3EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF IMAMS in Netherlands[Asep Iqbal]

THE EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF IMAMS AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THEIR RECOGNITION AS RELIGIOUS LEADERS: THE CASE OF INDONESIAN MUSLIM COMMUNITY IN THE NETHERLANDS

Asep Muhamad Iqbal

Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Palangka Raya, Indonesia Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, Australia am.iqbal@iain-palangkaraya.ac.id

Diterima: 6 Mei 2017

Direvisi : 20 Juni 2017

Diterbitkan: 15 Juli 2017

Abstract

The Netherlands is one of European countries whose population with Islamic background has been increasing significantly. Statistical data show that there are around one million Muslims in this country or around six per cent of total population of the Netherlands. Some Muslim communities in this country came from Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The number of Muslim population from Indonesia was estimated to be around 200,000 out of 400,000 Dutch population with Indonesian background. This certainly necessitates the involvement and role of religious leaders who are able to serve the need and interests of Muslim community with Indonesian backrgound in this country. One of the important issues needs attention is the educational background of these religious leaders. Therefore, this paper describes the following: what is the educational background of the imams and how this contributes to their recognition as religious leaders by Muslim community with Indonesian background in the Netherlands. It argues that the different patterns of educational background of imams among Indonesian Muslims in the Netherlands have significantly contributed to their recognition as respected religious leaders by their community.

Key words: Religious leaders, Imam, Indonesian Muslims in the Netherlands, Educational Background.

Abstrak

Dalam perkembangan kontemporer, Belanda merupakan salah satu negara Eropa di mana jumlah penduduknya yang berlatar belakang Islam mengalami peningkatan yang tinggi. Data statistik menunjukkan bahwa penduduk dengan latar belakang Islam berjumlah sekitar satu juta orang atau sekitar enam persen dari total populasi Belanda yang berjumlah sekitar tujuh belas juta orang. Penduduk Muslim ini sebagian berasal dari Asia Teggara termasuk Indonesia. Penduduk Muslim asal Indonesia diperkirakan berjumlah sekitar 200.000 orang dari sekitar 400.000 orang yang berlatar belakang Indonesia. Kenyataan ini menuntut keterlibatan dan peran pemimpin agama dalam melayani kebutuhan dan kepentingan umat Muslim asal Indonesia di negeri kincir angin ini. Salah satu hal yang menarik untuk dikaji dari para pemimpin agama ini adalah latar belakang pendidikan dan keilmuan mereka sehubungan dengan tugas-tugas keagamaan mereka. Karena itu, tulisan ini berupaya untuk mendeskripsikan pola latar-belakang pendidikan pemimpin keagamaan masyarakat Muslim asal Indonesia yang mana kemudian bisa dilihat kredibilitas dan kompetensi mereka dalam melayani umat. Artikel ini berargumen bahwa latar belakang pendidikan para imam asal Indonesia secara signifikan mempengaruhi pengakuan mereka sebagai pemimpin agama yang dihormati oleh komunitas Muslim asal Indonesia di Belanda.

Kata Kunci : Pemimpin Agama, Imam, Muslim Indonesia di Belanda, Latar Belakang

Pendidikan.

Background

higher than that in 1995. It indicates that Statistical data show that by January

Muslims constitute 5.5% of the 16 million of 2002, Muslims in the Netherlands numbered

the total population in the Netherlands. This about 890,000. This number is 260,000

increase has resulted from the accelerated increase has resulted from the accelerated

create a social network based on common generation of Muslims with non-Western

identity within a new and non-Muslim background living in the Netherlands. Most

environment, they also perform the function Muslims in this country have non-Western

of the custodians of the socio-cultural values background. Muslims of Turkish origin

of the country of origin. 3 constitute the largest group of Muslims with

Based on my interviews with some nearly 310,000 people. Those with a

imams of Indonesian Muslim community in Moroccan background, about 275,000

the Netherlands, this paper examines the people, are the second largest group. Both

pattern of educational background of the groups account for the two-thirds of the total

imams and how it contributes to their number of Muslims in the Netherlands. 1 recognition as religious leaders by their

Some Muslim communities in the community. Here it will describe their Netherlands came from Southeast Asia

education in a wider sense, formal and including Indonesia. Yet, there have not been

informal, religious and secular. This paper statistical data about the number of Muslims

attempts to answer the following questions: from Indonesia. It was estimated that, in

What are their educational backgrounds? Do 2001, the number of Indonesians in the

these contribute to imam s’ involvement in Netherlands was around 400,000 people.

Islamic da`wa (propagation) activities and to There were about 140,000 people belonging

their recognition as religious leaders by their to the first generation and 260,000 belonging

community? Pertinently, examining their

reveal the specific at least 50% of them are Muslims, reflecting

to the second generation. 2 If we assume that

education

will

characteristics and positions of the religious that the Muslim percentage in their country

leaders of Indonesian Muslim communities in of origin is about 80% of the total

the Netherlands.

population, there are around 200,000 This paper focuses its analysis on the Muslims with an Indonesian background in

imams of four Indonesian Muslim the Netherlands. If this is so, they constitute

congregations in The Hague (Den Hague), the third largest group of Muslims in the

Ridderkerk and Amsterdam. As far as this Netherlands.

paper is concerned, there are eighteen figures As in Muslim community in general,

that are entrusted to perform the socio- the imams (religious leaders) of Indonesian

religious tasks of imams. For the purpose of Muslim in the Netherlands play a key role in

this paper, six imams were chosen as the the preservation and nourishment of the

respondents. They are regarded the most religious life of their fellow-countrymen.

prominent and respected imams who have They traditionally conduct and lead daily

played important roles in the preservation prayers, perform ceremonial tasks, and give

and enhancement of socio-religious values religious courses and spiritual counselling for

among their community. They are two imams their community. In addition to their

of Al-Hikmah mosque of Persatuan Pemuda Muslim se-Eropa (PPME [Association of

Muslim Youth in Europe]) in The Hague,

1 www.cbs.nl/en/publications/articles/webmag

anize/2002/ accessed on 27 March 2003. 2 Maarten Alders, “Classification of the

3 W. A. R. Shadid & P.S. van Koningsveld, Population with a Foreign Background in the

“Islam in The Netherlands: Constitutional Law and Netherlands,”, www.cbs.nl/ accessed on 27 March

Islamic Organizations,” Journal of Muslim Minority 2003.

Affairs, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1996, 116, 121.

one imam of Rukun Islam mosque, also in regard an imam as the legitimate leader of The Hague, one imam of the Bayt al- Rahm n

Muslim community whose recognition is an mosque in Ridderkerk, and two imam of the

essential article of faith. The term specifically Amsterdam branch of the PPME. As far as

refers to the title and spir itual function of „Alī my preliminary research is concerned, the

and his descendants through F tima, the other twelve imams share the same

daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. The characteristics of religious leadership of the

majority of Shiites regard the twelve figures chosen six imam in addition to exemplifying

as the successors to the Prophet. They are the same

credited with having not only the right to rule backgrounds. Before moving on to the

the community but also the supreme description of their educational background,

authority in all matters of jurisprudence and it is necessary to explain the term imam as

Qur‟ nic interpretation. They also believe understood by the Muslims and as it is used

that there can be only one imam at a time. in this paper, and the education of religious

However, their disagreement about the leaders in the Indonesian context.

identity and the function of the imam has resulted in their splitting into various sects

Imam

with different doctrines. 7 Definition

As far as this paper is concerned, by The term imam ( imām) in the Qur‟ n

I mean the leader of salāt al-jamā`a designates the attribute of prophets such as

imam

(congregational prayers) in a mosque or that of Abraham (al-Baqara [2]: 124), the

prayer hall, either for a regular function or a revelation which was descended to Moses

particular occasion. An imam leads the (46: 12), and the record of deeds which will

prayers by standing in front of the rows of

be presented to man in Hereafter (36:12). 4 worshippers. This definition accords with the For Muslims, the word imam refers to the

etymological sense of imam as “one who title of the head of a group in the community.

stands in front.” In fact, however, in addition For instance, it is used to designate the

to this regular task an imam assumes the founders of Schools of Islamic Law and the

functions of religious leader, spiritual head of certain sectarian movements. It is

counsellor and guardian of socio-cultural also an honorific title as in Imam al-

values of the country of origin. The imams Ghazz lī. 5 Furthermore, the term imam is

fulfilling such definition and functions will be defined by both Sunni and Shiite Muslims as

the focus of this paper. 8

the title of the leader or ruler of Muslim community. Here the term indicates one who

Men entitled most to be imams exercises the general leadership, governance,

The Muslim jurists (fuqah ā’) provide us or rule in both religious and political affairs. 6 with the rank of men entitled most to hold Among the Shiite Muslims, the term

the function of imam. According to the acquires special significance in that they

Hanafites, the ruler of a Muslim community, the judge and the regular imam of a mosque

4 Hamid Algar, “Imam,” in The Oxford

are in the top ranks of those men who are

Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , John L. Esposito, editor in chief, Vol. 2, (New York and

eligible to act as imam. The next in the rank is

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), h. 182.

one who is most knowledgeable in the rules

5 Cyril Glasse, “Im m,” in his The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam, (London: Stacey International,

1989), h. 186. 7 Algar, “Imam,”, 182-3; Glasse, “Im m,”186. 6 Algar, “Imam,”, 182; Glasse, “Im m,”186.

8 Algar, “Imam,”, 182; Glasse, “Im m,”186.

of salāt among the Muslim community. member of the most honoured clan, a man Should such a person not be available, the

with the most impeccable life-history, the best among them in reciting the Qur‟ n

cleanest in dress, one with the most beautiful should precede to lead salāt. The next in the

voice in reciting the Qur‟ n, the best in rank is the most devout man. If he is not

physical appearance, and a married man. available, the oldest man in the community

Should these people be equal in the should assume the function. Then, the best

abovementioned qualities, the community among them in behaviour and conduct

should appoint someone their imam by should assume the function of imam. If they

considering some important criteria such as are all equal in those qualities, the community

devoutness and maturity. 11 appoint one of them its imam based on an

The Hanbalites also maintain that a agreement made by its members. 9 ruler is at the top rank of the list of those The Malikites hold the opinion that the

entitled most to be imam followed by the ruler of a Muslim community or his deputy is

regular imam in the next rank. If such persons the person entitled most to be the imam of

are not available, the best in reciting the the community. The regular imam of a

Qur‟ n or the most learned deserves to act as mosque should act as imam when the ruler is

an imam for his community. The next in the not available. The most knowledgeable

rank are the best in reciting the Qur‟ n but among them in the rules of salāt constitutes

who has some learning, the one who is best the next rank. If he is not available, one who

only in reciting the Qur‟ n, and the most has a thorough knowledge in the hadīth (the

learned in the rules of salāt. If everyone has Prophetic tradition) should exercise the

the same qualities and esteem, the oldest in function. By default of any other, the most

age should be the one to hold the function of learned in the Qur‟ n and the best versed in

imam . If he is not available, the ranking is as the reciting the Qur‟ n should assume the

follows: one who belongs to the most function followed by the most observing one

honourable family, the earliest migrant to of religious duties in the next rank. The

Medina, and the most devout in observing earliest converts to Islam, members of the

religious obligations. 12

most honourable clans like the Quraysh, and The abovementioned ranking indicates the best in behaviour and attitude are in the

that public political positions and knowledge next ranks. 10 of Islamic sciences and religious devoutness

For the Shafi ‟ites, the ranking of those constitute the most important requirements. entitled most to act as imam is as follows: the

However, the new and unique circumstances ruler of a Muslim community, the regular

imposed by Dutch, non-Muslim society has imam of community mosque, the settler, the

resulted in a situation in which men with most learned in religious knowledge, the

thorough religious knowledge are more best- versed in reciting the Qur‟ n, the best in

important and appropriate to the new behaviour and conduct, the earliest migrant

environment. Hence, the study of the to Medina, the earliest convert to Islam, a

educational background of Indonesian imams in the Netherlands is precious in its own

9 Wahbat al-Z uhaylī, al-Fiqh al- Islāmī wa

right.

Adillatuh, (Dimasq: Dar al-Fikr, 1997), Vol. 2, h. 182-3; „Abd al-Rahm n al-Jazīrī, al- Fiqh ‘alā al-Madhāhib al-

11 al-Zuhayli, al-Fiqh al- Islāmi, 184-5; al-Jazīrī, al- Arba`a, (Istanbul: Hakikat Kitabevi, 1990), Vol. 2, 428.

Fiqh ‘ala al-Madhāhib…., h. 428. 10 al- Zuhaylī, al-Fiqh al- Islāmi, 184; al-Jazīrī, al-

12 al-Zuhayli, al-Fiqh al- Islāmi, 185-6; al-Jazīrī ,al- Fiqh ‘ala al-Madhāhib…., h. 428.

Fiqh ‘ala al-Madhāhib……, h 429.

village. They normally stop this basic learning

Imam (Religious Leaders) ’s Education in

when they are regarded to be adequately

the Indonesian Context

skilled in reciting the Qur‟ n. In Indonesia, Muslim religious

Then, they progress to study basic authorities are known with different terms.

Islamic knowledge with a teacher in the For example, they are called ajengan in

mosque in their neighbourhood. They usually Sundanese speaking provinces of West Java

begin with the study of the so-called and Bnaten, kyai in Javanese speaking

„instrumental science‟, namely Arabic provinces of Central and East Java, and tuan

language, focused on nahw (Arabic grammar) guru in Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Nusa

and sarf (Arabic morphology). The Tenggara Barat. However, perhaps due to a

knowledge of this science is necessary for the Java-centred policy, there is a tendency to

study of the books on the more advanced adopt kyai as a single term to designate

Islamic knowledge. In addition, they also religious leaders among Muslim communities

study the basic works on tawh īd (Islamic of different regions in Indonesia. They

doctrine), fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), hadith generally hold the traditional functions of a

(the Prophetic tradition), akhlāq (Islamic religious

leader-scholar

ethics) and tārīkh (Islamic history). community. 13 Their education plays an

in

Muslim

In the system of learning in this important role in their recognition as the

primary religious education, the subjects are religious leader by community. To pursue

given according to the capability of individual their career, these religious leaders have to

student. In general, a student comes to his study at a specific institution of Islamic

teacher who reads out some words or lines of learning. Dhofier provides us with valuable

the Qur‟ n. He in turn repeats as exactly as information regarding the pursuit of learning

possible what his teacher says. If the text is that is traditionally undertaken by candidate

Arabic, the teacher not only reads it but also religious leaders. The following description is

translates it into his vernacular language. The

student has to read the text properly and the age of five they learn to memorize some

mainly based on Dho fier‟s work. 14 First, at

translate it as exactly as his teacher does. The short s ūra (plural: suwar) of the last juz’ of the

teacher repeats it several times until his Qur‟ n. This knowledge is purported to

student is able to read the text in the proper provide them with the foundation for basic

way. He progresses to read the lines of the Islamic rituals, particularly salāt. When they

following passages if he has acquired are seven or eight years old, they study how

sufficient skill to read those being dealt with. to read the Arabic alphabet and gradually to

This kind of learning system is known as recite the Qur‟ n properly according to the

sorogan in the pesantren scholarly tradition. rules of tajwīd (the science and art of reciting

Given aptitude, perseverance and the Qur‟ n). Their parents usually teach them

financial support, the students continue their this basic skill after salāt al-maghrib (sunset

studies in pesantren. Now they are called santri, prayer). Should their parents not be educated

those who learn in pesantren. Initially, they in religious knowledge, they study with a

study basic Islamic knowledge that is teacher in his house or at a mosque in his

presented to beginners. At the beginning, the subjects they study might be the same as

13 For further information on kyai, see

those they have obtained in their earliest

Zamakhsyari Dhofier, Tradisi Pesantren, Studi tentang Pandangan Hidup Kyai (Jakarta: LP3ES, 1985), h 55.

periods of learning. But, the books are more

14 Dhofier, Tradisi Pesantren …., h. 18-33; 51-60.

advanced and the level of complexity is student concentrates on his own book and higher than that of the previous ones. Hence,

makes notes on the meaning. The students at first they are admitted to the elementary

are not required to understand the content of level of the pesantren learning tradition. With

the book they deal with. This circumstance proven ability and skill, they move to the

arises from the fact that the teacher usually higher level of learning. At this level, they are

reads the book quickly and gives no clear usually taught more subjects that are

translation. Therefore, the students finish specifically given to the advanced students.

reading a short Arabic text within a matter of They include tafsir (Qur‟ nic interpretation),

weeks. This learning system is only suited to tasawwuf (Islamic mysticism), and mantiq

the advanced students because it requires that (Aristotelian logic), in addition to the

they have acquired appropriate skills in basic abovementioned regular subjects.

Islamic knowledge, particularly Arabic In general, santri are divided into two

grammar.

categories. First, santri mukim: students who It is interesting to note that students in lodge at the pesantren because they have come

the pesantren are always being urged to from distant areas. They spend their time

broaden their knowledge as much as studying without being involved in the

possible. Hence, it is common that after they activities of daily life. Those who have been

have finished their study in one pesantren they there for a long time are appointed to the

go to another pesantren to pursue a more task of transferring their knowledge to less

advanced level of knowledge and to study knowledgeable students. Hence, generally the

specific knowledge in which the pesantren is longer a santri remains in a pesantren the more

specialized at. Like the peripatetic scholars in respected he is. Second, santri kalong, namely

medieval Europe, they move to one pesantren students who do not stay at the pesantren as

to another until they have a thorough they come from areas surroundings the

knowledge and the necessary skills to be pesantren. They attend the religious learning

religious leaders and to establish their own at certain times (usually before salāt al-maghrib

pesantren . These days, students can study and salāt al-subh [dawn prayer]). After that,

higher Islamic learning at a university such as they go back to their homes. The popularity

Institute Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN[State of a pesantren can be seen in the number of

Islamic Institute]) and Universitas Islam santri mukim who study there. A prominent

Negeri (UIN [State Islamic University], which pesantren usually has more santri mukim than

are funded and governed by the ministry of santri kalong . In contrast, the less-known

religious affairs, and private Islamic pesantren attract fewer students wishing to

universities. The pursuit of learning usually learn and lodge there. In other words, in a

ends with the journey to Mecca to study the popular pesantren the number of santri mukim

higher religious sciences in the shadow of the is greater than that of santri kalong.

Ka`ba, in addition to undertaking the hajj. The teaching system in the pesantren

The perception that perfect Islamic generally makes use of the so-called bandongan

knowledge can only be obtained in the centre system. The students form a circle

of the Muslim world lies at the root of this comprising of five to five hundred people.

practice. Besides, making the hajj is not only They listen to a teacher who reads out,

the expression of one‟s devoutness, but also translates, and clarifies the meaning of a text

culturally and politically prestigious. on Islamic knowledge being dealt with. Every

If a student is considered to have and giving instruction. A qualified imam achieved thorough Islamic knowledge and

carries out his tasks, such as delivering khutba the necessary skills, he is taught to establish

(speech given before sal āt al-jum`a [Friday his own pesantren. Generally, after he has

prayer]) and religious courses, taking turns pursued knowledge in some pesantren, his last

with other imam according to a schedule teacher trains him especially in the skills

arranged by the board.

required to direct a pesantren. He is often Moreover, religious services and involved in meetings of the elite of the

courses are conducted on a voluntary basis pesantren who have an important function in

by the qualified persons from the making decisions. His last teacher guides him

community. 16 Most imam work in an office or in his steps to establish a new pesantren in

run their own business. Religious courses, in another village or region. At the beginning,

general, are offered to the community during his teacher usually provides him with some

weekends and on special occasions in Islamic students who have studied in his last pesantren

calendar such as in the Fasting Month to become his first students. If he is a good

Ramadān. Imam are recruited from qualified leader in addition to a sound knowledge, he

persons in community who have lived in the gradually attracts the people who wish to

Netherlands for a long period of time. But, study Islamic knowledge at his pesantren. The

on certain occasions, like during Ramadān, the number of young Muslims who are interested

board invites teachers from outside the in studying in his pesantren either as santri

community or from their home country to mukim and santri kalong grows significantly. If

deliver religious courses.

the pesantren is successful, people will begin to Although most of them have obtained regard him as their kyai and he becomes an

religious knowledge and followed courses in influential figure of the society economically

their home country, they are not professional and politically.

imam who came to the Netherlands with

The Characteristics

of

Religious

purpose of meeting the spiritual needs of

Leadership among Indonesian Muslims

their fellow countrymen. 17 Most of them are

in the Netherlands

in paid employment or are businessmen. As a As far as my research is concerned,

result, the imam are relatively independent of religious leadership among Indonesian

intervention from the government of the Muslims in the Netherlands is different from

home country. What is more important is that in their home country as well as that of

that they are able to conduct their tasks Muslims from other countries of origin like

appropriately in Dutch circumstances

Turkish and Moroccan Muslims. 15 First of all,

the leadership is collective in nature in that

16 Shadid & Van Koningsveld, “Islam in The

the functions of imam are undertaken by the

Netherlands …..,” h. 116.

board of directors of a mosque or association

17 Regarding the imams of Moroccan

chosen by the members of congregation.

community in the Netherlands, a study by Khalifa has shown that imams are recruited from and were

There is no single imam entrusted with

educated in religious learning in their country of

specific tasks of conducting religious services

origin. They were trained in religious knowledge to be professional imam for their community. See Mohsen Abdel-Aty Haredy Khalifa, The Educational Background

of Moroccan Imam and their Functions in the Netherlands, characteristics of religious leaders in other Muslim

15 For more

research paper, Seminar “Problem and Methods of communities in the Netherlands, see Shadid & Van

Islamic Studies”, The Empirical Study of Islam in Koningsveld, “Islam in The Netherlands….,” h. 120-

Contemporary Western Europe, Program Islamic 22.

Studies, Leiden University, 2000.

because they have a degree of proficiency in education from his parents. The Islamic Dutch language as well as adequate

rituals practised in his family life contributed understanding of the history and culture of

to his internalisation of Islamic values. Dutch society.

Besides, the santri community in his village strengthened his religious awareness. All this

The Educational

Background

of

later influenced his parents‟ decision to send

Indonesian Imam the Netherlands

him to an Islamic school for his formal Early Stage of Imams ’ Education: Family

education. 19 Naf`an, another prominent imam My study reveals that Indonesian imams

of al-Hikmah mosque, was also brought up in in the Netherlands were born and raised in a

a religious family that provided him with an religious family and in a community where

important stage in his religious understanding religious values were preserved and Islamic

Moreover, the teachings were observed. Since childhood,

and

experience.

neighbourhood where he lived in Kudus, a they had been introduced to Islamic values

town that is known for its h āfiz (one who is and teachings. Their parents played an

learned in memorizing the Qur‟ n), helped important role in the establishment of their

strengthen his religious consciousness. Like religious awareness. Haji Olong, who belongs

Hambali, it was family life determined his to the first generation of Indonesian people

father‟s decision to send him to a religious migrated to the Netherlands in 1951 and is

school in addition to his secular schooling. 20 currently the head of the board of imams of

Muhammad Syukur of the Javanese- the Bayt al- Rahm n mosque in Ridderkerk,

Surinamese Rukun Islam mosque again was born in Central Moluccas in 1934. He

represents imams who obtained the same was raised in a family where he obtained his

pattern of religious education. He was born first Islamic knowledge and experiences. His

into a devout family in Watampone, Central father was descendant of the first Arabs from

Sulawesi (Celebes), in the eastern part of Hadhramawt who propagated Islam in

Indonesia. He was brought up in a family Moluccas Island after they arrived there via

where religious values were introduced to all Tuban in East Java. He belonged to the elite

members at an early age even though his tribe in his village where Muslims constituted

father was the principal of a secular primary the majority of population and the number of

school in his village. Moreover, he was much Christians was about 200. As I have implied,

closer to his grandfather who was the it was his family that introduced him basic

director of Watampone branch of the Islamic teachings and rituals. The community

Ministry of Religious Affairs. When his father in turn provided him with more advanced

died, his grandfather took on the religious knowledge and experience. 18 responsibility of teaching him religious

The same holds true for Hambali knowledge. He obtained his early religious Maksum, the most respected imam of Al-

education through intense contact with his Hikmah mosque and one of the founders of

grandfather who often took him to religious Persatuan Pemuda Muslim se-Eropa

gatherings and lectures in his hometown. 21 (PPME[Association of Muslim Youth in Europe]). Born into a devout family in Solo,

Hambali acquired his early religious

19 Interview with Hambali Maksum, 25 January

20 Interview with Naf`an, 25 January 2003.

18 Interview with Haji Olong, 1 November 21 Interview with Muhammad Syukur, 11 2002.

March 2003.

Two imams of Amsterdam branch of studied religious knowledge in informal PPME also exemplify the same model of

learning institutions constitute the last religious leaders of Indonesian Muslims in

category.

the Netherlands. The first is Sulhan Musoffa Hambali Maksum represents imams who was born in Kudus (Central Java).

with the first pattern of education. He Owing to his early religious education in this

studied in Islamic religious schools at all town, he is known among his fellow-

stages of his formal education. Besides, he countrymen as one who is well versed in

pursued Islamic knowledge for one year in a

pesantren in his hometown, Solo (Central Santoso, was born into a devout peasant

reciting the Qur‟ n. 22 The other imam, Budi

Java). He finished his primary and secondary family in Jombang (East Java), a town which

education in Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (MI is known for pesantren life and santri

[Islamic Primary School]) and Madrasah community. In addition to his socio-religious

Tsanawiyah (MTs [Islamic Middle School]) activity, he runs his own business. He is now

respectively, both were in Solo. For high the head of board of Amsterdam branch of

school, he attended Madrasah Menengah PPME. 23 Tinggi (MMT; Islamic High School) in Yogyakarta. He said that the curriculum used

Three Patterns of Imams ’ Educational Background in this high school consisted of 50 percent As far as my research is concerned, no

Islamic knowledge and 50 percent secular imam was educated entirely in a secular

knowledge. Those who graduated from the school or in a religious school. Most imams

school were regarded as having acquired the obtained knowledge of both secular and

same status with those at a secular high religious sciences. Most of them studied

school in that they could enrol in a religious- secular knowledge in the morning schools

oriented university or a state-sponsored and obtained religious knowledge in an

secular university.

Islamic school or in a so-called pengajian (a After he had finished his high school, form of religious learning in which students

he went to Mecca to pursue higher Islamic establish a circle around their teacher) in the

knowledge at J mi‟a D r al-„Ulūm (University afternoon. Only one imam pursued his

of D r al-„Ulūm). Since his Islamic high education in religious schools, from his

school diploma was not recognized by the primary school to university.

D r al-„Ulūm, he was only admitted to high Having collected information regarding

school. But, the religious learning he had their education, I propose to classify the

acquired in Indonesia helped him finish his Indonesian imams into three categories. The

study in two years, one year faster than first category consists of imams who studied

regular students. Then, in 1970 he pursued in religious schools from their primary school

his higher education in the University of up to and including university. The second

Baghdad. He was admitted to the faculty of category comprises those who studied both

Sharī`a wa al- Lugha (Islamic Law and secular education and religious knowledge in

Language). In contrast to D r al-„Ulūm formal schools. Imams who acquired secular

where he had studied before, the University knowledge in state-sponsored schools and

of Baghdad was a place of secular higher learning. The university, for example,

adopted a co-educational system in which

Interview with Sulhan Musoffa, 1 December 2002.

male and female students sat in the same

23 Interview with Budi Santoso, 5 January 2003.

classroom, a system of education that was Indonesian embassy congregation in The forbidden in D r al-„Ulūm and other Arab

Hague and other towns in Europe. 24 In universities. As part of his curriculum, he was

addition, he gives lectures on Islamic learning given imam and khātib training in his fourth

on the occasion of religious ceremonies such year. In 1974, he graduated with bachelor

as the Mawlid and Isrā’ Mi`rāj. Since the diploma from the university.

religious leadership among Indonesian The same year, Hambali arrived in the

Muslims is collective in nature, he carries out Netherlands where he later worked in The

these tasks taking turns with other religious Hague to make a living. Since his fellow

leaders.

countrymen recognized him as a person who Indonesian Muslims in the Netherlands had an adequate knowledge of Islam and

also have religious leaders who exemplify the who was a graduate of an Islamic university,

second pattern of education, namely those they urged him to serve the spiritual needs of

who were educated in both secular and Indonesian Muslims as well as propagating

Islamic schools. The first one that should be Islam in the Dutch community. Together

mentioned here is Naf`an who has been with other alumni from Islamic universities in

living in the Netherlands for more than the Middle East and those who were

twenty years. He finished his primary, middle concerned with Islamic da`wa, he initiated a

and high schools in state-run schools in his meeting whose purpose was to carry out

hometown, Kudus (Central Java). Since his religious services and to teach Islamic

childhood, he had passionately pursued knowledge. The meeting was initially held

Islamic knowledge. After morning school, he once a week and more frequently during the

went to the Madrasah Ibtidaiyah in his fasting month Ramadān. When the number of

pursuit of Islamic knowledge. In this people who attended the congregation

madrasah, he learned such subjects as tawhīd, increased, a need was felt for an organized

fiqh, Arabic grammar, and other basic fields religious gathering. In the 1980s, then, a

of Islamic knowledge. When he was in the socio-religious organization, PPME was

secular middle school, he studied the established. Hambali was appointed the

intermediate level of Islamic sciences at the second head of its board after its first head,

Madrasah Tsanawiyah. He continued to Abdurrahman Wahid, had to leave for

attend the same dual education while at high Indonesia after he had held the position for

school at which time he studied advanced just three months. Most of the activities of

knowledge of Islam at the Madrasah Aliyah. the association are now carried out in al-

During his pursuit of learning in Indonesia, Hikmah mosque in The Hague.

he also studied in a pesantren. But, I was not Hambali is regarded as the most

well informed about which pesantren and in respected imam among the PPME members.

which period he studied.

He acts as the imam of the sal āt al-magrib and „ īshā (evening prayer) on Saturdays and

24 The present Indonesian ambassador to the

Sundays as the PPME only holds socio-

Netherlands decreed that the embassy congregational

religious activities at weekends. During

in The Hague was abolished in January 2003. The

Ramadān, he is called upon to be imam of the ambassador considered religion a part of private life of salāt al-tarāwīh. He delivers khutba, acts as the community, which should be separated from public

affairs of the state. It was community, not the state,

imam of the salāt al-jum`a, and gives Islamic

which should govern the religious matters. As a public service institution, the embassy should be free from

courses in al-Hikmah mosque and to the

interests and activities of any particular group of community.

He pursued the higher learning at the school, he went to Madrasah Tsanawiyah to Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN [the State

pursue his middle Islamic education. In this Islamic Institute]) in Yogyakarta. He was

school, he studied such books as Nahw al- admitted to the faculty of Adab (Arabic

Wādih by „Alī J rim and Mustaf mīn, a literature). But, he did not finish his study as

basic book on Arabic, and al- Taqrīb by Abū

he dropped out in the third year. In 1971, he Shuj ` bin Husayn al-Isfah nī, Fath al- Qarīb decided to leave for Baghdad to study at

by Shams al- Dīn bin Q sim al-Ghazzī, and University of Baghdad. Like Hambali, he

Fath al- Mu`īn by Zayn al-Dīn bin `Azīz al- studied at the faculty of Sharī`a. Among the

Malīb rī, the basic works on fiqh that are subject offered to students was imam and

widely used in the pesantren curriculum. khātib training which he followed in the

Likewise, when he was in the secular high fourth year. He graduated with the title of

school, he went to Madrasah Aliyah to study bachelor from the university in 1974.

higher Islamic education in the afternoons. He came to the Netherlands in 1974.

Later he went on tertiary education at a Besides his daily work, he serves his co-

secular university in his hometown. But he religionists by being engaged in da`wa

dropped out of the university when he was in activities. Joining forces with Hambali and

the first year.

other leading figures, he was involved in the In the early 1980s, Sulhan came to establishment of the PPME. He acts

the Netherlands for the purpose of making a voluntarily as the imam at the sal āt al-‘ashr

living. He worked in a steel company in (afternoon prayer) and the salāt al-maghrib and

Groningen and later in Amsterdam. In the gives religious instruction at weekends in the

same period, he began to be engaged in da`wa PPME mosque, al-Hikmah. During Ramadān,

activities. His spirit of da`wa initially arose when the intensity of religious services and

when some of his colleagues asked him to instruction is higher, besides these tasks, he

teach them how to perform sal āt. He felt that acts as the imam at the salāt tarāwīh taking

by serving the needs of his fellow turns with other imams according a schedule

countrymen he had a chance to refresh his drawn up by the board of mosque. He

own religious knowledge that had been delivers khutba and acts as the imam at the

neglected for a long period of time. To salāt al-jum`a in al-Hikmah and the

improve his Islamic knowledge, he often Indonesian embassy congregation in The

orders books which are commonly used in Hague (before it was closed down by the

religious learning in Indonesia. He initiated present ambassador. See footnote 24). He

the establishment of a religious gathering for occasionally teaches Islamic knowledge once

the purposes of teaching basic Islamic fortnight at religious gatherings in other cities

practices and knowledge. When the number such as Rotterdam, Breda and Tilburg.

of his students increased rapidly, together Another figure who represents the

with Budi Santoso and other leading figures, same pattern of education is Sulhan Musoffa,

he established the Amsterdam branch of the the most respected imam at the Amsterdam

PPME. His tasks include conducting the sal āt branch of the PPME. He attended Sekolah

al-zuhr (noon prayer) and the salāt al-`ashr and Dasar (primary secular school), in his

giving courses on Islamic knowledge in hometown, Kudus. In the afternoon, he

PPME weekly activities. In Ramadān, he only studied religious primary education at the

occasionally acts as the imam because the Madrasah Ibtidaiyyah. While in junior high

community usually invite a qualified teacher community usually invite a qualified teacher

learning. During his junior and senior school religious instruction in turn with other

periods, his eagerness to pursue Islamic teachers according to a schedule that is

knowledge was unabated. He kept improving arranged by the board.

his Islamic knowledge by studying by himself Haji Olong of Bayt al- Rahm n

books on Islam and attending religious mosque, Budi Santoso of the Amsterdam

instruction held in the town. branch of the PPME and Muhammad Syukur

He came to the Netherlands 1951. He of Rukun Islam mosque represent the third

has worked at the Indonesian embassy in The category of imams who went to secular

Hague since 1956. In 1975, he was officially schools, but also obtained religious

appointed penghulu, an officer who is knowledge in informal learning institutions.

responsible for serving the religious needs of Haji Olong began his primary education in a

Indonesian Muslims in the Netherlands. His Dutch colonial public school in his

tasks relate to the religious services and the hometown, in the Central Moluccas. He

application of Islamic values such as spent five years studying secular knowledge

marriage, circumcision ( khitān) and funerals. in the school. In the afternoon, he pursued

Owing to his prominence as a man of deep basic Islamic knowledge in a small pesantren in

religious knowledge among Muslims with his village. It seemed that he did not learn in

Moluccan background, he was also appointed the pesantren in a traditional way in which a

head of board of the Bayt al- Rahm n mosque student stayed and studied there. He went to

in Ridderkerk. He is one of the regular imam the pesantren at the time of salāt al-maghrib and

of the mosque in that he leads the daily went back to his house after salāt al-‘īshā’. At

prayers, the Friday prayer, „ īd al-fitr (the the pesantren, he was presented tawhīd, fiqh,

festival celebrated on 1 Shaww l after a Arabic grammar, and other basic Islamic

month-fasting of Ramad n) and ‘īd al-adhā knowledge. In the field of fiqh, he studied

(the major festival celebrated on 10 Dhu al- Safīnat al-Najā’ of S lim bin S mir al-

Hijja). He occasionally undertakes such tasks Hadramī, a popular basic work on Islamic

in other mosques with Indonesian ritual in the pesantren curriculum in Indonesia.

background such as al-Hikmah and the He acquired his basic Islamic sciences at this

Indonesian embassy congregation. In local religious learning besides at his house

addition, on certain occasions he gives from his parents.

courses on Islamic doctrine if he is invited to After he finished primary school, Haji

do so by his fellow-countrymen. Olong went to Banjarmasin (South

Budi Santoso of the Amsterdam Kalimantan) to pursue more advanced level

branch of the PPME also exemplifies the of education. One of his reasons for going to

same pattern of educational background as this town was because he had some relatives

that of Haji Olong. He did his primary living there. This was a very common reason

education in a state-run primary school in his among Indonesians who were seeking a place

hometown, Jombang (East Java). In the to secure their life in diaspora. In this town,

afternoons, he studied basic Islamic

he went to a Dutch junior high school. He knowledge with a local religious teacher in went to a high school in afternoon because

the mosque of his village. This learning

he had to work early in the day. But, he did usually started after the sal āt al-maghrib and not go to either a secular or an Islamic

continued until the salāt al-‘īshā’. The main continued until the salāt al-‘īshā’. The main

month.

studying in the junior and senior schools, in The last religious leader of this the same way he built up his knowledge of

educational pattern is Muhammad Syukur of other basic Islamic sciences such as fiqh and

the Rukun Islam mosque in The Hague. Like Arabic. He pursued his tertiary studies in the

the abovementioned two imams, he studied Universitas Darul Ulum in Jombang. He was

secular knowledge in state-run schools and enrolled in the faculty of agriculture. But, he

obtained his religious knowledge in informal dropped out in the third year. He also said

sessions of religious learning. After he had that he tried to enlist in the army. He could

studied at morning primary school, in the pass all the formal selection criteria, but he

afternoons he went to study Islamic failed to be accepted a soldier because he was

knowledge given in a mosque in his village. the only candidate from a peasant family. He

Among the Islamic sciences he learned were had no money to bribe the selection

tawh īd, Arabic grammar, and fiqh. He studied committee as the other candidates had done.

the Ajurūmiyya by Abū „Abd All h bin Budi came to the Netherlands in 1990

Ajurum, a basic work on Arabic grammar. to run an Indonesian restaurant business. He

He said that he could memorize it without began to be engaged in da`wa when he felt

understanding its meanings. In fiqh, he that he was called to meet the spiritual needs

studied al- Safīnat al-Najā‟ by S mir al- of his fellow-countrymen in Amsterdam. In