I can practice writing regularly as assigned by the lecturer so that I have opportunity to improve my writing skills. I can learn how to put ideas in a good order and how to write a good paragraph. Moreover, in sentence writing menu I also get the benefit since I can practice my grammar. Grammar practice I think ELTGallery website has improve

my writing skills especially when I write sentences or passages. The aspects or features which help me in ELTGallery start from grammar correctness until make 15 sentences and some passages. Yes, it helps me improve my ability in sentence and passage writing because when I want to write, I will check the grammar first so that I could see whether my sentence is right or not.

Sentence writing exercise

I think ELTGallery website has improve my writing skills especially when I write sentences or passages. The aspects or features which help me in ELTGallery start from grammar correctness until make 15 sentences and some passages. Selected topics As for passage writing, the topics are

interesting and I can always improve it each time I write a new passage.

Another aspect is writing a passage makes me creative because with the chosen topics I can share what I have been thinking, my opinion, my story, etc. Peer and teacher

comments

Meanwhile, some comments from my classmates or lecturer are really support my improvement about writing skill in this course.

Yes. Because if I have a mistake I now it because my classmates and my teacher give comments and tell the right sentence or passage or word.

It helps me to improve my writing skill because my writing can be seen by my classmates. Of course, I have to write well.

Yes, especially when I had to submit two paragraph every week. I always learned from the lecturer's feedback of my previous paragraphs so that I could make a better paragraph. I tried my best to

(5)

make a good paragraph although the lecturer had not gave feedback for all paragraphs. I hope the lecturer give feedback for all ten paragraphs so that I know what aspect of my writing skill need improving.

Teacher‟s correction

What helps me the most is the passages. I learn how to write in a good structure so it will be easily understood. I also try to find some new vocabulary. And because the passages are scored by the teacher for real.

Yes. By reading the comments and getting the scores of the paragraphs, I can learn in which part I usually made

mistakes so that I can improve it in the later paragraphs in order to make them better.

Grammar material This website helps me to improve my ability in sentence and passage writing. There are many facilities that I can use to improve my knowledge. There are also many examples that can guide me to do the exercises.

This web helps me to improve my skill in writing a passage, when we choose one of the topic in this web, I can know what are the topics about. there is some

The application of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) principles in a web-based sentence writing class.

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE

LEARNING (CALL) PRINCIPLES IN A WEB-BASED

SENTENCE WRITING CLASS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Student

Learning

Experience

(Process)

Learning

Outcomes

Appendix 8: Complete samples of students’

open-ended questionnaire

responses regarding aspects of the Sentence Writing class and students’

achievement

Appendix 9: Scores for the Statistical Test

No.

Passage Writing 1

Passage Writing 5

1.

7,72

9,10

2.

6,46

7,72

3.

6,72

6,78

4.

7,34

7,22

5.

6,54

8,62

6.

6,94

7,82

7.

8,64

9,74

8,74

6,32

8,12

9,12

8,30

8,08

8,92

9,62

6,14

7,92

8,28

8,98

7,94

8,48

8,14

8,28

5,36

9,32

7,62

8,62

8,52

9,50

7,04

6,44

5,66

7,80

8,04

6,16

Parts

Dokumen yang terkait

THE EFFECT OF USING COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL) ON THE TENTH GRADE STUDENTS’ NARRATIVE WRITING ACHIEVEMENT OF MAN 1 JEMBER IN THE 2013/2014 ACADEMIC YEAR

The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Language Learning in Teaching Past Tense to the Tenth Grade Students of SMAN 5 Tangerang Selatan

The influence of computer assisted language learning on students' listening skill

Corrective Feedback in Dialogue-based Computer Assisted Language Learning.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING IN TEACHING SPEAKING NI ELF CLASSROOM.

The application of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) principles in a web based sentence writing class

COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

View of TEACHERS’ CIRCUMSTANCES AND PRACTICES IN USING CALL (COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING) IN INDONESIAN SUBURBAN SCHOOLS

MICROTEACHING AS TEACHING STRATEGY OF COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL) FOR ENGLISH PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING IN EFL CLASS