role of theory final
The Role of Theory in Advancing
21st Century Biology:
Catalyzing Transformative Research
Though rarely explicitly recognized, theory is an integral part of all biological research. Biologists’ theoretical and conceptual frameworks inform every step of their research,
affecting what experiments they do, what techniques and technologies they develop and use,
and how they interpret their data. An increased focus on the theoretical and conceptual component of biological research has the potential to catalyze transformative research that will
lead to creative, dynamic, and innovative advances in our understanding of life.
B
iologists use observation,
exploration, and experiments
to gather information and test
hypotheses about the living world. Although
biologists tend not to think of themselves
as “theoretical scientists,” theoretical and
conceptual frameworks profoundly inluence
research throughout the many subdisciplines
of biology. Theory is critical to understanding
what is observed in the natural world; it also
enables biologists to make predictions, develop
new approaches, and translate biological
research into practical applications. A greater
recognition of the theoretical frameworks
involved in biological research would likely
facilitate the development of new questions and
experiments and expand existing theoretical
frameworks to advance the future of the ield.
How might we maximize the potential for
future advances in biological research? At the
request of the National Science Foundation, the
National Research Council assembled a committee to examine whether a greater emphasis
on theory might be useful in advancing biology.
This report concludes that theory is already
an inextricable thread running throughout the
practice of biology; but that by explicitly giving
theory equal status with other components of
biological research (experimentation, observation, analysis), biology can become even more
productive in the 21st century.
Darwin’s inches. Darwin’s exposition of the
theory of evolution represents a “tranformative
moment” in the history of biology. Greater recognition of the role of theory in biology could
help catalyze such transformative research and
lead to advances in biology.
The Role of Theory in Biology
Theory is one of many components of the
practice of biology, including research tools,
experimentation, and descriptions of the natural
world. While some “transformative moments”
in biology, such as Darwin’s exposition of the
theory of evolution, resulted directly from efforts to develop a new conceptual framework to
explain a large collection of facts, others, such
as Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure
of DNA, could not have happened without new
tools (in this case, the X-ray machine). On the
What is a theory?
The word “theory” serves so many purposes in the English language that confusion is almost inevitable.
Theory has been used to describe concepts ranging from a speculative idea (“it’s just a theory”) to a law of nature
(the “theory” of gravity).
This report suggests that a useful way to deine theory in biology is as a collection of models. Biologists use
models—which can be verbal, mathematical, visual, or physical—to represent various aspects of nature for particular purposes. Most biological systems are too complex to be described by a single model; often, biologists use
several models to approach a research question.
The models a biologist uses—or the theoretical and conceptual frameworks they apply—inform the entire
scientiic process, from the tools used, to the experiments done, to the interpretation of the results, and more. For
example, the techniques a biologist might use to analyze a sequence of DNA would vary depending on the researcher’s conceptual framework. If one’s model of the genome assumes that only those DNA sequences that code for
proteins are important, one may use a technique that only analyzes these sequences. An alternative model that assumes that non-coding DNA sequences have an important role would require a different extraction technique. Only
the second technique could have discovered that non-coding sequences are responsible for preventing a cell from
turning cancerous or allowing a plant to resist a predatory insect.
other hand, technological advances were also important in enabling Darwin to conduct the research that
led to his theoretical insights, and Watson and Crick
also used a theoretical model for what the X-ray of a
helical molecule should look like to help them interpret X-rays of DNA. In retrospect, it is clear that all
transformative moments result from complex interactions among the many components that make up the
practice of biology.
For a variety of reasons—the fragmentation of
biology into many subdisciplines, the rapid expansion of data and approaches that are available, and
the dificulty of making connections among research
results from apparently disconnected areas—it may
be challenging for biologists to recognize the theoretical framework within which they conduct their work.
Giving more recognition to theoretical and conceptual
frameworks would likely enable biologists to make
connections between their work and work in other
subdisciplines and, indeed, other ields of science,
inspiring them to rethink their assumptions to ask
innovative new research questions. Answering these
new questions could in turn lead to new experimental
approaches and the birth of new theoretical frameworks. Increasing the focus on the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of biology could, therefore, help
pave the way to new transformative moments that
would enable major advances in biological research.
To illustrate how recognizing and rethinking
theoretical frameworks can help biologists to answer
broad questions in biology and address grand challenges for society, the report explores a set of seven
questions with relevance to many of biology’s subdisciplines:
1. Are there still new life forms to be discovered?
2. What role does life play in the metabolism of
planet Earth?
3. How do cells really work?
4. What are the engineering principles of life?
5. What is the information that deines and sustains life?
6. What determines how organisms behave in their
worlds?
7. How much can we tell about the past—and predict about the future—by studying life on earth
today?
Examining how biologists might use different
models or conceptual frameworks to approach these
broad questions highlights the ways a greater recognition of these frameworks may help advance the work
of biologists.
Increasing the Focus on Theory throughout
Biology
The report recommends that theory should be
given a measure of attention commensurate with that
given other components of biological research (such
as observation and experiment). Theoretical approaches to biological problems should therefore be
recognized as an important and integral component
of funding agencies’ research portfolios. The report
emphasizes that all subdisciplines of biology would
beneit from explicitly examining the theoretical and
conceptual framework that characterizes their discipline. Exploring the underlying connections and
conceptual frameworks among seemingly unrelated
research areas could lead to unexpected insights that
make the connection between basic research and practical solutions. Explicitly recognizing the crucial role
of theory in biological research can be an effective
way to help make such connections and enable major
scientiic breakthroughs.
requisite technical, disciplinary, and theoretical expertise are involved and that they are aware of the goal of
supporting potentially paradigm-shifting research.
Supporting ‘High-Risk, High-Impact’
Research Proposals
Maximizing the Beneits of Technological
Advances through Interdisciplinary
Collaboration
It can be dificult for researchers to ind adequate support for exploring entirely new ways of looking at the natural world. Research proposals that aim
to challenge long-held theories and concepts are likely
to be held to a higher standard of evidence than more
conventional research proposals. Proposals aiming to
break new ground by, for example, crossing traditional
subdisciplinary boundaries, taking a purely theoretical approach, or potentially destabilizing a ield by
challenging conventional wisdom are likely to be
perceived as ‘high-risk’ in that they are likely to fail.
However, such proposals also have a great potential
for high impact should they succeed.
The report recommends that some portion of the
basic research budget should be devoted to supporting more of these ‘high-risk, high-impact’ proposals.
Evaluation processes for these proposals should be
carefully designed to ensure that reviewers with the
Major technological advances, such as highthroughput gene sequencing, remote sensing, miniaturization, wireless communication, high-resolution
imaging, and others, combined with increasingly
powerful computing resources and data analysis
techniques, are dramatically expanding the reach of
biological research. Questions can now be asked, and
answered, that were well beyond our grasp only a few
years ago.
All too frequently, scientiic horizons are unintentionally limited by the technology that is available.
Theoretical frameworks profoundly affect which tools
and techniques are available to biologists for use in
their work; increasing the focus on the theoretical and
conceptual basis of biology would encourage biologists to ask even more complex questions and conceive of experiments that cannot yet be conducted.
Illustrating How Theoretical Frameworks Catalyze Transformative Research:
Case Study on Life’s Diversity
In exploring the question “Are there still new life forms to be discovered?“ the report points out that, although
Earth is home to an astounding diversity of life, the study of life’s diversity involves more than just going into the
ield or the laboratory to look for new organisms. The places scientists look, the tools they use, and the experiments
they do are inluenced by a theoretical and conceptual understanding of the limits of life, the mechanisms of evolution, and the role and signiicance of diversity.
In the 18th century, for example, the prevailing theory was that there was a ixed number of species and that
the job of naturalists was to name and catalog each of them. While this is now known to be false (the number of
species is not ixed and species do change over time), research carried out based on that theoretical framework
nevertheless provided the body of data that Darwin used to develop the new theory of evolution. What enabled the
development of Darwin’s theoretical breakthrough? First, an accumulation of facts (in the form of fossil remains)
emerged that were dificult to reconcile with the prevailing theory of a ixed and unchanging collection of species.
Second, the thousands of biological specimens in the museums of 19th century Europe, as well as Darwin’s own
observations and collections during his famous voyage—in other words, the curiosity-driven collection of data
about the living world—provided the raw material that enabled Darwin’s theoretical insight. Darwin’s work, therefore, resulted from a combination of tools, experimentation, description, and theory.
Since the identiication of DNA as the molecule of heredity and the development of technology to determine
the order of biochemical building blocks in DNA, biologists have been able to use genetic data to study the relationships among organisms by comparing their genetic sequences. These technological advances and expanding
conceptual frameworks now allow the study of biological diversity at many levels, from DNA sequences, to protein
functions, to genome organization, to differences between and among species, communities, and entire ecosystems.
At all of these scales, biologists seek to understand the limits and signiicance of biological diversity. Theoretical
and conceptual advances across the different scales could help scientists develop solutions to pressing problems
such as the extinction of species and loss of biodiversity. Having multiple conceptual frameworks available and being able to work across different scales thus greatly enriches our ability to study the “bigger picture” of the diversity
of life on Earth.
Once biologists envision
questions and experiments that
reach beyond current technologies, interaction and collaboration between biologists and
physicists, engineers, computer
scientists, mathematicians, and
software designers can help
steer research in these areas
to help develop new tools and
technologies speciically to answer far-reaching new questions
to advance biology.
He who loves practice without
theory is like the sailor who
boards ship without a rudder
and compass and never knows
where he may cast.
curated to be accessible to
the widest possible population of researchers.
Conclusion
Human beings are
intimately connected with
and dependent on the living
The ways in which
—Leonardo da Vinci world.
biological research contributes to medical advances are
obvious; less appreciated is
the critical contribution that understanding biological systems can make to addressing such pressing
Getting the Most out of Large Data Sets
problems as global warming, pollution, inadequate
food supplies, unsafe drinking water, and depenWhile technology is making it increasingly
dence on fossil fuels. Biology can provide solutions
cost-effective to collect huge volumes of data,
to problems not only in sectors that directly depend
the process of extracting meaningful conclusions
on living organisms–like agriculture, isheries,
from those data remains dificult, time-consuming
and forestry management–but also to sectors like
and expensive. Theoretical approaches show great
transportation, information processing, materials
promise for identifying patterns and testing hypothscience, and engineering that could beneit from ineses in large data sets. It is increasingly likely that
corporating the lexibility, robustness and ingenuity
data collected for one purpose will have relevance
of living organisms into human-designed systems.
for other researchers. Therefore, the value of the
A greater recognition of the theoretical and concepdata collected will be multiplied if it is accessible,
tual frameworks of biological research could help
organized and annotated in a standardized way. The
stimulate new transformative moments that lead to
report recommends that attention should be devoted
major advances in 21st century biology.
to ensuring that biological data sets are stored and
Committee on Deining and Advancing the Conceptual Basis of Biological Sciences in the 21st Century:
David J. Galas (Chair), Battelle Memorial Institute and Institute for Systems Biology; Carl T. Bergstrom,
University of Washington, Seattle; Vicki L. Chandler, University of Arizona; Carlos Martínez Del Rio,
University of Wyoming; Paul G. Falkowski, Rutgers University; Douglas J. Futuyma, Stony Brook University; James Griesemer, University of California, Davis; Leroy Hood, Institute for Systems Biology;
David Julius, University of California, San Francisco; Junhyong Kim, University of Pennsylvania; Karla
Kirkegaard, Stanford University School of Medicine; Jane Maienschein, Arizona State University; Eve
E. Marder, Brandeis University; Joseph Nadeau, Case Western Reserve University; Joan Roughgarden,
Stanford University; Julie Theriot, Stanford University School of Medicine; Gunter P. Wagner, Yale University; Kerry Brenner (Study Director), Ann H. Reid (Program Oficer), and Evonne P. Y. Tang (Program
Oficer), National Research Council.
This report brief was prepared by the National Research Council based on the committee’s
report. For more information or copies, contact the Board on Life Sciences at (202) 334-1289
or visit http://nationalacademies.org/bls. Copies of The Role of Theory in Advancing 21st Century Biology: Catalyzing Transformative Research are available from the National Academies
Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20001; (800) 624-6242; www.nap.edu.
Permission granted to reproduce this brief in its entirety with no additions or alterations.
© 2007 The National Academy of Sciences
21st Century Biology:
Catalyzing Transformative Research
Though rarely explicitly recognized, theory is an integral part of all biological research. Biologists’ theoretical and conceptual frameworks inform every step of their research,
affecting what experiments they do, what techniques and technologies they develop and use,
and how they interpret their data. An increased focus on the theoretical and conceptual component of biological research has the potential to catalyze transformative research that will
lead to creative, dynamic, and innovative advances in our understanding of life.
B
iologists use observation,
exploration, and experiments
to gather information and test
hypotheses about the living world. Although
biologists tend not to think of themselves
as “theoretical scientists,” theoretical and
conceptual frameworks profoundly inluence
research throughout the many subdisciplines
of biology. Theory is critical to understanding
what is observed in the natural world; it also
enables biologists to make predictions, develop
new approaches, and translate biological
research into practical applications. A greater
recognition of the theoretical frameworks
involved in biological research would likely
facilitate the development of new questions and
experiments and expand existing theoretical
frameworks to advance the future of the ield.
How might we maximize the potential for
future advances in biological research? At the
request of the National Science Foundation, the
National Research Council assembled a committee to examine whether a greater emphasis
on theory might be useful in advancing biology.
This report concludes that theory is already
an inextricable thread running throughout the
practice of biology; but that by explicitly giving
theory equal status with other components of
biological research (experimentation, observation, analysis), biology can become even more
productive in the 21st century.
Darwin’s inches. Darwin’s exposition of the
theory of evolution represents a “tranformative
moment” in the history of biology. Greater recognition of the role of theory in biology could
help catalyze such transformative research and
lead to advances in biology.
The Role of Theory in Biology
Theory is one of many components of the
practice of biology, including research tools,
experimentation, and descriptions of the natural
world. While some “transformative moments”
in biology, such as Darwin’s exposition of the
theory of evolution, resulted directly from efforts to develop a new conceptual framework to
explain a large collection of facts, others, such
as Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure
of DNA, could not have happened without new
tools (in this case, the X-ray machine). On the
What is a theory?
The word “theory” serves so many purposes in the English language that confusion is almost inevitable.
Theory has been used to describe concepts ranging from a speculative idea (“it’s just a theory”) to a law of nature
(the “theory” of gravity).
This report suggests that a useful way to deine theory in biology is as a collection of models. Biologists use
models—which can be verbal, mathematical, visual, or physical—to represent various aspects of nature for particular purposes. Most biological systems are too complex to be described by a single model; often, biologists use
several models to approach a research question.
The models a biologist uses—or the theoretical and conceptual frameworks they apply—inform the entire
scientiic process, from the tools used, to the experiments done, to the interpretation of the results, and more. For
example, the techniques a biologist might use to analyze a sequence of DNA would vary depending on the researcher’s conceptual framework. If one’s model of the genome assumes that only those DNA sequences that code for
proteins are important, one may use a technique that only analyzes these sequences. An alternative model that assumes that non-coding DNA sequences have an important role would require a different extraction technique. Only
the second technique could have discovered that non-coding sequences are responsible for preventing a cell from
turning cancerous or allowing a plant to resist a predatory insect.
other hand, technological advances were also important in enabling Darwin to conduct the research that
led to his theoretical insights, and Watson and Crick
also used a theoretical model for what the X-ray of a
helical molecule should look like to help them interpret X-rays of DNA. In retrospect, it is clear that all
transformative moments result from complex interactions among the many components that make up the
practice of biology.
For a variety of reasons—the fragmentation of
biology into many subdisciplines, the rapid expansion of data and approaches that are available, and
the dificulty of making connections among research
results from apparently disconnected areas—it may
be challenging for biologists to recognize the theoretical framework within which they conduct their work.
Giving more recognition to theoretical and conceptual
frameworks would likely enable biologists to make
connections between their work and work in other
subdisciplines and, indeed, other ields of science,
inspiring them to rethink their assumptions to ask
innovative new research questions. Answering these
new questions could in turn lead to new experimental
approaches and the birth of new theoretical frameworks. Increasing the focus on the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of biology could, therefore, help
pave the way to new transformative moments that
would enable major advances in biological research.
To illustrate how recognizing and rethinking
theoretical frameworks can help biologists to answer
broad questions in biology and address grand challenges for society, the report explores a set of seven
questions with relevance to many of biology’s subdisciplines:
1. Are there still new life forms to be discovered?
2. What role does life play in the metabolism of
planet Earth?
3. How do cells really work?
4. What are the engineering principles of life?
5. What is the information that deines and sustains life?
6. What determines how organisms behave in their
worlds?
7. How much can we tell about the past—and predict about the future—by studying life on earth
today?
Examining how biologists might use different
models or conceptual frameworks to approach these
broad questions highlights the ways a greater recognition of these frameworks may help advance the work
of biologists.
Increasing the Focus on Theory throughout
Biology
The report recommends that theory should be
given a measure of attention commensurate with that
given other components of biological research (such
as observation and experiment). Theoretical approaches to biological problems should therefore be
recognized as an important and integral component
of funding agencies’ research portfolios. The report
emphasizes that all subdisciplines of biology would
beneit from explicitly examining the theoretical and
conceptual framework that characterizes their discipline. Exploring the underlying connections and
conceptual frameworks among seemingly unrelated
research areas could lead to unexpected insights that
make the connection between basic research and practical solutions. Explicitly recognizing the crucial role
of theory in biological research can be an effective
way to help make such connections and enable major
scientiic breakthroughs.
requisite technical, disciplinary, and theoretical expertise are involved and that they are aware of the goal of
supporting potentially paradigm-shifting research.
Supporting ‘High-Risk, High-Impact’
Research Proposals
Maximizing the Beneits of Technological
Advances through Interdisciplinary
Collaboration
It can be dificult for researchers to ind adequate support for exploring entirely new ways of looking at the natural world. Research proposals that aim
to challenge long-held theories and concepts are likely
to be held to a higher standard of evidence than more
conventional research proposals. Proposals aiming to
break new ground by, for example, crossing traditional
subdisciplinary boundaries, taking a purely theoretical approach, or potentially destabilizing a ield by
challenging conventional wisdom are likely to be
perceived as ‘high-risk’ in that they are likely to fail.
However, such proposals also have a great potential
for high impact should they succeed.
The report recommends that some portion of the
basic research budget should be devoted to supporting more of these ‘high-risk, high-impact’ proposals.
Evaluation processes for these proposals should be
carefully designed to ensure that reviewers with the
Major technological advances, such as highthroughput gene sequencing, remote sensing, miniaturization, wireless communication, high-resolution
imaging, and others, combined with increasingly
powerful computing resources and data analysis
techniques, are dramatically expanding the reach of
biological research. Questions can now be asked, and
answered, that were well beyond our grasp only a few
years ago.
All too frequently, scientiic horizons are unintentionally limited by the technology that is available.
Theoretical frameworks profoundly affect which tools
and techniques are available to biologists for use in
their work; increasing the focus on the theoretical and
conceptual basis of biology would encourage biologists to ask even more complex questions and conceive of experiments that cannot yet be conducted.
Illustrating How Theoretical Frameworks Catalyze Transformative Research:
Case Study on Life’s Diversity
In exploring the question “Are there still new life forms to be discovered?“ the report points out that, although
Earth is home to an astounding diversity of life, the study of life’s diversity involves more than just going into the
ield or the laboratory to look for new organisms. The places scientists look, the tools they use, and the experiments
they do are inluenced by a theoretical and conceptual understanding of the limits of life, the mechanisms of evolution, and the role and signiicance of diversity.
In the 18th century, for example, the prevailing theory was that there was a ixed number of species and that
the job of naturalists was to name and catalog each of them. While this is now known to be false (the number of
species is not ixed and species do change over time), research carried out based on that theoretical framework
nevertheless provided the body of data that Darwin used to develop the new theory of evolution. What enabled the
development of Darwin’s theoretical breakthrough? First, an accumulation of facts (in the form of fossil remains)
emerged that were dificult to reconcile with the prevailing theory of a ixed and unchanging collection of species.
Second, the thousands of biological specimens in the museums of 19th century Europe, as well as Darwin’s own
observations and collections during his famous voyage—in other words, the curiosity-driven collection of data
about the living world—provided the raw material that enabled Darwin’s theoretical insight. Darwin’s work, therefore, resulted from a combination of tools, experimentation, description, and theory.
Since the identiication of DNA as the molecule of heredity and the development of technology to determine
the order of biochemical building blocks in DNA, biologists have been able to use genetic data to study the relationships among organisms by comparing their genetic sequences. These technological advances and expanding
conceptual frameworks now allow the study of biological diversity at many levels, from DNA sequences, to protein
functions, to genome organization, to differences between and among species, communities, and entire ecosystems.
At all of these scales, biologists seek to understand the limits and signiicance of biological diversity. Theoretical
and conceptual advances across the different scales could help scientists develop solutions to pressing problems
such as the extinction of species and loss of biodiversity. Having multiple conceptual frameworks available and being able to work across different scales thus greatly enriches our ability to study the “bigger picture” of the diversity
of life on Earth.
Once biologists envision
questions and experiments that
reach beyond current technologies, interaction and collaboration between biologists and
physicists, engineers, computer
scientists, mathematicians, and
software designers can help
steer research in these areas
to help develop new tools and
technologies speciically to answer far-reaching new questions
to advance biology.
He who loves practice without
theory is like the sailor who
boards ship without a rudder
and compass and never knows
where he may cast.
curated to be accessible to
the widest possible population of researchers.
Conclusion
Human beings are
intimately connected with
and dependent on the living
The ways in which
—Leonardo da Vinci world.
biological research contributes to medical advances are
obvious; less appreciated is
the critical contribution that understanding biological systems can make to addressing such pressing
Getting the Most out of Large Data Sets
problems as global warming, pollution, inadequate
food supplies, unsafe drinking water, and depenWhile technology is making it increasingly
dence on fossil fuels. Biology can provide solutions
cost-effective to collect huge volumes of data,
to problems not only in sectors that directly depend
the process of extracting meaningful conclusions
on living organisms–like agriculture, isheries,
from those data remains dificult, time-consuming
and forestry management–but also to sectors like
and expensive. Theoretical approaches show great
transportation, information processing, materials
promise for identifying patterns and testing hypothscience, and engineering that could beneit from ineses in large data sets. It is increasingly likely that
corporating the lexibility, robustness and ingenuity
data collected for one purpose will have relevance
of living organisms into human-designed systems.
for other researchers. Therefore, the value of the
A greater recognition of the theoretical and concepdata collected will be multiplied if it is accessible,
tual frameworks of biological research could help
organized and annotated in a standardized way. The
stimulate new transformative moments that lead to
report recommends that attention should be devoted
major advances in 21st century biology.
to ensuring that biological data sets are stored and
Committee on Deining and Advancing the Conceptual Basis of Biological Sciences in the 21st Century:
David J. Galas (Chair), Battelle Memorial Institute and Institute for Systems Biology; Carl T. Bergstrom,
University of Washington, Seattle; Vicki L. Chandler, University of Arizona; Carlos Martínez Del Rio,
University of Wyoming; Paul G. Falkowski, Rutgers University; Douglas J. Futuyma, Stony Brook University; James Griesemer, University of California, Davis; Leroy Hood, Institute for Systems Biology;
David Julius, University of California, San Francisco; Junhyong Kim, University of Pennsylvania; Karla
Kirkegaard, Stanford University School of Medicine; Jane Maienschein, Arizona State University; Eve
E. Marder, Brandeis University; Joseph Nadeau, Case Western Reserve University; Joan Roughgarden,
Stanford University; Julie Theriot, Stanford University School of Medicine; Gunter P. Wagner, Yale University; Kerry Brenner (Study Director), Ann H. Reid (Program Oficer), and Evonne P. Y. Tang (Program
Oficer), National Research Council.
This report brief was prepared by the National Research Council based on the committee’s
report. For more information or copies, contact the Board on Life Sciences at (202) 334-1289
or visit http://nationalacademies.org/bls. Copies of The Role of Theory in Advancing 21st Century Biology: Catalyzing Transformative Research are available from the National Academies
Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20001; (800) 624-6242; www.nap.edu.
Permission granted to reproduce this brief in its entirety with no additions or alterations.
© 2007 The National Academy of Sciences