Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol13.Issue1.1999:
Dimensions of teacher in-service training for school
improvement
M arsha Botello
Orc utt Unio n Sc ho o l Distric t, Santa Maria, USA
Naftaly S. Glasman
Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Santa Barbara, USA
Keywords
Impro ve me nt, Sc ho o ls, Te ac he rs,
Training, USA
Abstract
Examine s re latio nships be twe e n
the ro le o f e le me ntary sc ho o l
princ ipals in te ac he r in-se rvic e
ac tivitie s and: what princ ipals
ac quire in administrato r in-se rvic e
training; and what princ ipals do in
re gard to te ac he r fo llo w-up ac tivitie s in the c lassro o ms. Using
inte rvie w and o bse rvatio n te c hnique s, re latio nships are fo und
whic h re fle c t suc c e ssful e ffo rts
e xte nde d to wards sc ho o l impro ve me nt.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [ 1999] 1 4 –2 4
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 14 ]
Wh en ca lls a r e m a de on sch ools a n d sch ool
distr icts to en ga ge in m a jor im pr ovem en ts,
on e a ctivity wh ich becom es a cen tr a l com pon en t of th e r espon se is in -ser vice tr a in in g for
edu ca tion a l per son n el. In th is r e ga r d, tea ch er
in -ser vice tr a in in g h a s been th e m a in stay set
of a ctivities r u n by or a t lea st sh a ped by th e
sch ool pr in cipa l. Beca u se of th e in dividu a lity
of ea ch sch ool pr in cipa l a n d th e specific set of
cir cu m sta n ces of ea ch sch ool a n d its en vir on m en t, th e ch a r a cter of in -ser vice a ctivities in
ea ch sch ool h a s been m or e or less sch oolspecific.
In th is pa per we su m m a r ize pa r ts of a stu dy
(Botello, 1997) wh ich descr ibed a n d exa m in ed
tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities in th r ee elem en ta r y sch ools in Cen tr a l Ca lifor n ia . Th e se gm en t of th e stu dy wh ich is cover ed in th is
pa per con stitu tes th e follow in g two specific
ch a r a cter istics of th e in -ser vice en deavor :
1 th e r ela tion sh ip between th e r ole of th e
pr in cipa l in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities
a n d th e n a tu r e of th e a ctivities wh ich took
pla ce in a pr ior a dm in istr a tor in -ser vice
tr a in in g wh ich th e pr in cipa l a tten ded; a n d
2 th e r ela tion sh ip between th e r ole of th e
pr in cipa l in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities
a n d th e n a tu r e of th e follow -u p a ctivities in
th e cla ssr oom s in th e sch ool.
Despite th e im por ta n ce of th e pr in cipa l in ser vice – tea ch er in -ser vice – tea ch er follow u p r ela tion sh ip, th is lin k a ge h a s n ot pr eviou sly been stu died system a tica lly. In th is
stu dy, th e fir st dim en sion m en tion ed a bove is
investiga ted in th e pa r t wh ich con sider s th e
selection of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls (descr ibed in
deta il in th e m eth odology section ). Th e secon d dim en sion m en tion ed a bove is exa m in ed
via th e fou r follow in g r esea r ch qu estion s:
1 Wh a t do pr in cipa ls do a s in str u ction a l
lea der s in sta ff in -ser vice tr a in in g wh ich
is design ed to fa cilita te a n d su ppor t
sch ool-w ide in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t?
2 Wh a t per ception s do pr in cipa ls h ave a bou t
n u m ber 1 a bove?
3 Wh a t do tea ch er s do in th e cla ssr oom s a s a
r esu lt of n u m ber 1 a bove?
4 Wh a t per ception s do tea ch er s h ave a bou t
n u m ber 3 a bove?
Selected pertinent literature
Representative studies on the principal’s
role in school improvement
It h a s been a t lea st two deca des sin ce
r esea r ch er s a n d w r iter s be ga n system a tica lly
seek in g w ays to u n der sta n d th e r ole a n d
effectiven ess of th e sch ool pr in cipa l in br in gin g a bou t ch a n ge in th e sch ool. Th e dom in a n t
th em e of societa l dem a n ds on sch ools in th e
1980s w a s “effectiven ess”. Stu dy a fter stu dy
look ed a t sch ools w ith stu den ts scor in g h igh
on a ch ievem en t tests a n d exa m in ed beh avior s of th e pr in cipa ls wh ich wer e a ssu m ed to
br in g a bou t – a t lea st in pa r t – th ese h igh
scor es. For exa m ple, Liph a m (1981) lists th e
follow in g beh avior s: com m itm en t to im pr ovem en t, pa r ticipa tion in cla ssr oom a ctivities,
m on itor in g cla ssr oom tim e, en ga gem en t in
effective in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t, a n d
h avin g positive a ttitu des. Ba sed on a com pr eh en sive stu dy con du cted a t a bou t th e sa m e
tim e, Bosser t et a l. (1982) cla ssify th e effectiven ess-r ela ted beh avior s wh ich th ey fou n d
in in str u ction a l or ga n iza tion a ction s, sch ool
clim a te a ction s a n d pr in cipa l m a n a gem en t
a ction s. Ha llin ger a n d Mu r ph y (1986) offer
th e follow in g eigh t specific effectiven essr ela ted beh avior s: fr a m in g a n d com m u n ica tin g sch ool goa ls, su per visin g a n d eva lu a tin g
in str u ction , coor din a tin g cu r r icu lu m , developin g h igh sta n da r ds a n d expecta tion s, m on itor in g stu den t pr ogr ess, pr om otin g pr ofession a l developm en t of tea ch er s, pr otectin g
in str u ction a l tim e a n d developin g in cen tives
for stu den ts a n d tea ch er s.
In th e ea r ly 1990s, sever a l w r iter s lin k ed th e
su r viva l of th e sch ool to wh a t th e pr in cipa l
m igh t or m igh t n ot do (e.g. Ba r th , 1988, 1990;
F u lla n a n d Ha r gr eaves, 1992; Leith wood a n d
J a n tzi, 1991; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d Miles, 1990;
Ser giova n n i, 1990, 1992). Th is lin k a ge im plies
th a t th e n eed for th e pr in cipa l to en ga ge in
br in gin g a bou t ch a n ge is m a n da tor y.
Th e defin ition s of sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t in th e 1990s h ave becom e m or e com plex.
F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er (1991) a n d F u lla n
(1993), for exa m ple, ca ll on sch ools to a dopt a
“m or a l pu r pose of cr ea tin g a vision a n d m a k in g a differ en ce”. Ba r th (1990) ca lls for sh a r ed
lea der sh ip w ith in th e sch ool in or der to a lso
sh a r e th e r espon sibility. Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Miles (1990) em ph a size a focu s on ch a n ge
beca u se wh a t exists ca n n ot a n d sh ou ld n ot
con tin u e to exist. Ser giova n n i (1992) w a n ts
idea s a n d pr ofession a l a u th or ity to gu ide
ch a n ge. Leith wood a n d J a n tzi (1991) offer
tr a n sfor m a tion a l lea der sh ip a s ch a n gin g
wh a t tea ch er s do; a n d F u lla n (1993) ca lls for
fu n da m en ta l ch a n ges in th e “cu ltu r e” of th e
sch ool.
Botello (1997) h a s su m m a r ized th e liter a tu r e of th e m iddle a n d la te 1990s a n d offer ed a
m odified list of in str u ction a l lea der sh ip
beh avior s design ed to br in g a bou t sch oolw ide im pr ovem en t. Th e list in clu des:
• u n ifyin g th e sch ool’s sta k eh older s;
• bein g visibly pr esen t;
• pr ovidin g a n d pr otectin g th e in str u ction a l
pr ogr a m ;
• r ela tin g edu ca tion a l policy to cla ssr oom
im plem en ta tion ;
• h elpin g tea ch er s lea r n h ow to a ssist stu den ts to in ven t k n ow ledge;
• m otiva tin g tea ch er s in sta ff developm en t
exper ien ces;
• con str u ctin g tea ch er cu ltu r es; a n d
• sh a pin g tea ch er per ception s of th e pr in cipa l’s in stitu tion a l lea der sh ip.
In-service training for school principals
Th e liter a tu r e per ta in in g to a dm in istr a tor in ser vice tr a in in g is r ela tively r ecen t (e.g.
Da r esh , 1988; Da r esh a n d P layko, 1992; F u lla n
et a l., 1990; Ha llin ger a n d Wim pelber g, 1989,
J oh n son , 1986; Ma r tin a n d J oh n son , 1989). A
good por tion of th is liter a tu r e is pr escr iptive.
For exa m ple, in Ca lifor n ia , in 1983 th e le gisla tu r e pa ssed a m a jor sch ool r efor m a ct, Sen a te Bill (SB) 813. Its r equ ir em en ts in clu de th e
str en gth en in g of in str u ction a l lea der sh ip
sk ills in sch ool a dm in istr a tor s in or der to
im pr ove ser vices offer ed to pu blic sch ool
stu den ts. Th e in ten tion s of th is le gisla tive
pr oposa l a r e a s follow s:
Th e le gisla tu r e in ten ds th a t th e a dm in istr a tor su ppor t a n d developm en t a ctivities
fu n ded by th is a r ticle w ill lea d to dir ect
im pr ovem en ts in ser vices to Ca lifor n ia
pu blic sch ool pu pils. (Ar ticle 3. Adm in istr a tor Tr a in in g a n d E va lu a tion , Section 44681,
Ca lifor n ia E du ca tion Code).
In 1984, th e Ca lifor n ia Depa r tm en t of E du ca tion cr ea ted wh a t wou ld even tu a lly be ca lled
th e Ca lifor n ia Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA).
Th e pu r pose of CSLA is to pr ovide site a n d
cen tr a l distr ict a dm in istr a tor s w ith on goin g
oppor tu n ities to im pr ove th eir m a n a gem en t
a n d lea der sh ip sk ills. Th e sta ted m a in objective of CSLA is:
to h elp pr a cticin g a dm in istr a tor s a n d tea ch er s in lea der sh ip position s str en gth en th eir
in str u ction a l lea der sh ip sk ills a n d focu s
th eir a ction s on th e issu es a n d str a te gies
cr itica l to in cr ea sin g th e a ch ievem en t of a ll
stu den ts in Ca lifor n ia (CSLA Over view,
1993).
Sin ce its cr ea tion , sch ool distr icts in Ca lifor n ia h ave been r elea sin g sch ool pr in cipa ls to
a tten d th e Aca dem y. Th e im pa ct of th is in ser vice tr a in in g on th e pr in cipa ls h a s va r ied
w ith th e str en gth of th eir desir e to la u n ch a
m a jor sch ool im pr ovem en t effor t a n d w ith
th eir ca pa city to im plem en t su ch a n effor t.
Most of th e w r iter s in th e 1990s su ggest th a t
for th e pr in cipa l to en h a n ce th e possibilities
of br in gin g a bou t sign ifi ca n t ch a n ges in th e
sch ool, s/ h e n eeds to a cqu ir e n ew (a ddition a l)
k n ow ledge a n d sk ills h im / h er self. Appa r en tly, th e in -ser vice for m a t h a s been th e m ost
popu la r. Da r esh (1988) look ed a t 56 stu dies
focu sin g on in -ser vice wor k for pr in cipa ls
over a ten -yea r per iod. In look in g a t th e con ten t of th e in -ser vice pr ogr a m s, th eir pr ocedu r es, th eir developm en t, eva lu a tion a n d
va lida tion , a n d th eir effects on a dm in istr a tor s, tea ch er s a n d oth er s, h e con clu des th a t:
• Ver y few r esea r ch r epor ts h ave been pu blish ed a bou t pr in cipa l in -ser vice.
• Most of th e wor k th a t is pu blish ed focu ses
on pr oblem solvin g r a th er th a n on th eor y
bu ildin g.
• Ver y little of th e wor k en ta ils on -site a n d
n a tu r a listic da ta ga th er in g.
A la ter r epor t (Da r esh a n d P layko, 1992) con clu des th a t:
• E ffectiven ess of pr in cipa l in -ser vice tr a in in g is a fu n ction of th e n eeds of th e pa r ticipa n ts (e.g. tim e m a n a gem en t, loca lly m a n da ted pr ogr a m s).
• Th er e is n o in ter est in pr in cipa l in -ser vice
tr a in in g in lea r n in g a ddition a l con ceptu a l
sk ills.
• Th er e is a r ela tion sh ip between th e pr in cipa l’s ba ck gr ou n d a n d th e desir ed pr in cipa l
in -ser vice con ten t.
Accor din g to F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er (1991),
“Th e pr epa r a tion a n d pr ofession a l developm en t of a dm in istr a tor s h ave evolved fr om th e
u n iver sity-ba sed edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tion
tr a dition to a va r iety of for m s th a t ten d to
clu ster a r ou n d th e r estr u ctu r in g th em es”
(p. 336). Th is expa n sion in con tin u in g pr ofession a l developm en t, F u lla n n otes, in ten sified
in th e 1980s wh en 24 sta tes en a cted le gisla tion
for in -ser vice tr a in in g for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s, esta blish in g lea der sh ip a ca dem ies a n d
a dm in istr a tive tr a in in g cen ter s. Accor din g to
F u lla n , a lth ou gh m a n y of th ese n ew
pr ogr a m s a ppea r to in cor por a te n ew design s,
in clu din g r esea r ch fi n din gs, sch ool-ba sed a n d
distr ict ca se stu dies, a n d su ppor t a m on g th e
pa r ticipa n ts, th e pr ogr a m s often fa il to live
u p to th eir pr om ise. Th e a u th or cites a h ost of
[ 15 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
[ 16 ]
stu dies wh ich cla im th a t th e in effectiven ess
of pr ofession a l developm en t is du e pr im a r ily
to th e la ck of “pr ogr a m follow -u p”.
For exa m ple, Ha llin ger a n d Wim pelber g
(1989) obser ve th a t a lth ou gh pr ofession a l
developm en t pr ogr a m s for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s a r e be gin n in g to a ddr ess r eleva n t issu es,
th e in fr equ en cy of su bsta n tive pr ogr a m follow -u p in th e for m s of coa ch in g, on -site tech n ica l a ssista n ce a n d su ppor t is la ck in g. Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989) obser ve (in th eir stu dy
of Color a do’s a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s) a n a bsen ce of su bsequ en t
obser va tion s, coa ch in g, su r veys, a n a lyses, or
tech n ica l a ssista n ce (p. 10). Little et a l. (1987)
stu died th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip
Aca dem y a n d n ote th a t a la ck of follow -u p
r esu lted in th e r ela tive in effectiven ess of th is
pr ogr a m .
F u lla n a sser ts th a t effective pr ofession a l
developm en t pr ogr a m s m u st a ssist lea der s
w ith th e m a n a gem en t of “soph istica ted, per sisten t, a n d con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t
pr ocesses … (sch ool a dm in istr a tor s) a r e
bein g a sk ed to lea d r estr u ctu r in g effor ts
in volvin g r a dica l ch a n ge a n d a ssocia ted com plexities” (F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er, 1991,
p. 337). Alth ou gh F u lla n believes we h ave a
lon g w ay to go in lin k in g lea der sh ip
pr ogr a m s to follow -u p a n d im pr ovem en t on
th e job, h e does offer six r ecom m en da tion s
for a m odel a dm in istr a tor pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m .
F ir st, h e su ggests th a t th ese lea der sh ip
pr ogr a m s be bu ilt on th e pr in ciples of collegia lity a n d pr ofession a l exch a n ge. Th ey m u st
pr ovide pr in cipa ls w ith m en tor s a n d oth er
developm en t su ppor t. Secon dly, th e pr ogr a m s
m u st be in str u ction a lly focu sed. Wh ile Little
et a l. (1987) fou n d th a t sta ff developm en t
a ctivities h ave “m a in ta in ed a tr a dition of
sepa r a tin g th e tr a in in g of tea ch er s fr om
a dm in istr a tor s” (p. 97), F u lla n r ecom m en ds
th e esta blish m en t of “colla bor a tive wor k
cu ltu r es” (F u lla n et a l., 1990). Th ir d, th e n ew
sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s m u st in clu de th e
pr epa r a tion of sch ool boa r ds, distr ict su per in ten den ts, a n d oth er distr ict a dm in istr a tor s
to su ppor t site a dm in istr a tor s in th eir wor k
w ith tea ch er s a n d th e im plem en ta tion of
pr ogr a m ch a n ges. Fou r th , u n iver sities m u st
a da pt th eir pr ogr a m s in su ppor t of th e n ew
lea der sh ip tr a in in g pr ogr a m s. F ifth , lea der sh ip tr a in in g pr ogr a m s m u st r ecogn ize a n d
a ddr ess th e sh or ta ge of wom en a n d eth n ic
m in or ities in lea der sh ip r oles th r ou gh equ a l
oppor tu n ities for pr om otion . Sixth , F u lla n
str esses th e pr ofession a l pa r tn er sh ip
(tea ch er, pr in cipa l, su per in ten den t) a spect of
effective pr ofession a l developm en t. He
believes th a t th e effective pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m r ecogn izes th e “in tim a te
in ter r ela tedn ess” of th e edu ca tion a l pr ofession s (F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er, 1991, p. 339).
Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989) ca ll for m or e
soph istica ted m eth ods of dem on str a tin g th e
va lu e a n d im pa ct of tr a in in g pr ogr a m s for
sch ool a dm in istr a tor s. Th e a u th or s a ck n ow ledge th e pr olifer a tion of a dm in istr a tor developm en t pr ogr a m s a s well a s th e con tr over sy
su r r ou n din g th e effectiven ess of th ese pr ogr a m s: “Du r in g th is a ge of edu ca tion a l
a ccou n ta bility a n d decr ea sin g r esou r ces, it is
im per a tive th a t a ll pr ogr a m s design ed to
in cr ea se stu den t lea r n in g be a ppr a ised for
th eir effects. E ffor ts wh ich h ave little im pa ct
sh ou ld be disca r ded, wh ile th ose dem on str a tin g su ccess sh ou ld be stu died, r eplica ted, a n d
dissem in a ted” (p. 1). To a ssess effectiven ess,
th e a u th or s offer fou r “ta r gets” for th e eva lu a tion of a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t:
1 A d m in istra tor rea ction s: obta in in g u sefu l
feedba ck fr om pa r ticipa n ts to gu ide fu tu r e
pr ogr a m developm en t.
2 A d m in istra tor lea r n in g: self-r epor tin g of
ga in s or pr e-post testin g to a ccess gr ow th .
3 A d m in istra tor per for m a n ce im prov em en t:
m ea su r in g th e exten t to wh ich a dm in istr a tor s a pplied wh a t w a s lea r n ed to th eir on th e-job beh avior.
4 Orga n iz a tion a l im prov em en t: a ssessin g
th e exten t to wh ich th e a dm in istr a tor
sta ff-developm en t pr ogr a m a ffected or
im pr oved th e or ga n iza tion a l or wor k envir on m en t. Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989)
a ck n ow ledge th a t th is la st a ssessm en t is
th e m ost difficu lt a n d ch a llen gin g type of
eva lu a tion .
A stu dy by J oh n son (1986) sou gh t to deter m in e th e exten t of u se of th ese for e goin g
ta r gets of eva lu a tion by Color a do sch ool distr icts wh en a ssessin g th e effectiven ess of
th eir a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s. Th e r esu lts of th is stu dy a r e n otewor th y. Alth ou gh 92 per cen t of th e sch ool
distr icts fu n ded a n d r equ ir ed a dm in istr a tor
developm en t pr ogr a m s, on ly 46 per cen t wer e
even u sin g m ea su r es of pa r ticipa n t r ea ction
a n d less th a n 22 per cen t wer e a ttem ptin g to
m ea su r e th e effects of th e tr a in in g on job
per for m a n ce. F u r th er m or e, wh ile 82 per cen t
of th e distr icts expr essed over a ll sa tisfa ction
w ith th eir sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s, few
wer e a ble to dem on str a te th a t a n y a dm in istr a tor or or ga n iza tion a l im pr ovem en t h a d
occu r r ed (J oh n son , 1986).
F r om th e a bove, it is a ppa r en t th a t pr ofession a l in -ser vice tr a in in g for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h a s r eceived m ixed r eview s. However,
a ccor din g to Da r esh (1988) a n d Da r esh a n d
P layko (1992), on goin g pr in cipa l in -ser vice
tr a in in g m u st be a r e gu la r pa r t of wh a t goes
on in a sch ool system . For th is to occu r,
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
distr icts m u st va lu e a n d con vey th e idea th a t
gr ow th a n d con tin u ed lea r n in g a r e viewed a s
expecta tion s of pr ofession a l per for m a n ce for
a dm in istr a tor s, a s well a s tea ch er s. Th e va lu e
of pr ofession a l developm en t, a ccor din g to
Da r esh , w ill in cr ea se if it is lin k ed m or e
dir ectly to distr ict a n d sch ool pr ior ities.
Mor eover, a dm in istr a tor in -ser vice pr ogr a m s
sh ou ld be ba sed on th e specific goa ls, n eeds
a n d in ter ests of th e pa r ticipa n ts.
Methodology
Th e pa r a m eter s per tin en t to th e stu dy of
lin k a ges between pr in cipa l in -ser vice tr a in in g, tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g a n d follow -u p
a ctivities wer e fr a m ed a s follow s:
1 P r in cipa ls wh o a tten ded a dm in istr a tive in ser vice tr a in in g a n d wh o a lr ea dy in tegr a ted k n ow ledge a n d sk ills a cqu ir ed
th er e in to th eir wor k in sch ool wer e
selected for th is stu dy.
2 All oth er da ta per tin en t to tea ch er in ser vice tr a in in g a n d follow -u p wer e ga th er ed in th e selected sch ools.
Sample of schools
Th e pu r pose of th is stu dy w a s to exa m in e
wh a t pr in cipa ls do in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities a fter th ey th em selves h ave exper ien ced
in -ser vice a ctivities design ed to cla r ify th e
pr in cipa l’s r ole in sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t.
Th e stu dy a lso sou gh t to lea r n a bou t h ow
pr in cipa ls per ceive th eir r ole in th e in -ser vice a ctivities, wh a t k in ds of follow -u p a ctivities occu r a n d wh a t per ception s tea ch er s
h ave of th e follow -u p a ctivities.
Ten sch ool a dm in istr a tor s wer e iden tifi ed
in on e cou n ty in Cen tr a l Ca lifor n ia wh o h a d
pa r ticipa ted in th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA) w ith in th e pa st fi ve
yea r s. Th eir cou r se of stu dy in clu ded th e
follow in g m odu les:
• ta k in g stock of you r self a s a n in str u ction a l
lea der ;
• con str u ctin g a th in k in g, m ea n in g-cen ter ed
cu r r icu lu m ;
• bu ildin g a vision u pon th e pr in ciples of
power fu l lea r n in g;
• lea din g su ccessfu l ch a n ge effor ts in
sch ool;
• cr ea tin g su ccessfu l sch ools th r ou gh pr ofession a l developm en t;
• sh a pin g sch ool’s cu ltu r e to im pr ove stu den t
lea r n in g.
Of th ese ten in dividu a ls, th r ee wer e selected
for th e stu dy beca u se th ey possessed th e follow in g ch a r a cter istics:
• E a ch w a s cu r r en tly ser vin g a s a n elem en ta r y sch ool pr in cipa l.
• E a ch h a d ser ved in th is position for a t lea st
th r ee yea r s a n d n on e h a d pla n s to r eloca te
or r etir e.
• Th e th r ee a dm in istr a tor s in clu ded both
m a le a n d fem a le.
• E a ch led in th e developm en t of a w r itten
m a ster pla n for sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
a n d a lso th e im plem en ta tion of n ew
in str u ction a l-cu r r icu la r goa ls du r in g th e
pa st th r ee yea r s. Alth ou gh th ese goa ls wer e
on goin g, ea ch pr in cipa l a n ticipa ted th e
a doption of a ddition a l goa ls du r in g th e
1996-1997 sch ool yea r.
• E a ch r equ ir ed th eir tea ch in g sta ff to r ea d
a n d discu ss It’s Elem en ta r y – T a sk Force
R epor t (1992) a s a pa r t of sta ff developm en t.
Addition a lly, ea ch u tilized th e r epor t a s a
cen tr a l focu s for on goin g sta ff developm en t
a s it per ta in ed to r estr u ctu r in g th e cu r r icu lu m a n d im pr ovin g in str u ction a l pr ocesses.
• E a ch of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls ser ved in a
differ en t type of distr ict: on e u r ba n , on e
sm a ll tow n , a n d on e r u r a l.
• E a ch expr essed en th u sia sm a n d a
w illin gn ess to pa r ticipa te in th is r esea r ch
stu dy.
Th ese th r ee elem en ta r y pr in cipa ls wer e a sked
to com m en t on specific issu es, com pon en ts or
pr ogr a m s a im ed a t sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
a n d th eir ow n lea der sh ip a ctivities or a ction s
wh ich fa cilita ted th a t im pr ovem en t. Th e pr in cipa ls in dividu a lly gen er a ted a set of com m on
ch a r a cter istics a n d cr iter ia to descr ibe th eir
sch ool im pr ovem en t en deavor s:
• E a ch h a d su ccessfu lly for m u la ted m ission
or vision sta tem en ts w ith th eir sta ffs,
wh ich in clu ded a gen er a l defin ition of
in str u ction a l goa ls.
• E a ch believed th a t tea ch in g pr a ctices ba sed
on con str u ctivist th eor y w ill im pr ove stu den t lea r n in g. Th er efor e, ea ch en cou r a ged
th eir tea ch in g sta ffs to im plem en t in str u ction a l str a te gies wh ich r eflected stu den t
en ga gem en t in th e lea r n in g pr ocess.
• E a ch h a d esta blish ed pr ocedu r es for
a cqu ir in g a n d pr ovidin g m a ter ia ls or
r esou r ces to a ssist th eir tea ch in g sta ff in
a ccom plish in g in str u ction a l goa ls.
• E a ch h a d wor k ed w ith th eir tea ch in g sta ffs
to esta blish a n d develop por tfolio system s
for th e collection a n d a ssessm en t of stu den t
wor k .
• E a ch h a d gu ided th e for m u la tion of sch ool
im pr ovem en t objectives wh ich cen ter ed on
im pr ovin g th e in str u ction a l cor e of th eir
sch ools.
• E a ch a ttem pted to a lign sta ff developm en t
pr ogr a m s a n d a gen da s w ith th e in str u ction a l goa ls a n d objectives esta blish ed
th r ou gh sta ff.
[ 17 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
• E a ch h a d design ed, developed a n d fa cilita ted stu den t r ecogn ition a n d aw a r d
pr ogr a m s.
• E a ch in volved th e tea ch in g sta ff a n d pa r en t
com m u n ity in sh a r ed decision -m a k in g
pr ocesses wh ich su ppor t th e sch ool’s
in str u ction a l cor e.
• E a ch a ttem pted to spen d por tion s of th e
sch ool day in cla ssr oom s wor k in g w ith
tea ch er s a n d stu den ts to gu ide a n d fa cilita te in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t.
• E a ch expr essed a belief th a t th ey cou ld
positively im pa ct th e in str u ction a l pr ogr a m a t th eir sch ools th r ou gh effective
lea der sh ip.
Data sources and collection procedures
A ca se stu dy a ppr oa ch w a s u sed to exa m in e
th e fou r r esea r ch qu estion s (e.g. Mer r ia m ,
1988; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d Miles, 1990; Sm ith
a n d An dr ew s, 1989). Da ta wer e ga th er ed fr om
m u ltiple sou r ces u sin g a va r iety of da ta -ga th er in g tech n iqu es. Actu a l beh avior s of pr in cipa ls in in str u ction a l a n d sta ff even ts wer e
obser ved ever y two m on th s (for a tota l of
th r ee tim es) du r in g th e secon d h a lf of th e
1995-96 sch ool yea r. Da ta for th e obser va tion s
wer e r ecor ded in a jou r n a l a n d in clu ded a
descr iption of th e settin g, th e pa r ticipa n ts
a n d th e a ctivities in ter a ction s (Mer r ia m ,
1988). All a ction s of th e pr in cipa l, r ela ted sta ff
in ter a ction s a n d som e n on -ver ba l in ciden ces
wer e r ecor ded.
As to th e secon d r esea r ch qu estion (n a m ely
pr in cipa ls’ per ception s a bou t th eir beh avior s
design ed to im pr ove th e sch ool), th e da ta
wer e ga th er ed in sever a l per son a l in ter view s
w ith ea ch pr in cipa l du r in g th e fir st h a lf of th e
1995-96 sch ool yea r. Th er e wer e th r ee or fou r
in ter view s w ith ea ch pr in cipa l. E a ch in ter view w a s la r gely u n str u ctu r ed a n d on ly th r ee
specific a r ea s wer e pla n n ed a h ea d of tim e: th e
pr in cipa l’s r ole in a ssu r in g th a t tea ch er s a r e
in for m ed a bou t th e n ew tea ch in g m eth odologies (e.g. cooper a tive gr ou p, h a n ds on ); th e
expecta tion s for im plem en tin g th ese m eth odologies; a n d th e m on itor in g of th e im plem en ta tion . All in ter view s wer e r ecor ded a n d
tr a n scr ibed.
Data abou t wh at a ctu a lly h appen s in th e
cla ssr oom settin g wer e collected th r ou gh obser vation s wh ich wer e r ecor ded. Ea ch pr in cipa l
ch ose two pr im a r y gr a de tea ch er s a n d two
in ter m ediate gr a de tea ch er s wh o in h is/ h er
opin ion , wer e str ivin g to fu lfil th e sch ool goa ls.
On ce th ese tea ch er s a gr eed to be obser ved,
th r ee obser vation s wer e m a de th r ou gh th e
sch ool yea r in ea ch of th eir cla ssr oom s. Th e
th r ee foci of th e obser vation s wer e on :
1 tea ch er s’ su ppor t a n d su per vision of
stu den ts en ga ged in cooper a tive gr ou p
a ctivities a n d in h a n ds-on pr ojects;
[ 18 ]
2 tea ch er s’ fa cilita tion of open dia logu e,
qu estion in g a n d pr oblem solvin g; a n d
3 tea ch er m eth od for deter m in in g stu den t
pr ogr ess.
Th e fou r th r esea r ch qu estion dea lt w ith per ception s of tea ch er s a bou t th e pr in cipa ls’
effect a n d in flu en ce on cla ssr oom a ctivities.
At th e en d of th e sch ool yea r, a n in ter view
w a s h eld w ith ea ch of th e tea ch er s to a scer ta in in for m a tion a bou t th e a bove. Th ese
in ter view s wer e qu ite str u ctu r ed. For exa m ple, tea ch er s wer e a sk ed a bou t th e fr equ en cy
of th eir u sin g th e in n ova tive tea ch in g
m eth odologies, th e stu den ts’ per for m a n ce a s
a r esu lt of th ese m eth odologies, a n d wh a t th e
pr in cipa l did to en h a n ce sh a r ed pu r pose,
colle gia lity, con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t a n d
su ppor tive wor k in g con dition s.
Altogeth er, th en , fou r types of da ta sou r ces
wer e u sed in th is stu dy: obser va tion s of in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d tea ch er s in th e cla ssr oom a n d in ter view s w ith in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d in dividu a l tea ch er s. Th e r epea ted
in ter view s w ith ea ch pr in cipa l a n d th e
r epea ted obser va tion s of ea ch tea ch er r a ised
th e level of th e tr u stwor th in ess, r elia bility
a n d in ter n a l va lidity of th e fin din gs.
For a ll ca ses, a deta iled con ten t a n a lysis of
th e ga th er ed in for m a tion w a s con du cted. Th e
fin din gs a r e pr esen ted below for ea ch
r esea r ch qu estion . Th e a n a lysis of th e fi n din gs per ta in to both in dividu a l fi n din gs a n d
to th e en tir e set of fin din gs.
Findings
Ocea n view E lem en ta r y (Sch ool A), th e on ly
elem en ta r y sch ool in th e distr ict, ser ves 350
K-5 stu den ts. Appr oxim a tely th r ee-qu a r ter s
of th e stu den ts a r e wh ite a n d com e fr om
u pper -m iddle in com e fa m ilies. Th e r est a r e
Hispa n ic a n d com e fr om low -m iddle in com e
fa m ilies. Ha lcyon E lem en ta r y (Sch ool B) w a s
th e fir st sch ool in th e distr ict. It is n ow on e of
six K-6 elem en ta r y sch ools a n d two ju n ior
h igh sch ools. It h ou ses 560 stu den ts. Of th e
stu den ts 87 per cen t a r e wh ite. A m a jor ity of
th ese stu den ts com e fr om m iddle-cla ss
in com e h om es. Th e r est a r e Hispa n ic (10
per cen t) a n d Afr ica n Am er ica n (3 per cen t)
wh o com e fr om poor fa m ilies. Th e sch ool h a s
th e h igh est per cen ta ge in th e distr ict of fa m ilies r eceivin g gover n m en t a ssista n ce. Mou n ta in Sta r E lem en ta r y (Sch ool C) or igin a lly
h ou sed th e en tir e K-8 popu la tion of th e city. It
is n ow h om e to 400 K-6 stu den ts. Abou t 78
per cen t of th e stu den ts com e fr om wh ite
m iddle-in com e fa m ilies, 12 per cen t fr om low a n d m iddle-in com e N a tive Am er ica n fa m ilies
a n d th e r est a r e Hispa n ic (7 per cen t) a n d
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Afr ica n Am er ica n (4 per cen t) wh o com e fr om
poor fa m ilies.
Th e r est of th is section h igh ligh ts fin din gs
by ea ch of th e fou r r esea r ch qu estion s.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Principals’ involvement in instruction/ staff
in-service events
Th e follow in g even ts wer e obser ved du r in g
th e 1995-96 sch ool yea r :
S ch ool A : Sta ff Developm en t Day – J a n u a r y
Sch ool Site Cou n cil Meetin g –
Ma r ch
Sta ff Developm en t Day – Ma r ch
S ch ool B : Sta ff Developm en t Day – J a n u a r y
Sch ool Site Cou n cil Meetin g –
J anuar y
Sta ff Developm en t Day – Ma r ch
S ch ool C: In ter m edia te Gr a des Ar ticu la tion
Meetin g – Apr il
P r im a r y Gr a des Ar ticu la tion
Meetin g – Apr il
Sta ff Developm en t Day – May
E a ch pr in cipa l ch ose h is/ h er ow n tim e, for m a t, r ole a n d specifi c a ctivities for h is/ h er
r espective sch ool-w ide in str u ction / sta ff
even t. Tea ch er s played a r ole in pla n n in g a n d
pr esen tin g goa l-specifi c topics a t th e m a jor ity
of th e in -ser vices days. Specifi c exa m ples
follow.
Princ ipal A, January Staff De ve lo pme nt
Day
Tea ch er s wer e a sk ed to w r ite dow n th eir
ph ilosoph ies a bou t tea ch in g r ea din g. Th e
pr in cipa l th en discu ssed sh a r in g ph ilosoph ies a n d colle gia lity a n d sh a r ed h er ph ilosoph y, wh ich en ta iled th e n eed to r ea ch ea ch
stu den t a n d th e obliga tion to a lso r ea ch th e
developm en ta lly slower stu den t. An in vited
cou n ty office of edu ca tion tr a in er distr ibu ted
h a n dou ts a bou t effective tea ch in g of r ea din g.
Tea ch er s discu ssed th e con ceptu a l im plica tion s of th e m a ter ia l. After th e pr in cipa l con clu ded th is h a lf of th e day w ith “a ll tea ch er s
m u st be r ea din g tea ch er s,” th e pr in cipa l
in itia ted a discu ssion a bou t th e n ew m a th s
pr ogr a m . As ca n be su r m ised, th e pr in cipa l
h a d pla n n ed m ost of th e day’s a ctivities.
Princ ipal A, Mo nthly (Marc h) Sc ho o l Site
Ge ne ral Me e ting
Th e m eetin g be ga n w ith som e a n n ou n cem en ts. A lea d tea ch er (a ppoin ted by th e pr in cipa l) led th e cou n cil m em ber s in a visit to
va r iou s cla ssr oom s. Ha n dou ts descr ibin g th e
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d m a th s cu r r icu la wer e distr ibu ted. Th e pr in cipa l ta lk ed a bou t h er discu ssion s w ith tea ch er s r e ga r din g th eir
in str u ction a l n eeds. Th e r est of th e m eetin g
w a s devoted to m odifyin g th e a n n u a l pa r en t
su r vey for m a t. Most of th e m eetin g h a d been
pla n n ed by th e pr in cipa l.
Princ ipal A, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
A m en tor tea ch er pr esen ted a video of a la n gu a ge a cqu isition developm en t pr ogr a m . Th e
pr ogr a m ’s u sefu ln ess w a s discu ssed. A tea m
of tea ch er s wh o h a d a tten ded a m a th s wor k sh op pr esen ted a pr oposed m a th s cu r r icu lu m
str u ctu r e. An oth er tea m of tea ch er s did th e
sa m e w ith a specia l edu ca tion cu r r icu lu m .
Th e secon d h a lf of th e day w a s devoted to
gr a de-level m eetin gs a n d colla bor a tive pla n n in g. Th e en tir e day h a d been pla n n ed by th e
pr in cipa l togeth er w ith th e pa r ticipa tin g
tea ch er s.
Princ ipal B, January Staff De ve lo pme nt
Day
In th e fir st sta ff developm en t day in J a n u a r y
in sch ool B th e pr in cipa l a n d th e fin e a r ts
specia lists r eviewed th e sch ool’s fin e a r ts
objectives. Th e tea ch er s wer e th en a sk ed to
for m gr a de-level gr ou ps a n d con sider str a tegies for tea ch in g a ctivities u sin g th e fin e a r ts
cu r r icu lu m . Th e n ext topic in volved in for m a tion per ta in in g to por tfolios, in clu din g m eth ods of a ssessin g stu den ts’ wor k . Tea ch er s
a ga in m et in gr a de-level gr ou ps to r eview th e
la tter, m or e com plica ted ta sk s. Th e pr in cipa l
a n d th e pa r ticipa tin g tea ch er s h a d pla n n ed
th e day togeth er.
Princ ipal B, Sc ho o l Mo nthly (Marc h)
Sc ho o l Site Co unc il Me e ting
Th e m eetin g con stitu ted a follow -u p on th e
J a n u a r y sta ff developm en t day. P a r en ts
r ea cted to th e wor k don e by th e tea ch er s w ith
th e fin e a r ts cu r r icu lu m . Th e pr in cipa l th en
led a pla n n in g session on fu r th er sta ff developm en t days (e.g. topics – a t-r isk stu den ts,
tech n ology). Th e pr in cipa l h a d pla n n ed th e
m eetin g.
Princ ipal B, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
Th e pr in cipa l led discu ssion s on a t-r isk stu den ts a n d on h ow to spen d a n a ddition a l
$20,000 wh ich th e distr ict office h a d a lloca ted.
Tea ch er s wer e con cer n ed a bou t a t-r isk stu den ts. Defin ition s wer e offer ed. Attr ibu tes
wer e descr ibed. Th e distr ict coor din a tor a n d
a sch ool cou n selor wer e in vited to ser ve a s
r esou r ce people. As to th e u se of $20,000, th e
pr in cipa l su ggested th e possibility of h ir in g a
r ea din g specia list. Th e pr in cipa l h a d pla n n ed
th e day’s a ctivities.
Princ ipal C, April Intermediate Grades
Artic ulation Meeting and April Primary
Grades Artic ulation Meeting
P r ior to th e in ter m edia te gr a des a r ticu la tion
m eetin g a n d th e pr im a r y gr a des a r ticu la tion
m eetin g in Apr il, th e pr in cipa l h a d spoken
w ith ea ch tea ch er r ega r din g gr a de-level
a ssign m en ts. Th e focu s in both Apr il m eetin gs w a s on tea m tea ch in g. Th e pr in cipa l
fa cilita ted th ese m eetin gs by bu ildin g u pon
[ 19 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
wh a t existed th e yea r befor e a n d fin din g w ays
to im pr ove. A pa r ticu la r issu e in th e pr im a r y
gr ou p w a s tea m tea ch in g u sin g th e n ew m a th s
cu r r icu lu m .
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Princ ipal C, May Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
Th e pr in cipa l pr ovided lea der sh ip in sever a l
in str u ction a l a r ea s. Th e n otion s of sch ool
m ission s, vision s a n d ch a n ge wer e fir st ta k en
u p con ceptu a lly a n d th en discu ssed in pr a ctica l ter m s. Br ea k in g in to sm a ll gr ou ps, tea ch er s sh a r ed th eir feelin gs a bou t th e r ela tion sh ip of th eir sch ool to th e sch ool distr ict in
th ese a r ea s. N ext, th e pr in cipa l in tr odu ced a
sh or t stor y a n d a ga m e wh er e decision m a k in g w a s r equ ir ed. Tea ch er s wor k ed a ga in in
sm a ll gr ou ps a n d displayed a h igh level of
self-effica cy.
Principals’ perceptions about their
activities
Th e follow in g is a su m m a r y of th e over a ll
fin din gs of wh a t per ception s pr in cipa ls
expr essed a bou t th eir in volvem en t in th e
tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g a ctivities
design ed to fa cilita te sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t. Most of th e da ta descr ibed h er e wer e
ga th er ed fr om th e in ter view s w ith th e in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d fr om th e opin ion s th e
pr in cipa ls expr essed du r in g th eir in volvem en t in th e in -ser vice even ts wh ich wer e
obser ved.
Pr in cipa l A viewed a ll of h er im por ta n t
lea der sh ip a ctivities design ed to fa cilita te
sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t a s gu ided by goa ls
wh ich a r e set ever y yea r. Du r in g th e stu dy’s
du r a tion sh e saw h er self wor k in g pa r ticu la r ly h a r d on : im plem en tin g th e pr ocedu r es
for u sin g th e tech n ology pla n , th e scien ce
pla n a n d th e m a th s pla n ; a ssessin g th e r ea din g/ la n gu a ge a r ts pr ogr a m a n d r epor tin g
a bou t it to th e sch ool boa r d; a n d r evisin g th e
stu den t por tfolio for m a ts. Th e pr in cipa l su ggested th a t a n y visitor to th e sch ool in th e
pa st th r ee yea r s wou ld h ave fou n d th e sch ool
u n der goin g con sta n t, com pr eh en sive a n d
w ide-spr ea d ch a n ge. Sh e a lso r epor ted th a t
sh e depen ds gr ea tly on h er tea ch er s.
For Pr in cipa l B , th e m ost im por ta n t dim en sion s of lea din g sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
seem ed to be a pu blic r ecogn ition of th e
str en gth of th e tea ch in g sta ff, h is r ole a s a
“positive for ce” a n d a ck n ow ledgm en t of a s
m a n y good th in gs “ou t th er e” a s possible. Th e
pr in cipa l r epor ted cor r espon din g in ciden ces
of: r elyin g on h is tea ch er s’ ju dgm en t to in vest
in expa n din g th e visu a l a n d per for m in g a r ts
pr ogr a m , pr ovidin g su ppor t for a n ew ly
a dopted h a n ds-on scien ce cu r r icu lu m , a n d
spen din g cou n tless h ou r s on th e playgr ou n d
in or der to get to k n ow stu den ts a n d be a ccessible to th em . P r in cipa l B w a s n ot tota lly
[ 20 ]
h a ppy w ith som e of th e distr ict’s policies
a ssocia ted w ith cu r r icu la r in itia tives. He
wou ld r a th er th ey wer e developed fir st a t th e
sch ool site.
Pr in cip a l C p er ceived h er lea d er sh ip con t r ibu t ion s t o sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t in
five m a jor w ay s. T h e fir st w a s t h e in it ia t ion
a n d m a in t en a n ce of sy st em a t ic m on it or in g
of t ea ch er s in t h eir a ccom p lish m en t of
in st r u ct ion a l goa ls. T h e secon d focu s ed on
d evelop in g a n d en for cin g a sch ool-w id e s t u d en t d iscip lin e p la n . A t h ir d w a s r ees t a blish in g a ch a in of com m a n d in wh ich t h e t ea ch er s feel a ccou n t a ble t o t h e p r in cip a l a n d n ot
t o t h e d ist r ict su p er in t en d en t . Fou r t h , Pr in cip a l C a lso v iew ed in cr ea sed st a ff colle gia lit y a s a ver y im p or t a n t a r ea of lea d er s h ip
a ct iv it ies a n d , fin a lly, sh e con sid er ed b r in gin g t h e sch ool a n d t h e d iver se com m u n it y in
con t a ct w it h ea ch ot h er a s a n im p or t a n t
lea d er sh ip a ct iv it y.
Resultant teachers’ activities in the
classroom
Th e m a jor ity of th e a ctivities obser ved in th e
two fir st-gr a de cla ssr oom s a n d th e two fou r th gr a de cla ssr oom s in S ch ool A involved m a th s
lesson s. In on e of th e fir st-gr a de cla sses th e
lesson s in volved a ddition , su btr a ction a n d
cou n tin g of gr ou ps of ten s u sin g r ea l objects
a n d th en w r itin g dow n th e cor r espon din g
n u m ber. In th e fou r th -gr a des, m a th s w a s
ta u gh t in a h a n ds-on fa sh ion wh ile dea lin g
w ith pr a ctica l pr oblem s. Oth er lesson s in th e
two fou r th -gr a de cla sses wer e devoted to
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d a r ts in on e cla ss a n d to
socia l m a n n er s a n d in ter per son a l r ela tion s
in th e secon d cla ss.
In S ch ool B two fir st-gr a de tea ch er s a n d two
fifth -gr a de tea ch er s wer e obser ved. On e fir stgr a de tea ch er w a s obser ved tea ch in g on e a r t
lesson a n d two scien ce lesson s w ith a n
em ph a sis on tools. Th e a r t lesson in volved
lea r n in g a bou t a fa m ou s pa in ter, r eplica tin g
on e of h is wor k s th r ou gh a str u ctu r ed dr aw in g a n d sh a r in g th e pr odu ct w ith th e en tir e
cla ss. Th e “tools” lesson in volved lea r n in g
a bou t th eir u se a n d cla ssifyin g th em (e.g.
cor d in th e blin ds – pu lley; pen cil sh a r pen er –
gea r ).
Th e two fifth -gr a de lesson s obser ved in
S ch ool B involved “pr ojects”. Th e fir st two
lesson s in on e fifth -gr a de cla ss in clu ded a r t,
m a th , w r itin g a n d com pu ter wor k . Th e lesson s
wer e h igh ly stu den t cen ter ed. Th e th ir d lesson
in th is fifth -gr a de cla ss involved sh a r in g
r esu lts of a h om ewor k a ssign m en t in m a th s
w ith th e en tir e cla ss a n d lea r n in g n ew m a ter ia l of m a th . All th r ee of th e oth er fifth -gr a de
lesson s focu sed on scien ce. Her e, too, th e
lesson s involved h a n ds-on pr ojects (e.g.
com plex cir cu it, ligh th ou se, electr ica l qu iz
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
ga m e, Mor se code, th e br a in , a n d th e str ess
ga m e).
Two fir st-gr a de tea ch er s a n d two fifth -gr a de
tea ch er s wer e obser ved in S ch ool C. On e fir stgr a de tea ch er focu sed on n ou n s a n d a djectives in th e fir st lesson a n d gr a ph ics in th e
secon d a n d th ir d lesson s. Lesson s u sed stu den ts a s lea der s of a ctivities a n d a s votin g
pa r ticipa n ts in decision -m a k in g. Th e oth er
fir st-gr a de tea ch er ta u gh t, r espectively, m a th ,
r ea din g a n d bu ildin g w ith clay. In a ll of th e
lesson s th er e w a s h eavy stu den t in volvem en t.
Th e fir st lesson in on e fifth -gr a de cla ss
focu sed on w r itin g a bou t self. Th e oth er two
lesson s in volved stu dyin g th e sta tes in
gr ou ps, u sin g a va r iety of a ctivities. Th e
secon d fifth -gr a de tea ch er ta u gh t, r espectively, scien ce, socia l scien ce a n d gr a ph in g
tech n iqu es. Most of th e lesson s wer e ta u gh t
in sm a ll gr ou ps.
Teachers’ perceptions about their
activities
Th e follow in g lists k ey item s ea ch tea ch er
m en tion ed a s h avin g been cover ed in in -ser vice a ctivities a n d wh ich con tr ibu ted sign ifica n tly to th e im pr ovem en t of lea r n in g in
th eir in dividu a l cla ssr oom s:
S ch ool A
F ir st-gr a de 1
– a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
F ir st-gr a de 2
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
– a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
Fou r th -gr a de 1 – pr ovidin g a com for ta ble,
h a ppy a n d sa fe envir on m en t
– a llowin g exper im en tation
with pr ocess
Fou r th -gr a de 2 – a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
– con du ctin g in ter view
a ssessm en t du r in g stu den t wor k tim e
S ch ool B
F ir st-gr a de 1
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
– pr ovidin g for h a n ds-on
exper im en ta l lea r n in g
F ir st-gr a de 2
– tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
– pla n n in g well
F ifth -gr a de 1
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
–
F ifth -gr a de 2
–
–
S ch ool C,
F ir st-gr a de 1
–
–
F ir st-gr a de 2
–
–
F ifth -gr a de 1
–
F ifth -gr a de 2
–
–
–
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
pr ovidin g for ta sk -ba sed
pr ojects
a u gm en tin g (r a th er th a n
r epla cin g) on e’s cu r r icu lu m w ith distr ict’s su ggestion s
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
con du ctin g in ter view
a ssess-m en ts du r in g
stu den t wor k tim e
tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
pr ovidin g for h a n ds-on
exper im en ta l lea r n in g
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
con du ctin g in ter view s
a ssessm en t du r in g stu den t wor k tim e
It sh ou ld be n oted th a t in a ll of th e a bove
ca ses, tea ch in g pr ocedu r es r a th er th a n cu r r icu lu m con ten t wer e m en tion ed.
Discussion
Th e over a ll fi n din gs in th is stu dy su ppor t th e
h ypoth esis th a t th e fou r per tin en t ph en om en a a r e in ter r ela ted. Th e r ela tion sh ip is
depicted in Ta ble I.
Th e r oles of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls in th eir
tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g wer e ea sily iden tifia ble. On sever a l occa sion s pr ior to a n d du r in g th e session s tea ch er s pr ovided lea der sh ip. On som e occa sion s a n in vited ou tside
pr esen ter pr ovided lea der sh ip. In a ll of th ese
ca ses th e pr in cipa ls did n ot th in k th a t th ey
sh ou ld en ga ge in th ese a ctivities th em selves.
Bu t, in m ost ca ses, th e pr in cipa ls wer e fou n d
to be h eavily in volved in th e pla n n in g of th e
n in e sch ool-w ide even ts wh ich wer e obser ved
in th e stu dy. For exa m ple, pr in cipa l A played
a n a ctive r ole in discu ssion s a bou t ph ilosoph y of tea ch in g a n d tea ch er colle gia lity, con ceptu a l im plica tion s of tea ch in g r ea din g,
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d m a th s cu r r icu la , th e la n gu a ge a cqu isition pr ogr a m a n d specia l edu ca tion cu r r icu lu m . P r in cipa l B focu sed on th e
[ 21 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Table I
Princ ipals’ ro le in te ac he r in-se rvic e training and assume d re sultant o utc o me s
What princ ipals do in
teac her in-servic e
training for sc hool
improvement, whic h
they learned to do
in princ ipal in-servic e
learning
(1)
Note:
a Implies
a
What princ ipals perc eive
they do in teac her inservic e training
→
a
→
(2)
(3)
a
→
What teac hers perc eive
they do in the c lassroom
as a follow-up of teac her
in-servic e training
(4)
that the variable on the right is influenc ed by the variable on the left.
fin e a r ts cu r r icu lu m , stu den t a ssessm en t, a tr isk stu den ts, tech n ology a n d r em edia l r ea din g. P r in cipa l C em ph a sized tea m tea ch in g,
th e m a th s cu r r icu lu m a n d th e sch ool vision
a n d m ission . In a ll ca ses m u ch of th e wor k
w a s don e in sm a ll gr ou ps a n d th en r esu lts of
th e discu ssion wer e sh a r ed w ith th e gr ou p a s
a wh ole. Wh ile th er e w a s on ly som e over la p
a m on g th e pr in cipa ls in con ten t (e.g. m a th )
th er e w a s com plete sim ila r ity in th e beh avior
of pr in cipa ls: qu ite a sser tive a n d a ctive. Most
of th e pr in cipa ls’ in itia tives fou n d in th is
stu dy wer e a lso fou n d spelled ou t in w r itin g
a s deta iled pla n s. Th a t m a ter ia l is ava ila ble
in th e sch ool distr ict offices a n d in th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA).
Wh ile t h e st a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies
w er e v iew ed by t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls a s on ly
on e of sever a l set s of exp er ien ces d esign ed
for im p r ovem en t , a ll t h r ee p r in cip a ls h a d
r ea son t o con sid er st a ff d evelop m en t d ay s a s
ext r em ely im p or t a n t . T h ey ea ch h igh ligh t ed
w h a t for t h em w er e im p or t a n t p u r p oses a n d
con t en t s of t h ese d ay s. P r in cip a l A, for exa m p le, s aw t h e a n n u a l est a blish m en t of sch ool
goa ls a s cen t r a l. P r in cip a l B b elieved t h a t
t h e r ecogn it ion of t h e st r en gt h of t ea ch er s is
a n eces sa r y com p on en t of a st a ff d evelop m en t d ay. T h e t h ir d p r in cip a l saw t h e in t
improvement
M arsha Botello
Orc utt Unio n Sc ho o l Distric t, Santa Maria, USA
Naftaly S. Glasman
Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Santa Barbara, USA
Keywords
Impro ve me nt, Sc ho o ls, Te ac he rs,
Training, USA
Abstract
Examine s re latio nships be twe e n
the ro le o f e le me ntary sc ho o l
princ ipals in te ac he r in-se rvic e
ac tivitie s and: what princ ipals
ac quire in administrato r in-se rvic e
training; and what princ ipals do in
re gard to te ac he r fo llo w-up ac tivitie s in the c lassro o ms. Using
inte rvie w and o bse rvatio n te c hnique s, re latio nships are fo und
whic h re fle c t suc c e ssful e ffo rts
e xte nde d to wards sc ho o l impro ve me nt.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [ 1999] 1 4 –2 4
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 14 ]
Wh en ca lls a r e m a de on sch ools a n d sch ool
distr icts to en ga ge in m a jor im pr ovem en ts,
on e a ctivity wh ich becom es a cen tr a l com pon en t of th e r espon se is in -ser vice tr a in in g for
edu ca tion a l per son n el. In th is r e ga r d, tea ch er
in -ser vice tr a in in g h a s been th e m a in stay set
of a ctivities r u n by or a t lea st sh a ped by th e
sch ool pr in cipa l. Beca u se of th e in dividu a lity
of ea ch sch ool pr in cipa l a n d th e specific set of
cir cu m sta n ces of ea ch sch ool a n d its en vir on m en t, th e ch a r a cter of in -ser vice a ctivities in
ea ch sch ool h a s been m or e or less sch oolspecific.
In th is pa per we su m m a r ize pa r ts of a stu dy
(Botello, 1997) wh ich descr ibed a n d exa m in ed
tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities in th r ee elem en ta r y sch ools in Cen tr a l Ca lifor n ia . Th e se gm en t of th e stu dy wh ich is cover ed in th is
pa per con stitu tes th e follow in g two specific
ch a r a cter istics of th e in -ser vice en deavor :
1 th e r ela tion sh ip between th e r ole of th e
pr in cipa l in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities
a n d th e n a tu r e of th e a ctivities wh ich took
pla ce in a pr ior a dm in istr a tor in -ser vice
tr a in in g wh ich th e pr in cipa l a tten ded; a n d
2 th e r ela tion sh ip between th e r ole of th e
pr in cipa l in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities
a n d th e n a tu r e of th e follow -u p a ctivities in
th e cla ssr oom s in th e sch ool.
Despite th e im por ta n ce of th e pr in cipa l in ser vice – tea ch er in -ser vice – tea ch er follow u p r ela tion sh ip, th is lin k a ge h a s n ot pr eviou sly been stu died system a tica lly. In th is
stu dy, th e fir st dim en sion m en tion ed a bove is
investiga ted in th e pa r t wh ich con sider s th e
selection of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls (descr ibed in
deta il in th e m eth odology section ). Th e secon d dim en sion m en tion ed a bove is exa m in ed
via th e fou r follow in g r esea r ch qu estion s:
1 Wh a t do pr in cipa ls do a s in str u ction a l
lea der s in sta ff in -ser vice tr a in in g wh ich
is design ed to fa cilita te a n d su ppor t
sch ool-w ide in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t?
2 Wh a t per ception s do pr in cipa ls h ave a bou t
n u m ber 1 a bove?
3 Wh a t do tea ch er s do in th e cla ssr oom s a s a
r esu lt of n u m ber 1 a bove?
4 Wh a t per ception s do tea ch er s h ave a bou t
n u m ber 3 a bove?
Selected pertinent literature
Representative studies on the principal’s
role in school improvement
It h a s been a t lea st two deca des sin ce
r esea r ch er s a n d w r iter s be ga n system a tica lly
seek in g w ays to u n der sta n d th e r ole a n d
effectiven ess of th e sch ool pr in cipa l in br in gin g a bou t ch a n ge in th e sch ool. Th e dom in a n t
th em e of societa l dem a n ds on sch ools in th e
1980s w a s “effectiven ess”. Stu dy a fter stu dy
look ed a t sch ools w ith stu den ts scor in g h igh
on a ch ievem en t tests a n d exa m in ed beh avior s of th e pr in cipa ls wh ich wer e a ssu m ed to
br in g a bou t – a t lea st in pa r t – th ese h igh
scor es. For exa m ple, Liph a m (1981) lists th e
follow in g beh avior s: com m itm en t to im pr ovem en t, pa r ticipa tion in cla ssr oom a ctivities,
m on itor in g cla ssr oom tim e, en ga gem en t in
effective in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t, a n d
h avin g positive a ttitu des. Ba sed on a com pr eh en sive stu dy con du cted a t a bou t th e sa m e
tim e, Bosser t et a l. (1982) cla ssify th e effectiven ess-r ela ted beh avior s wh ich th ey fou n d
in in str u ction a l or ga n iza tion a ction s, sch ool
clim a te a ction s a n d pr in cipa l m a n a gem en t
a ction s. Ha llin ger a n d Mu r ph y (1986) offer
th e follow in g eigh t specific effectiven essr ela ted beh avior s: fr a m in g a n d com m u n ica tin g sch ool goa ls, su per visin g a n d eva lu a tin g
in str u ction , coor din a tin g cu r r icu lu m , developin g h igh sta n da r ds a n d expecta tion s, m on itor in g stu den t pr ogr ess, pr om otin g pr ofession a l developm en t of tea ch er s, pr otectin g
in str u ction a l tim e a n d developin g in cen tives
for stu den ts a n d tea ch er s.
In th e ea r ly 1990s, sever a l w r iter s lin k ed th e
su r viva l of th e sch ool to wh a t th e pr in cipa l
m igh t or m igh t n ot do (e.g. Ba r th , 1988, 1990;
F u lla n a n d Ha r gr eaves, 1992; Leith wood a n d
J a n tzi, 1991; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d Miles, 1990;
Ser giova n n i, 1990, 1992). Th is lin k a ge im plies
th a t th e n eed for th e pr in cipa l to en ga ge in
br in gin g a bou t ch a n ge is m a n da tor y.
Th e defin ition s of sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t in th e 1990s h ave becom e m or e com plex.
F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er (1991) a n d F u lla n
(1993), for exa m ple, ca ll on sch ools to a dopt a
“m or a l pu r pose of cr ea tin g a vision a n d m a k in g a differ en ce”. Ba r th (1990) ca lls for sh a r ed
lea der sh ip w ith in th e sch ool in or der to a lso
sh a r e th e r espon sibility. Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Miles (1990) em ph a size a focu s on ch a n ge
beca u se wh a t exists ca n n ot a n d sh ou ld n ot
con tin u e to exist. Ser giova n n i (1992) w a n ts
idea s a n d pr ofession a l a u th or ity to gu ide
ch a n ge. Leith wood a n d J a n tzi (1991) offer
tr a n sfor m a tion a l lea der sh ip a s ch a n gin g
wh a t tea ch er s do; a n d F u lla n (1993) ca lls for
fu n da m en ta l ch a n ges in th e “cu ltu r e” of th e
sch ool.
Botello (1997) h a s su m m a r ized th e liter a tu r e of th e m iddle a n d la te 1990s a n d offer ed a
m odified list of in str u ction a l lea der sh ip
beh avior s design ed to br in g a bou t sch oolw ide im pr ovem en t. Th e list in clu des:
• u n ifyin g th e sch ool’s sta k eh older s;
• bein g visibly pr esen t;
• pr ovidin g a n d pr otectin g th e in str u ction a l
pr ogr a m ;
• r ela tin g edu ca tion a l policy to cla ssr oom
im plem en ta tion ;
• h elpin g tea ch er s lea r n h ow to a ssist stu den ts to in ven t k n ow ledge;
• m otiva tin g tea ch er s in sta ff developm en t
exper ien ces;
• con str u ctin g tea ch er cu ltu r es; a n d
• sh a pin g tea ch er per ception s of th e pr in cipa l’s in stitu tion a l lea der sh ip.
In-service training for school principals
Th e liter a tu r e per ta in in g to a dm in istr a tor in ser vice tr a in in g is r ela tively r ecen t (e.g.
Da r esh , 1988; Da r esh a n d P layko, 1992; F u lla n
et a l., 1990; Ha llin ger a n d Wim pelber g, 1989,
J oh n son , 1986; Ma r tin a n d J oh n son , 1989). A
good por tion of th is liter a tu r e is pr escr iptive.
For exa m ple, in Ca lifor n ia , in 1983 th e le gisla tu r e pa ssed a m a jor sch ool r efor m a ct, Sen a te Bill (SB) 813. Its r equ ir em en ts in clu de th e
str en gth en in g of in str u ction a l lea der sh ip
sk ills in sch ool a dm in istr a tor s in or der to
im pr ove ser vices offer ed to pu blic sch ool
stu den ts. Th e in ten tion s of th is le gisla tive
pr oposa l a r e a s follow s:
Th e le gisla tu r e in ten ds th a t th e a dm in istr a tor su ppor t a n d developm en t a ctivities
fu n ded by th is a r ticle w ill lea d to dir ect
im pr ovem en ts in ser vices to Ca lifor n ia
pu blic sch ool pu pils. (Ar ticle 3. Adm in istr a tor Tr a in in g a n d E va lu a tion , Section 44681,
Ca lifor n ia E du ca tion Code).
In 1984, th e Ca lifor n ia Depa r tm en t of E du ca tion cr ea ted wh a t wou ld even tu a lly be ca lled
th e Ca lifor n ia Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA).
Th e pu r pose of CSLA is to pr ovide site a n d
cen tr a l distr ict a dm in istr a tor s w ith on goin g
oppor tu n ities to im pr ove th eir m a n a gem en t
a n d lea der sh ip sk ills. Th e sta ted m a in objective of CSLA is:
to h elp pr a cticin g a dm in istr a tor s a n d tea ch er s in lea der sh ip position s str en gth en th eir
in str u ction a l lea der sh ip sk ills a n d focu s
th eir a ction s on th e issu es a n d str a te gies
cr itica l to in cr ea sin g th e a ch ievem en t of a ll
stu den ts in Ca lifor n ia (CSLA Over view,
1993).
Sin ce its cr ea tion , sch ool distr icts in Ca lifor n ia h ave been r elea sin g sch ool pr in cipa ls to
a tten d th e Aca dem y. Th e im pa ct of th is in ser vice tr a in in g on th e pr in cipa ls h a s va r ied
w ith th e str en gth of th eir desir e to la u n ch a
m a jor sch ool im pr ovem en t effor t a n d w ith
th eir ca pa city to im plem en t su ch a n effor t.
Most of th e w r iter s in th e 1990s su ggest th a t
for th e pr in cipa l to en h a n ce th e possibilities
of br in gin g a bou t sign ifi ca n t ch a n ges in th e
sch ool, s/ h e n eeds to a cqu ir e n ew (a ddition a l)
k n ow ledge a n d sk ills h im / h er self. Appa r en tly, th e in -ser vice for m a t h a s been th e m ost
popu la r. Da r esh (1988) look ed a t 56 stu dies
focu sin g on in -ser vice wor k for pr in cipa ls
over a ten -yea r per iod. In look in g a t th e con ten t of th e in -ser vice pr ogr a m s, th eir pr ocedu r es, th eir developm en t, eva lu a tion a n d
va lida tion , a n d th eir effects on a dm in istr a tor s, tea ch er s a n d oth er s, h e con clu des th a t:
• Ver y few r esea r ch r epor ts h ave been pu blish ed a bou t pr in cipa l in -ser vice.
• Most of th e wor k th a t is pu blish ed focu ses
on pr oblem solvin g r a th er th a n on th eor y
bu ildin g.
• Ver y little of th e wor k en ta ils on -site a n d
n a tu r a listic da ta ga th er in g.
A la ter r epor t (Da r esh a n d P layko, 1992) con clu des th a t:
• E ffectiven ess of pr in cipa l in -ser vice tr a in in g is a fu n ction of th e n eeds of th e pa r ticipa n ts (e.g. tim e m a n a gem en t, loca lly m a n da ted pr ogr a m s).
• Th er e is n o in ter est in pr in cipa l in -ser vice
tr a in in g in lea r n in g a ddition a l con ceptu a l
sk ills.
• Th er e is a r ela tion sh ip between th e pr in cipa l’s ba ck gr ou n d a n d th e desir ed pr in cipa l
in -ser vice con ten t.
Accor din g to F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er (1991),
“Th e pr epa r a tion a n d pr ofession a l developm en t of a dm in istr a tor s h ave evolved fr om th e
u n iver sity-ba sed edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tion
tr a dition to a va r iety of for m s th a t ten d to
clu ster a r ou n d th e r estr u ctu r in g th em es”
(p. 336). Th is expa n sion in con tin u in g pr ofession a l developm en t, F u lla n n otes, in ten sified
in th e 1980s wh en 24 sta tes en a cted le gisla tion
for in -ser vice tr a in in g for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s, esta blish in g lea der sh ip a ca dem ies a n d
a dm in istr a tive tr a in in g cen ter s. Accor din g to
F u lla n , a lth ou gh m a n y of th ese n ew
pr ogr a m s a ppea r to in cor por a te n ew design s,
in clu din g r esea r ch fi n din gs, sch ool-ba sed a n d
distr ict ca se stu dies, a n d su ppor t a m on g th e
pa r ticipa n ts, th e pr ogr a m s often fa il to live
u p to th eir pr om ise. Th e a u th or cites a h ost of
[ 15 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
[ 16 ]
stu dies wh ich cla im th a t th e in effectiven ess
of pr ofession a l developm en t is du e pr im a r ily
to th e la ck of “pr ogr a m follow -u p”.
For exa m ple, Ha llin ger a n d Wim pelber g
(1989) obser ve th a t a lth ou gh pr ofession a l
developm en t pr ogr a m s for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s a r e be gin n in g to a ddr ess r eleva n t issu es,
th e in fr equ en cy of su bsta n tive pr ogr a m follow -u p in th e for m s of coa ch in g, on -site tech n ica l a ssista n ce a n d su ppor t is la ck in g. Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989) obser ve (in th eir stu dy
of Color a do’s a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s) a n a bsen ce of su bsequ en t
obser va tion s, coa ch in g, su r veys, a n a lyses, or
tech n ica l a ssista n ce (p. 10). Little et a l. (1987)
stu died th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip
Aca dem y a n d n ote th a t a la ck of follow -u p
r esu lted in th e r ela tive in effectiven ess of th is
pr ogr a m .
F u lla n a sser ts th a t effective pr ofession a l
developm en t pr ogr a m s m u st a ssist lea der s
w ith th e m a n a gem en t of “soph istica ted, per sisten t, a n d con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t
pr ocesses … (sch ool a dm in istr a tor s) a r e
bein g a sk ed to lea d r estr u ctu r in g effor ts
in volvin g r a dica l ch a n ge a n d a ssocia ted com plexities” (F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er, 1991,
p. 337). Alth ou gh F u lla n believes we h ave a
lon g w ay to go in lin k in g lea der sh ip
pr ogr a m s to follow -u p a n d im pr ovem en t on
th e job, h e does offer six r ecom m en da tion s
for a m odel a dm in istr a tor pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m .
F ir st, h e su ggests th a t th ese lea der sh ip
pr ogr a m s be bu ilt on th e pr in ciples of collegia lity a n d pr ofession a l exch a n ge. Th ey m u st
pr ovide pr in cipa ls w ith m en tor s a n d oth er
developm en t su ppor t. Secon dly, th e pr ogr a m s
m u st be in str u ction a lly focu sed. Wh ile Little
et a l. (1987) fou n d th a t sta ff developm en t
a ctivities h ave “m a in ta in ed a tr a dition of
sepa r a tin g th e tr a in in g of tea ch er s fr om
a dm in istr a tor s” (p. 97), F u lla n r ecom m en ds
th e esta blish m en t of “colla bor a tive wor k
cu ltu r es” (F u lla n et a l., 1990). Th ir d, th e n ew
sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s m u st in clu de th e
pr epa r a tion of sch ool boa r ds, distr ict su per in ten den ts, a n d oth er distr ict a dm in istr a tor s
to su ppor t site a dm in istr a tor s in th eir wor k
w ith tea ch er s a n d th e im plem en ta tion of
pr ogr a m ch a n ges. Fou r th , u n iver sities m u st
a da pt th eir pr ogr a m s in su ppor t of th e n ew
lea der sh ip tr a in in g pr ogr a m s. F ifth , lea der sh ip tr a in in g pr ogr a m s m u st r ecogn ize a n d
a ddr ess th e sh or ta ge of wom en a n d eth n ic
m in or ities in lea der sh ip r oles th r ou gh equ a l
oppor tu n ities for pr om otion . Sixth , F u lla n
str esses th e pr ofession a l pa r tn er sh ip
(tea ch er, pr in cipa l, su per in ten den t) a spect of
effective pr ofession a l developm en t. He
believes th a t th e effective pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m r ecogn izes th e “in tim a te
in ter r ela tedn ess” of th e edu ca tion a l pr ofession s (F u lla n a n d Steigelba u er, 1991, p. 339).
Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989) ca ll for m or e
soph istica ted m eth ods of dem on str a tin g th e
va lu e a n d im pa ct of tr a in in g pr ogr a m s for
sch ool a dm in istr a tor s. Th e a u th or s a ck n ow ledge th e pr olifer a tion of a dm in istr a tor developm en t pr ogr a m s a s well a s th e con tr over sy
su r r ou n din g th e effectiven ess of th ese pr ogr a m s: “Du r in g th is a ge of edu ca tion a l
a ccou n ta bility a n d decr ea sin g r esou r ces, it is
im per a tive th a t a ll pr ogr a m s design ed to
in cr ea se stu den t lea r n in g be a ppr a ised for
th eir effects. E ffor ts wh ich h ave little im pa ct
sh ou ld be disca r ded, wh ile th ose dem on str a tin g su ccess sh ou ld be stu died, r eplica ted, a n d
dissem in a ted” (p. 1). To a ssess effectiven ess,
th e a u th or s offer fou r “ta r gets” for th e eva lu a tion of a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t:
1 A d m in istra tor rea ction s: obta in in g u sefu l
feedba ck fr om pa r ticipa n ts to gu ide fu tu r e
pr ogr a m developm en t.
2 A d m in istra tor lea r n in g: self-r epor tin g of
ga in s or pr e-post testin g to a ccess gr ow th .
3 A d m in istra tor per for m a n ce im prov em en t:
m ea su r in g th e exten t to wh ich a dm in istr a tor s a pplied wh a t w a s lea r n ed to th eir on th e-job beh avior.
4 Orga n iz a tion a l im prov em en t: a ssessin g
th e exten t to wh ich th e a dm in istr a tor
sta ff-developm en t pr ogr a m a ffected or
im pr oved th e or ga n iza tion a l or wor k envir on m en t. Ma r tin a n d J oh n son (1989)
a ck n ow ledge th a t th is la st a ssessm en t is
th e m ost difficu lt a n d ch a llen gin g type of
eva lu a tion .
A stu dy by J oh n son (1986) sou gh t to deter m in e th e exten t of u se of th ese for e goin g
ta r gets of eva lu a tion by Color a do sch ool distr icts wh en a ssessin g th e effectiven ess of
th eir a dm in istr a tor sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s. Th e r esu lts of th is stu dy a r e n otewor th y. Alth ou gh 92 per cen t of th e sch ool
distr icts fu n ded a n d r equ ir ed a dm in istr a tor
developm en t pr ogr a m s, on ly 46 per cen t wer e
even u sin g m ea su r es of pa r ticipa n t r ea ction
a n d less th a n 22 per cen t wer e a ttem ptin g to
m ea su r e th e effects of th e tr a in in g on job
per for m a n ce. F u r th er m or e, wh ile 82 per cen t
of th e distr icts expr essed over a ll sa tisfa ction
w ith th eir sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s, few
wer e a ble to dem on str a te th a t a n y a dm in istr a tor or or ga n iza tion a l im pr ovem en t h a d
occu r r ed (J oh n son , 1986).
F r om th e a bove, it is a ppa r en t th a t pr ofession a l in -ser vice tr a in in g for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h a s r eceived m ixed r eview s. However,
a ccor din g to Da r esh (1988) a n d Da r esh a n d
P layko (1992), on goin g pr in cipa l in -ser vice
tr a in in g m u st be a r e gu la r pa r t of wh a t goes
on in a sch ool system . For th is to occu r,
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
distr icts m u st va lu e a n d con vey th e idea th a t
gr ow th a n d con tin u ed lea r n in g a r e viewed a s
expecta tion s of pr ofession a l per for m a n ce for
a dm in istr a tor s, a s well a s tea ch er s. Th e va lu e
of pr ofession a l developm en t, a ccor din g to
Da r esh , w ill in cr ea se if it is lin k ed m or e
dir ectly to distr ict a n d sch ool pr ior ities.
Mor eover, a dm in istr a tor in -ser vice pr ogr a m s
sh ou ld be ba sed on th e specific goa ls, n eeds
a n d in ter ests of th e pa r ticipa n ts.
Methodology
Th e pa r a m eter s per tin en t to th e stu dy of
lin k a ges between pr in cipa l in -ser vice tr a in in g, tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g a n d follow -u p
a ctivities wer e fr a m ed a s follow s:
1 P r in cipa ls wh o a tten ded a dm in istr a tive in ser vice tr a in in g a n d wh o a lr ea dy in tegr a ted k n ow ledge a n d sk ills a cqu ir ed
th er e in to th eir wor k in sch ool wer e
selected for th is stu dy.
2 All oth er da ta per tin en t to tea ch er in ser vice tr a in in g a n d follow -u p wer e ga th er ed in th e selected sch ools.
Sample of schools
Th e pu r pose of th is stu dy w a s to exa m in e
wh a t pr in cipa ls do in tea ch er in -ser vice a ctivities a fter th ey th em selves h ave exper ien ced
in -ser vice a ctivities design ed to cla r ify th e
pr in cipa l’s r ole in sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t.
Th e stu dy a lso sou gh t to lea r n a bou t h ow
pr in cipa ls per ceive th eir r ole in th e in -ser vice a ctivities, wh a t k in ds of follow -u p a ctivities occu r a n d wh a t per ception s tea ch er s
h ave of th e follow -u p a ctivities.
Ten sch ool a dm in istr a tor s wer e iden tifi ed
in on e cou n ty in Cen tr a l Ca lifor n ia wh o h a d
pa r ticipa ted in th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA) w ith in th e pa st fi ve
yea r s. Th eir cou r se of stu dy in clu ded th e
follow in g m odu les:
• ta k in g stock of you r self a s a n in str u ction a l
lea der ;
• con str u ctin g a th in k in g, m ea n in g-cen ter ed
cu r r icu lu m ;
• bu ildin g a vision u pon th e pr in ciples of
power fu l lea r n in g;
• lea din g su ccessfu l ch a n ge effor ts in
sch ool;
• cr ea tin g su ccessfu l sch ools th r ou gh pr ofession a l developm en t;
• sh a pin g sch ool’s cu ltu r e to im pr ove stu den t
lea r n in g.
Of th ese ten in dividu a ls, th r ee wer e selected
for th e stu dy beca u se th ey possessed th e follow in g ch a r a cter istics:
• E a ch w a s cu r r en tly ser vin g a s a n elem en ta r y sch ool pr in cipa l.
• E a ch h a d ser ved in th is position for a t lea st
th r ee yea r s a n d n on e h a d pla n s to r eloca te
or r etir e.
• Th e th r ee a dm in istr a tor s in clu ded both
m a le a n d fem a le.
• E a ch led in th e developm en t of a w r itten
m a ster pla n for sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
a n d a lso th e im plem en ta tion of n ew
in str u ction a l-cu r r icu la r goa ls du r in g th e
pa st th r ee yea r s. Alth ou gh th ese goa ls wer e
on goin g, ea ch pr in cipa l a n ticipa ted th e
a doption of a ddition a l goa ls du r in g th e
1996-1997 sch ool yea r.
• E a ch r equ ir ed th eir tea ch in g sta ff to r ea d
a n d discu ss It’s Elem en ta r y – T a sk Force
R epor t (1992) a s a pa r t of sta ff developm en t.
Addition a lly, ea ch u tilized th e r epor t a s a
cen tr a l focu s for on goin g sta ff developm en t
a s it per ta in ed to r estr u ctu r in g th e cu r r icu lu m a n d im pr ovin g in str u ction a l pr ocesses.
• E a ch of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls ser ved in a
differ en t type of distr ict: on e u r ba n , on e
sm a ll tow n , a n d on e r u r a l.
• E a ch expr essed en th u sia sm a n d a
w illin gn ess to pa r ticipa te in th is r esea r ch
stu dy.
Th ese th r ee elem en ta r y pr in cipa ls wer e a sked
to com m en t on specific issu es, com pon en ts or
pr ogr a m s a im ed a t sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
a n d th eir ow n lea der sh ip a ctivities or a ction s
wh ich fa cilita ted th a t im pr ovem en t. Th e pr in cipa ls in dividu a lly gen er a ted a set of com m on
ch a r a cter istics a n d cr iter ia to descr ibe th eir
sch ool im pr ovem en t en deavor s:
• E a ch h a d su ccessfu lly for m u la ted m ission
or vision sta tem en ts w ith th eir sta ffs,
wh ich in clu ded a gen er a l defin ition of
in str u ction a l goa ls.
• E a ch believed th a t tea ch in g pr a ctices ba sed
on con str u ctivist th eor y w ill im pr ove stu den t lea r n in g. Th er efor e, ea ch en cou r a ged
th eir tea ch in g sta ffs to im plem en t in str u ction a l str a te gies wh ich r eflected stu den t
en ga gem en t in th e lea r n in g pr ocess.
• E a ch h a d esta blish ed pr ocedu r es for
a cqu ir in g a n d pr ovidin g m a ter ia ls or
r esou r ces to a ssist th eir tea ch in g sta ff in
a ccom plish in g in str u ction a l goa ls.
• E a ch h a d wor k ed w ith th eir tea ch in g sta ffs
to esta blish a n d develop por tfolio system s
for th e collection a n d a ssessm en t of stu den t
wor k .
• E a ch h a d gu ided th e for m u la tion of sch ool
im pr ovem en t objectives wh ich cen ter ed on
im pr ovin g th e in str u ction a l cor e of th eir
sch ools.
• E a ch a ttem pted to a lign sta ff developm en t
pr ogr a m s a n d a gen da s w ith th e in str u ction a l goa ls a n d objectives esta blish ed
th r ou gh sta ff.
[ 17 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
• E a ch h a d design ed, developed a n d fa cilita ted stu den t r ecogn ition a n d aw a r d
pr ogr a m s.
• E a ch in volved th e tea ch in g sta ff a n d pa r en t
com m u n ity in sh a r ed decision -m a k in g
pr ocesses wh ich su ppor t th e sch ool’s
in str u ction a l cor e.
• E a ch a ttem pted to spen d por tion s of th e
sch ool day in cla ssr oom s wor k in g w ith
tea ch er s a n d stu den ts to gu ide a n d fa cilita te in str u ction a l im pr ovem en t.
• E a ch expr essed a belief th a t th ey cou ld
positively im pa ct th e in str u ction a l pr ogr a m a t th eir sch ools th r ou gh effective
lea der sh ip.
Data sources and collection procedures
A ca se stu dy a ppr oa ch w a s u sed to exa m in e
th e fou r r esea r ch qu estion s (e.g. Mer r ia m ,
1988; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d Miles, 1990; Sm ith
a n d An dr ew s, 1989). Da ta wer e ga th er ed fr om
m u ltiple sou r ces u sin g a va r iety of da ta -ga th er in g tech n iqu es. Actu a l beh avior s of pr in cipa ls in in str u ction a l a n d sta ff even ts wer e
obser ved ever y two m on th s (for a tota l of
th r ee tim es) du r in g th e secon d h a lf of th e
1995-96 sch ool yea r. Da ta for th e obser va tion s
wer e r ecor ded in a jou r n a l a n d in clu ded a
descr iption of th e settin g, th e pa r ticipa n ts
a n d th e a ctivities in ter a ction s (Mer r ia m ,
1988). All a ction s of th e pr in cipa l, r ela ted sta ff
in ter a ction s a n d som e n on -ver ba l in ciden ces
wer e r ecor ded.
As to th e secon d r esea r ch qu estion (n a m ely
pr in cipa ls’ per ception s a bou t th eir beh avior s
design ed to im pr ove th e sch ool), th e da ta
wer e ga th er ed in sever a l per son a l in ter view s
w ith ea ch pr in cipa l du r in g th e fir st h a lf of th e
1995-96 sch ool yea r. Th er e wer e th r ee or fou r
in ter view s w ith ea ch pr in cipa l. E a ch in ter view w a s la r gely u n str u ctu r ed a n d on ly th r ee
specific a r ea s wer e pla n n ed a h ea d of tim e: th e
pr in cipa l’s r ole in a ssu r in g th a t tea ch er s a r e
in for m ed a bou t th e n ew tea ch in g m eth odologies (e.g. cooper a tive gr ou p, h a n ds on ); th e
expecta tion s for im plem en tin g th ese m eth odologies; a n d th e m on itor in g of th e im plem en ta tion . All in ter view s wer e r ecor ded a n d
tr a n scr ibed.
Data abou t wh at a ctu a lly h appen s in th e
cla ssr oom settin g wer e collected th r ou gh obser vation s wh ich wer e r ecor ded. Ea ch pr in cipa l
ch ose two pr im a r y gr a de tea ch er s a n d two
in ter m ediate gr a de tea ch er s wh o in h is/ h er
opin ion , wer e str ivin g to fu lfil th e sch ool goa ls.
On ce th ese tea ch er s a gr eed to be obser ved,
th r ee obser vation s wer e m a de th r ou gh th e
sch ool yea r in ea ch of th eir cla ssr oom s. Th e
th r ee foci of th e obser vation s wer e on :
1 tea ch er s’ su ppor t a n d su per vision of
stu den ts en ga ged in cooper a tive gr ou p
a ctivities a n d in h a n ds-on pr ojects;
[ 18 ]
2 tea ch er s’ fa cilita tion of open dia logu e,
qu estion in g a n d pr oblem solvin g; a n d
3 tea ch er m eth od for deter m in in g stu den t
pr ogr ess.
Th e fou r th r esea r ch qu estion dea lt w ith per ception s of tea ch er s a bou t th e pr in cipa ls’
effect a n d in flu en ce on cla ssr oom a ctivities.
At th e en d of th e sch ool yea r, a n in ter view
w a s h eld w ith ea ch of th e tea ch er s to a scer ta in in for m a tion a bou t th e a bove. Th ese
in ter view s wer e qu ite str u ctu r ed. For exa m ple, tea ch er s wer e a sk ed a bou t th e fr equ en cy
of th eir u sin g th e in n ova tive tea ch in g
m eth odologies, th e stu den ts’ per for m a n ce a s
a r esu lt of th ese m eth odologies, a n d wh a t th e
pr in cipa l did to en h a n ce sh a r ed pu r pose,
colle gia lity, con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t a n d
su ppor tive wor k in g con dition s.
Altogeth er, th en , fou r types of da ta sou r ces
wer e u sed in th is stu dy: obser va tion s of in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d tea ch er s in th e cla ssr oom a n d in ter view s w ith in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d in dividu a l tea ch er s. Th e r epea ted
in ter view s w ith ea ch pr in cipa l a n d th e
r epea ted obser va tion s of ea ch tea ch er r a ised
th e level of th e tr u stwor th in ess, r elia bility
a n d in ter n a l va lidity of th e fin din gs.
For a ll ca ses, a deta iled con ten t a n a lysis of
th e ga th er ed in for m a tion w a s con du cted. Th e
fin din gs a r e pr esen ted below for ea ch
r esea r ch qu estion . Th e a n a lysis of th e fi n din gs per ta in to both in dividu a l fi n din gs a n d
to th e en tir e set of fin din gs.
Findings
Ocea n view E lem en ta r y (Sch ool A), th e on ly
elem en ta r y sch ool in th e distr ict, ser ves 350
K-5 stu den ts. Appr oxim a tely th r ee-qu a r ter s
of th e stu den ts a r e wh ite a n d com e fr om
u pper -m iddle in com e fa m ilies. Th e r est a r e
Hispa n ic a n d com e fr om low -m iddle in com e
fa m ilies. Ha lcyon E lem en ta r y (Sch ool B) w a s
th e fir st sch ool in th e distr ict. It is n ow on e of
six K-6 elem en ta r y sch ools a n d two ju n ior
h igh sch ools. It h ou ses 560 stu den ts. Of th e
stu den ts 87 per cen t a r e wh ite. A m a jor ity of
th ese stu den ts com e fr om m iddle-cla ss
in com e h om es. Th e r est a r e Hispa n ic (10
per cen t) a n d Afr ica n Am er ica n (3 per cen t)
wh o com e fr om poor fa m ilies. Th e sch ool h a s
th e h igh est per cen ta ge in th e distr ict of fa m ilies r eceivin g gover n m en t a ssista n ce. Mou n ta in Sta r E lem en ta r y (Sch ool C) or igin a lly
h ou sed th e en tir e K-8 popu la tion of th e city. It
is n ow h om e to 400 K-6 stu den ts. Abou t 78
per cen t of th e stu den ts com e fr om wh ite
m iddle-in com e fa m ilies, 12 per cen t fr om low a n d m iddle-in com e N a tive Am er ica n fa m ilies
a n d th e r est a r e Hispa n ic (7 per cen t) a n d
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Afr ica n Am er ica n (4 per cen t) wh o com e fr om
poor fa m ilies.
Th e r est of th is section h igh ligh ts fin din gs
by ea ch of th e fou r r esea r ch qu estion s.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Principals’ involvement in instruction/ staff
in-service events
Th e follow in g even ts wer e obser ved du r in g
th e 1995-96 sch ool yea r :
S ch ool A : Sta ff Developm en t Day – J a n u a r y
Sch ool Site Cou n cil Meetin g –
Ma r ch
Sta ff Developm en t Day – Ma r ch
S ch ool B : Sta ff Developm en t Day – J a n u a r y
Sch ool Site Cou n cil Meetin g –
J anuar y
Sta ff Developm en t Day – Ma r ch
S ch ool C: In ter m edia te Gr a des Ar ticu la tion
Meetin g – Apr il
P r im a r y Gr a des Ar ticu la tion
Meetin g – Apr il
Sta ff Developm en t Day – May
E a ch pr in cipa l ch ose h is/ h er ow n tim e, for m a t, r ole a n d specifi c a ctivities for h is/ h er
r espective sch ool-w ide in str u ction / sta ff
even t. Tea ch er s played a r ole in pla n n in g a n d
pr esen tin g goa l-specifi c topics a t th e m a jor ity
of th e in -ser vices days. Specifi c exa m ples
follow.
Princ ipal A, January Staff De ve lo pme nt
Day
Tea ch er s wer e a sk ed to w r ite dow n th eir
ph ilosoph ies a bou t tea ch in g r ea din g. Th e
pr in cipa l th en discu ssed sh a r in g ph ilosoph ies a n d colle gia lity a n d sh a r ed h er ph ilosoph y, wh ich en ta iled th e n eed to r ea ch ea ch
stu den t a n d th e obliga tion to a lso r ea ch th e
developm en ta lly slower stu den t. An in vited
cou n ty office of edu ca tion tr a in er distr ibu ted
h a n dou ts a bou t effective tea ch in g of r ea din g.
Tea ch er s discu ssed th e con ceptu a l im plica tion s of th e m a ter ia l. After th e pr in cipa l con clu ded th is h a lf of th e day w ith “a ll tea ch er s
m u st be r ea din g tea ch er s,” th e pr in cipa l
in itia ted a discu ssion a bou t th e n ew m a th s
pr ogr a m . As ca n be su r m ised, th e pr in cipa l
h a d pla n n ed m ost of th e day’s a ctivities.
Princ ipal A, Mo nthly (Marc h) Sc ho o l Site
Ge ne ral Me e ting
Th e m eetin g be ga n w ith som e a n n ou n cem en ts. A lea d tea ch er (a ppoin ted by th e pr in cipa l) led th e cou n cil m em ber s in a visit to
va r iou s cla ssr oom s. Ha n dou ts descr ibin g th e
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d m a th s cu r r icu la wer e distr ibu ted. Th e pr in cipa l ta lk ed a bou t h er discu ssion s w ith tea ch er s r e ga r din g th eir
in str u ction a l n eeds. Th e r est of th e m eetin g
w a s devoted to m odifyin g th e a n n u a l pa r en t
su r vey for m a t. Most of th e m eetin g h a d been
pla n n ed by th e pr in cipa l.
Princ ipal A, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
A m en tor tea ch er pr esen ted a video of a la n gu a ge a cqu isition developm en t pr ogr a m . Th e
pr ogr a m ’s u sefu ln ess w a s discu ssed. A tea m
of tea ch er s wh o h a d a tten ded a m a th s wor k sh op pr esen ted a pr oposed m a th s cu r r icu lu m
str u ctu r e. An oth er tea m of tea ch er s did th e
sa m e w ith a specia l edu ca tion cu r r icu lu m .
Th e secon d h a lf of th e day w a s devoted to
gr a de-level m eetin gs a n d colla bor a tive pla n n in g. Th e en tir e day h a d been pla n n ed by th e
pr in cipa l togeth er w ith th e pa r ticipa tin g
tea ch er s.
Princ ipal B, January Staff De ve lo pme nt
Day
In th e fir st sta ff developm en t day in J a n u a r y
in sch ool B th e pr in cipa l a n d th e fin e a r ts
specia lists r eviewed th e sch ool’s fin e a r ts
objectives. Th e tea ch er s wer e th en a sk ed to
for m gr a de-level gr ou ps a n d con sider str a tegies for tea ch in g a ctivities u sin g th e fin e a r ts
cu r r icu lu m . Th e n ext topic in volved in for m a tion per ta in in g to por tfolios, in clu din g m eth ods of a ssessin g stu den ts’ wor k . Tea ch er s
a ga in m et in gr a de-level gr ou ps to r eview th e
la tter, m or e com plica ted ta sk s. Th e pr in cipa l
a n d th e pa r ticipa tin g tea ch er s h a d pla n n ed
th e day togeth er.
Princ ipal B, Sc ho o l Mo nthly (Marc h)
Sc ho o l Site Co unc il Me e ting
Th e m eetin g con stitu ted a follow -u p on th e
J a n u a r y sta ff developm en t day. P a r en ts
r ea cted to th e wor k don e by th e tea ch er s w ith
th e fin e a r ts cu r r icu lu m . Th e pr in cipa l th en
led a pla n n in g session on fu r th er sta ff developm en t days (e.g. topics – a t-r isk stu den ts,
tech n ology). Th e pr in cipa l h a d pla n n ed th e
m eetin g.
Princ ipal B, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
Th e pr in cipa l led discu ssion s on a t-r isk stu den ts a n d on h ow to spen d a n a ddition a l
$20,000 wh ich th e distr ict office h a d a lloca ted.
Tea ch er s wer e con cer n ed a bou t a t-r isk stu den ts. Defin ition s wer e offer ed. Attr ibu tes
wer e descr ibed. Th e distr ict coor din a tor a n d
a sch ool cou n selor wer e in vited to ser ve a s
r esou r ce people. As to th e u se of $20,000, th e
pr in cipa l su ggested th e possibility of h ir in g a
r ea din g specia list. Th e pr in cipa l h a d pla n n ed
th e day’s a ctivities.
Princ ipal C, April Intermediate Grades
Artic ulation Meeting and April Primary
Grades Artic ulation Meeting
P r ior to th e in ter m edia te gr a des a r ticu la tion
m eetin g a n d th e pr im a r y gr a des a r ticu la tion
m eetin g in Apr il, th e pr in cipa l h a d spoken
w ith ea ch tea ch er r ega r din g gr a de-level
a ssign m en ts. Th e focu s in both Apr il m eetin gs w a s on tea m tea ch in g. Th e pr in cipa l
fa cilita ted th ese m eetin gs by bu ildin g u pon
[ 19 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
wh a t existed th e yea r befor e a n d fin din g w ays
to im pr ove. A pa r ticu la r issu e in th e pr im a r y
gr ou p w a s tea m tea ch in g u sin g th e n ew m a th s
cu r r icu lu m .
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Princ ipal C, May Staff De ve lo pme nt Day
Th e pr in cipa l pr ovided lea der sh ip in sever a l
in str u ction a l a r ea s. Th e n otion s of sch ool
m ission s, vision s a n d ch a n ge wer e fir st ta k en
u p con ceptu a lly a n d th en discu ssed in pr a ctica l ter m s. Br ea k in g in to sm a ll gr ou ps, tea ch er s sh a r ed th eir feelin gs a bou t th e r ela tion sh ip of th eir sch ool to th e sch ool distr ict in
th ese a r ea s. N ext, th e pr in cipa l in tr odu ced a
sh or t stor y a n d a ga m e wh er e decision m a k in g w a s r equ ir ed. Tea ch er s wor k ed a ga in in
sm a ll gr ou ps a n d displayed a h igh level of
self-effica cy.
Principals’ perceptions about their
activities
Th e follow in g is a su m m a r y of th e over a ll
fin din gs of wh a t per ception s pr in cipa ls
expr essed a bou t th eir in volvem en t in th e
tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g a ctivities
design ed to fa cilita te sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t. Most of th e da ta descr ibed h er e wer e
ga th er ed fr om th e in ter view s w ith th e in dividu a l pr in cipa ls a n d fr om th e opin ion s th e
pr in cipa ls expr essed du r in g th eir in volvem en t in th e in -ser vice even ts wh ich wer e
obser ved.
Pr in cipa l A viewed a ll of h er im por ta n t
lea der sh ip a ctivities design ed to fa cilita te
sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t a s gu ided by goa ls
wh ich a r e set ever y yea r. Du r in g th e stu dy’s
du r a tion sh e saw h er self wor k in g pa r ticu la r ly h a r d on : im plem en tin g th e pr ocedu r es
for u sin g th e tech n ology pla n , th e scien ce
pla n a n d th e m a th s pla n ; a ssessin g th e r ea din g/ la n gu a ge a r ts pr ogr a m a n d r epor tin g
a bou t it to th e sch ool boa r d; a n d r evisin g th e
stu den t por tfolio for m a ts. Th e pr in cipa l su ggested th a t a n y visitor to th e sch ool in th e
pa st th r ee yea r s wou ld h ave fou n d th e sch ool
u n der goin g con sta n t, com pr eh en sive a n d
w ide-spr ea d ch a n ge. Sh e a lso r epor ted th a t
sh e depen ds gr ea tly on h er tea ch er s.
For Pr in cipa l B , th e m ost im por ta n t dim en sion s of lea din g sch ool-w ide im pr ovem en t
seem ed to be a pu blic r ecogn ition of th e
str en gth of th e tea ch in g sta ff, h is r ole a s a
“positive for ce” a n d a ck n ow ledgm en t of a s
m a n y good th in gs “ou t th er e” a s possible. Th e
pr in cipa l r epor ted cor r espon din g in ciden ces
of: r elyin g on h is tea ch er s’ ju dgm en t to in vest
in expa n din g th e visu a l a n d per for m in g a r ts
pr ogr a m , pr ovidin g su ppor t for a n ew ly
a dopted h a n ds-on scien ce cu r r icu lu m , a n d
spen din g cou n tless h ou r s on th e playgr ou n d
in or der to get to k n ow stu den ts a n d be a ccessible to th em . P r in cipa l B w a s n ot tota lly
[ 20 ]
h a ppy w ith som e of th e distr ict’s policies
a ssocia ted w ith cu r r icu la r in itia tives. He
wou ld r a th er th ey wer e developed fir st a t th e
sch ool site.
Pr in cip a l C p er ceived h er lea d er sh ip con t r ibu t ion s t o sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t in
five m a jor w ay s. T h e fir st w a s t h e in it ia t ion
a n d m a in t en a n ce of sy st em a t ic m on it or in g
of t ea ch er s in t h eir a ccom p lish m en t of
in st r u ct ion a l goa ls. T h e secon d focu s ed on
d evelop in g a n d en for cin g a sch ool-w id e s t u d en t d iscip lin e p la n . A t h ir d w a s r ees t a blish in g a ch a in of com m a n d in wh ich t h e t ea ch er s feel a ccou n t a ble t o t h e p r in cip a l a n d n ot
t o t h e d ist r ict su p er in t en d en t . Fou r t h , Pr in cip a l C a lso v iew ed in cr ea sed st a ff colle gia lit y a s a ver y im p or t a n t a r ea of lea d er s h ip
a ct iv it ies a n d , fin a lly, sh e con sid er ed b r in gin g t h e sch ool a n d t h e d iver se com m u n it y in
con t a ct w it h ea ch ot h er a s a n im p or t a n t
lea d er sh ip a ct iv it y.
Resultant teachers’ activities in the
classroom
Th e m a jor ity of th e a ctivities obser ved in th e
two fir st-gr a de cla ssr oom s a n d th e two fou r th gr a de cla ssr oom s in S ch ool A involved m a th s
lesson s. In on e of th e fir st-gr a de cla sses th e
lesson s in volved a ddition , su btr a ction a n d
cou n tin g of gr ou ps of ten s u sin g r ea l objects
a n d th en w r itin g dow n th e cor r espon din g
n u m ber. In th e fou r th -gr a des, m a th s w a s
ta u gh t in a h a n ds-on fa sh ion wh ile dea lin g
w ith pr a ctica l pr oblem s. Oth er lesson s in th e
two fou r th -gr a de cla sses wer e devoted to
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d a r ts in on e cla ss a n d to
socia l m a n n er s a n d in ter per son a l r ela tion s
in th e secon d cla ss.
In S ch ool B two fir st-gr a de tea ch er s a n d two
fifth -gr a de tea ch er s wer e obser ved. On e fir stgr a de tea ch er w a s obser ved tea ch in g on e a r t
lesson a n d two scien ce lesson s w ith a n
em ph a sis on tools. Th e a r t lesson in volved
lea r n in g a bou t a fa m ou s pa in ter, r eplica tin g
on e of h is wor k s th r ou gh a str u ctu r ed dr aw in g a n d sh a r in g th e pr odu ct w ith th e en tir e
cla ss. Th e “tools” lesson in volved lea r n in g
a bou t th eir u se a n d cla ssifyin g th em (e.g.
cor d in th e blin ds – pu lley; pen cil sh a r pen er –
gea r ).
Th e two fifth -gr a de lesson s obser ved in
S ch ool B involved “pr ojects”. Th e fir st two
lesson s in on e fifth -gr a de cla ss in clu ded a r t,
m a th , w r itin g a n d com pu ter wor k . Th e lesson s
wer e h igh ly stu den t cen ter ed. Th e th ir d lesson
in th is fifth -gr a de cla ss involved sh a r in g
r esu lts of a h om ewor k a ssign m en t in m a th s
w ith th e en tir e cla ss a n d lea r n in g n ew m a ter ia l of m a th . All th r ee of th e oth er fifth -gr a de
lesson s focu sed on scien ce. Her e, too, th e
lesson s involved h a n ds-on pr ojects (e.g.
com plex cir cu it, ligh th ou se, electr ica l qu iz
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
ga m e, Mor se code, th e br a in , a n d th e str ess
ga m e).
Two fir st-gr a de tea ch er s a n d two fifth -gr a de
tea ch er s wer e obser ved in S ch ool C. On e fir stgr a de tea ch er focu sed on n ou n s a n d a djectives in th e fir st lesson a n d gr a ph ics in th e
secon d a n d th ir d lesson s. Lesson s u sed stu den ts a s lea der s of a ctivities a n d a s votin g
pa r ticipa n ts in decision -m a k in g. Th e oth er
fir st-gr a de tea ch er ta u gh t, r espectively, m a th ,
r ea din g a n d bu ildin g w ith clay. In a ll of th e
lesson s th er e w a s h eavy stu den t in volvem en t.
Th e fir st lesson in on e fifth -gr a de cla ss
focu sed on w r itin g a bou t self. Th e oth er two
lesson s in volved stu dyin g th e sta tes in
gr ou ps, u sin g a va r iety of a ctivities. Th e
secon d fifth -gr a de tea ch er ta u gh t, r espectively, scien ce, socia l scien ce a n d gr a ph in g
tech n iqu es. Most of th e lesson s wer e ta u gh t
in sm a ll gr ou ps.
Teachers’ perceptions about their
activities
Th e follow in g lists k ey item s ea ch tea ch er
m en tion ed a s h avin g been cover ed in in -ser vice a ctivities a n d wh ich con tr ibu ted sign ifica n tly to th e im pr ovem en t of lea r n in g in
th eir in dividu a l cla ssr oom s:
S ch ool A
F ir st-gr a de 1
– a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
F ir st-gr a de 2
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
– a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
Fou r th -gr a de 1 – pr ovidin g a com for ta ble,
h a ppy a n d sa fe envir on m en t
– a llowin g exper im en tation
with pr ocess
Fou r th -gr a de 2 – a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
– con du ctin g in ter view
a ssessm en t du r in g stu den t wor k tim e
S ch ool B
F ir st-gr a de 1
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
– pr ovidin g for h a n ds-on
exper im en ta l lea r n in g
F ir st-gr a de 2
– tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
– pla n n in g well
F ifth -gr a de 1
– u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
–
F ifth -gr a de 2
–
–
S ch ool C,
F ir st-gr a de 1
–
–
F ir st-gr a de 2
–
–
F ifth -gr a de 1
–
F ifth -gr a de 2
–
–
–
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
a llow in g stu den ts to
wor k in pa ir s or th r ees
pr ovidin g for ta sk -ba sed
pr ojects
a u gm en tin g (r a th er th a n
r epla cin g) on e’s cu r r icu lu m w ith distr ict’s su ggestion s
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
con du ctin g in ter view
a ssess-m en ts du r in g
stu den t wor k tim e
tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
pr ovidin g for h a n ds-on
exper im en ta l lea r n in g
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
tea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou ps
u sin g a por tfolio system
to collect stu den t wor k
a n d a ssessin g it for
pr ogr ess
con du ctin g in ter view s
a ssessm en t du r in g stu den t wor k tim e
It sh ou ld be n oted th a t in a ll of th e a bove
ca ses, tea ch in g pr ocedu r es r a th er th a n cu r r icu lu m con ten t wer e m en tion ed.
Discussion
Th e over a ll fi n din gs in th is stu dy su ppor t th e
h ypoth esis th a t th e fou r per tin en t ph en om en a a r e in ter r ela ted. Th e r ela tion sh ip is
depicted in Ta ble I.
Th e r oles of th e th r ee pr in cipa ls in th eir
tea ch er in -ser vice tr a in in g wer e ea sily iden tifia ble. On sever a l occa sion s pr ior to a n d du r in g th e session s tea ch er s pr ovided lea der sh ip. On som e occa sion s a n in vited ou tside
pr esen ter pr ovided lea der sh ip. In a ll of th ese
ca ses th e pr in cipa ls did n ot th in k th a t th ey
sh ou ld en ga ge in th ese a ctivities th em selves.
Bu t, in m ost ca ses, th e pr in cipa ls wer e fou n d
to be h eavily in volved in th e pla n n in g of th e
n in e sch ool-w ide even ts wh ich wer e obser ved
in th e stu dy. For exa m ple, pr in cipa l A played
a n a ctive r ole in discu ssion s a bou t ph ilosoph y of tea ch in g a n d tea ch er colle gia lity, con ceptu a l im plica tion s of tea ch in g r ea din g,
la n gu a ge a r ts a n d m a th s cu r r icu la , th e la n gu a ge a cqu isition pr ogr a m a n d specia l edu ca tion cu r r icu lu m . P r in cipa l B focu sed on th e
[ 21 ]
Marsha Bo te llo and
Naftaly S. Glasman
Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r inse rvic e training fo r sc ho o l
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4
Table I
Princ ipals’ ro le in te ac he r in-se rvic e training and assume d re sultant o utc o me s
What princ ipals do in
teac her in-servic e
training for sc hool
improvement, whic h
they learned to do
in princ ipal in-servic e
learning
(1)
Note:
a Implies
a
What princ ipals perc eive
they do in teac her inservic e training
→
a
→
(2)
(3)
a
→
What teac hers perc eive
they do in the c lassroom
as a follow-up of teac her
in-servic e training
(4)
that the variable on the right is influenc ed by the variable on the left.
fin e a r ts cu r r icu lu m , stu den t a ssessm en t, a tr isk stu den ts, tech n ology a n d r em edia l r ea din g. P r in cipa l C em ph a sized tea m tea ch in g,
th e m a th s cu r r icu lu m a n d th e sch ool vision
a n d m ission . In a ll ca ses m u ch of th e wor k
w a s don e in sm a ll gr ou ps a n d th en r esu lts of
th e discu ssion wer e sh a r ed w ith th e gr ou p a s
a wh ole. Wh ile th er e w a s on ly som e over la p
a m on g th e pr in cipa ls in con ten t (e.g. m a th )
th er e w a s com plete sim ila r ity in th e beh avior
of pr in cipa ls: qu ite a sser tive a n d a ctive. Most
of th e pr in cipa ls’ in itia tives fou n d in th is
stu dy wer e a lso fou n d spelled ou t in w r itin g
a s deta iled pla n s. Th a t m a ter ia l is ava ila ble
in th e sch ool distr ict offices a n d in th e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea der sh ip Aca dem y (CSLA).
Wh ile t h e st a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies
w er e v iew ed by t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls a s on ly
on e of sever a l set s of exp er ien ces d esign ed
for im p r ovem en t , a ll t h r ee p r in cip a ls h a d
r ea son t o con sid er st a ff d evelop m en t d ay s a s
ext r em ely im p or t a n t . T h ey ea ch h igh ligh t ed
w h a t for t h em w er e im p or t a n t p u r p oses a n d
con t en t s of t h ese d ay s. P r in cip a l A, for exa m p le, s aw t h e a n n u a l est a blish m en t of sch ool
goa ls a s cen t r a l. P r in cip a l B b elieved t h a t
t h e r ecogn it ion of t h e st r en gt h of t ea ch er s is
a n eces sa r y com p on en t of a st a ff d evelop m en t d ay. T h e t h ir d p r in cip a l saw t h e in t