Female Objectification in Dolce & Gabbana Advertisement : A Semiotic Analysis.

ii Maranatha Christian University

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ii

ABSTRACT ... iii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study ... 1

Statement of the Problem ... 4

Purpose of the Study ... 4

Method of Research ... 4

Organization of the Thesis... 4

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 The First Order System ... 6

2.2 The Second Order System ... 8

2.3 Female Objectification Theory ... 11

2.3.1 Sexual Objectification ... 11

2.3.2 Self Objectification... 13

CHAPTER THREE: FEMALE OBJECTIFICATION IN DOLCE & GABBANA ADVERTISEMENT: A SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS 3.1 The First Order System ... 16

3.2 The Second Order System ... 30

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION ... 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 46

APPENDIX: Dolce & Gabbana Spring /Summer 2007 Ready-To-Wear Collection Advertisement ... 51

iii Maranatha Christian University

ABSTRACT

Dalam skripsi ini, saya membahas makna dari sebuah iklan yang dikeluarkan merek busana terkenal di dunia, Dolce & Gabbana.

Skripsi ini menyoroti dua makna yang dapat dihasilkan sebuah iklan yaitu makna denotatif dan konotatif. Untuk mendasari analisis ini, saya menggunakan teori semiotik yang ditulis oleh Ferdinand de Saussure dan Roland Barthes. Dalam menganalisis makna konotatifnya, saya menggunakan teori feminis yang berfokus pada objektifikasi wanita.

Makna denotatif yang saya temukan dalam iklan ini adalah para pria seksi dan wanita seksi yang berpose seksual satu dengan yang lain. Makna konotatif yang saya temukan adalah wanita menjadi objek seksual bagi para pria, bahkan wanita sendiri juga membuat dirinya menjadi objek seksual bagi pria.

Iklan ini dapat dikatakan sebagai iklan yang mempunyai pesan yang dapat menyinggung pihak-pihak tertentu, terutama wanita. Iklan ini juga dapat mempengaruhi masyarakat yang melihatnya untuk meyakini bahwa objektifikasi seksual terhadap wanita adalah wajar dan bahkan mempengaruhi para wanita sehingga yakin bahwa dirinya hanyalah objek seksual bagi pria. Jadi dengan adanya analisis ini, masyarakat dapat menjadi lebih berhati-hati dan cerdas dalam menerima pesan dari sebuah iklan.

51 Maranatha Christian University

APPENDIX

Dolce&Gabbana 2007 Spring/Summer Ready-to-Wear Collection Advertisement

1 Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY

In daily life, we can find signs in a variety of forms everywhere. In the morning, as we get up and go to the bathroom to brush our teeth, we can find signs in the form of text on the tube of our toothpaste. While we are driving in our car, we often see a sign in the form of a picture of a beautiful lady on the soap advertisement board by the street. Each time we wear a shirt with a cartoon character on it, we are actually wearing a sign.

As mentioned above, signs can come in a variety of forms. A most common form of signs that we can easily find in our daily life is advertisement. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, advertisement is “a notice, picture, or film telling people about a product, job, or service” (“Advertisement def. 1). Therefore, the main function of a picture in an advertisement is to introduce a product to the public. In fact, an advertisement may suggest more than just an introduction to a product. It can signify something more than that and can even tell us further about the person

2 Maranatha Christian University or the company behind the advertisement because advertisement is a sign and a

sign can stand for somebody or something else other than the sign itself (Gordon 14).

In this era, advertisement has become one of the main tools of the company to get maximum profit. In reaching their goal, they may not care about the negative effects their advertisement may cause. They still use the advertisement even if it means violating the moral principles or rules of behavior generally accepted by society or a social group. As a result, the advertisement may give some negative effects to some people who see it and it may even tend to suggest an offensive and disrespectful message to a certain group of people.

Dolce & Gabbana is considered as one of the companies that sometimes tend to suggest a rude or even offensive message in their advertisement. It is one of today’s leading international luxury goods groups and also Hollywood’s number one choice of designer (dolcegabbana official website). However, some of their advertisements are considered controversial in the world because the picture or the message of their advertisement is considered rude or even offensive to some people. With women as their target market, this group is considered to have more influence around the world. The company distributes their products and advertisement not only in Europe, but also in the United States and Asia.

In this thesis, I choose to analyze an advertisement of Dolce & Gabbana, which has some advertisements that tend to suggest a rude or even offensive message. I took the advertisement from ifitshipitshere.blogspot.com, a blog that inform us about “the latest and the greatest art, design, style, and fashion from all over the globe” (ifitshipitshere.blogspot). The title of my thesis is Female

3 Maranatha Christian University Objectification in Dolce & Gabbana Advertisement: A Semiotic Analysis. The topic is

significant because an advertisement is an important means of communication in our daily lives these days and people need to pay attention to advertisement more closely as it sometimes suggests negative things which can influence their lives, especially when the advertisement tends to suggest some rude or even offensive messages to some people. After reading this analysis, the reader is expected to be more careful and more critical in accepting a message from an advertisement.

In this thesis, the field of linguistics to which my topic belongs is Semiotics. The founder of semiotics is Ferdinand de Saussure, whose theory I will use. According to Saussure, semiotics is “a science that studies the life of signs within society…” (Silverman 5). He divides signs into two parts; they are “signifier” and “signified”. Signifier is “the meaningful form” while signified is “the concept which the form evokes” (6). The second theory I will use is proposed by another important figure in semiotics, Roland Barthes. According to Barthes, “The denotative sign is made up of a signifier and signified. But, the denotative sign is also a connotative signifier. And a connotative signifier must engender a connotative signified to produce a connotative sign” (Cobley and Janz 51).

To support my analysis, I will also use a theory of female sexual objectification from a feminist perspective. The objectification of women is an important idea in feminist theory. Feminists regard “sexual objectification as objectionable and as playing an important role in the inequality of the sexes” (“Sexual Objectification”). The objectification of women involves “disregarding personal and intellectual abilities and capabilities, and women's reduction to instruments of sexual pleasure for men” (“Sexual Objectification”).

4 Maranatha Christian University 1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Based on the topic that I choose, I would like to discuss the following problems:

1. What is the denotative meaning of Dolce & Gabbana spring/summer 2007 ready-to-wear collection advertisement?

2. What is the connotative meaning of the advertisement?

1.3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

In this thesis, I would like to show:

1. the denotative meaning of Dolce & Gabbana spring/summer 2007 ready-to-wear collection advertisement.

2. the connotative meaning of the advertisement.

1.4. METHOD OF RESEARCH

The method that I use in writing this thesis is divided into three steps. First I begin the research by finding and reading some books that are relevant to the topic discussed so that I can get the theory which I can use to support my analysis. Second, I analyze the denotative meaning and connotative meaning of the Dolce & Gabbana Spring/Summer 2007 Ready-to-Wear Collection Advertisement. Finally, I write the research report.

1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

I divide the thesis into four chapters. The first chapter is the introduction which consists of Background of the Study, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, Method of Research, and Organization of the Thesis. Chapter Two contains the theoretical framework. Chapter Three is the analysis of the

5 Maranatha Christian University advertisement. The last chapter, Chapter Four, is the conclusion from all those

42 Maranatha Christian University

CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION

After analyzing the advertisement, I conclude that in the first order system, the denotative meaning is sexy men and a sexy woman who are making sexual gestures to each other because they are sexually attracted to each other. The men are sexy because they are generally good looking and they have dark hair and tall muscular bodies. The woman is sexy because she has smooth skin and long hair. In addition, she is also slim and young. She also wears lingerie and high heels as well as a red lipstick, which makes her look sexy. Both the men and the woman are making sexual gestures. The men’s sexual gestures to the woman are gazing at the woman, putting his thumb into his pocket, rising one of his hands as high as his neck while touching his jacket collar, holding the woman down, standing with his hands on his hip, and sitting while spreading his legs. The woman is also making sexual gestures such as lifting her hips, closing her eyes and slightly parting her lips.

In the second order system, the connotative meaning is men objectifying a woman sexually and the woman objectifying herself. When the sexy men make

43 Maranatha Christian University sexual gestures to the sexy woman such as gazing at the woman and holding the woman down, the men are making the woman an object for fulfilling their sexual desires. In addition, when the woman makes sexual gestures to the men, she is objectifying herself because she makes her body an object in order to fulfill the men’s desires. The woman has made herself an object, as she is considered sexually attractive to the men by having slim body, long hair and soft smooth skin while wearing high heels, make-up and lingerie.

In my opinion, this Dolce&Gabbana advertisement is considered as an advertisement that has some offensive messages to a certain group of people especially women. In Spain and Italy, the advertisement was banned because the advertisement suggests “a gang rape” to a woman. Spain and Italy are Western countries and such countries are usually considered as open-minded countries, but still they see this advertisement as an insult to women. The Advertisement Self-Discipline Institute (IAP) says the advertisement “offended the dignity of the woman, in the sense that the feminine figures is shown in a degrading manner” (“'Gang rape' Dolce and Gabbana advert banned”). I have also proved it through my analysis that the advertisement shows not only objectification done by men to women, but also objectification done by women to themselves. In other words, this advertisement not only displays woman as an object for men but also shows a woman who objectifies herself.

The advertisement suggests an offensive message for women. That is why the advertisement becomes controversial all over the globe, especially in Spain and Italy. Dolce & Gabbana insists that “the ad was never meant to be controversial and that it represented an erotic dream; a sexual game.” (Angela). Although they insist

44 Maranatha Christian University they never meant to insult anyone, the fact is the advertisement is controversial. I think the company wants to get maximum profit through the controversy caused by the advertisement. “Controversy sells just as well as sex does” (Bartz) because when an advertisement becomes controversial, many people will be curious about it and then they begin to find out what it is about and they will want to know about the product in the advertisement and so there is a chance that they may want to buy the product.

Dolce & Gabbana does not only use controversy to sell their product, but they also use the women’s sexual objectification and the self-objectification done by women. These days, some women strongly believe that they have to be sexually attractive and they have to have an ideal body to get attention from men. The truth is by having this belief, women has objectified themselves, but Dolce&Gabbana sees this as an opportunity to sell their product to women in order to get maximum profit without considering that it will result in negative effects to the women and men if they see the advertisement.

The advertisement will give more negative effects to women. Some of them already believe that they have to be sexually attractive and ideal to make men interested in them. By seeing this advertisement, they may become more convinced that they need to be sexually attractive objects to be enjoyed by men to make men interested in them. In other words, women will be more convinced that the only way to attract male is by objectifying themselves. This advertisement makes the self-objectification among women more likely to happen.

The advertisement will also give some negative influence to men. The advertisement suggests a woman as an object for men to enjoy. When men see the advertisement, there is a chance that it will influence their point of view towards

45 Maranatha Christian University women. Men may see a woman as a sex object to be enjoyed, not as human being with feelings and personality.

Sanchez and Broccoli state in their research entitled Self-objectification and Relationship that self-objectification done by women are also linked to “numerous mental health and interpersonal costs including lower self-esteem, more symptoms of eating disorder, depression, more sexual problems and dysfunction, poorer performance on academic tasks, and greater shame and anxiety ...” (3). My experience supports their statement. When I was a teenager, I had the tendency to believe in women’s self-objectification. I read a lot of magazines which promoted the idea that a girl must be pretty and slim to attract boys. It made me lose my confidence in my physical appearance. I thought that I had to be slim and pretty, so the boys would like me. I went through some diet that made me feel sick. Thus, I know that self-objectification done by women results in the negative way of thinking and is even dangerous not only to women’s personality, but also to their health.

A semiotic analysis suggests that there is no absolute truth in a sign system. Another analysis may be done on the advertisement, which results in different meaning and concept. For the researchers who are interested in doing an analysis on the similar topic or data, I suggest that they find reliable theories to support their analysis. It is also advisable for the researchers to always use their logical thinking and appropriate approach in doing a semiotic analysis.

46 Maranatha Christian University

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Data

Dolce&Gabbana Spring/Summer 2007 Ready-to-Wear Collection. Advertisement. If It’s Hip It’s Here. 2007. Web. 1 May 2011.

References

A., Angela. “Dolce & Gabbana Cancel Controversial Ad Campaign.” Think Fashion.

N.p. 7 March 2007. Web. 10 April 2012.

“Advertisement.” Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 7th Edition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2005. Print.

Barthes, Roland. “Mythologies”courses.nus.edu.sg. N.p. n.d. Web. 7 June 2012.

Bartz, Bianca. “Dolce & Gabbana Gets Overly Sexual in New Controversial Ads.” Trend Hunter. Trend Hunter Inc. 8 August 2007. Web. 10 April 2012.

Calogero, Rachel M. and John T, Jost. “Self-Subjugation among Women: Exposure to Sexist Ideology, Self-Objectification, and the Protective Function of the Need to Avoid Closure.” American Psychological Association (2001): 211-228. Web. 18 February 2012.

47 Maranatha Christian University Cobley, Paul. and Lita Janz. Introducing Semiotics. Royston: Icon Books Ltd., 2004.

Print.

“Do You Know the Amazing Secret of Sexy High Heels?” My Sexy Highheels. N.p. 2008. Web. 16 May 2011.

Fast, Julius. The Body Language of Sensuality, Power and Aggression. New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc., 1977. Print.

Frederick, David A., and Martie G. Haselton. “Why is Muscularity sexy? Tests of the Fitness Indicator Hypothesis.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (2007): 1167-1183. Web. 16 May 2011.

Frederickson, Barbara L. and Tomi-Ann Roberts. “Objectification Theory” Cambridge University Press (1997): 173-206. Web. 18 August 2011.

“'Gang rape' Dolce and Gabbana Advert Banned.”news.com.au. N.p. 7 March 2007. Web. 14 May 2011.

Gordon, W. T. Saussure for Beginners. New York: Writers and Readers Publishing Inc., 1996. Print.

“Group Profile.” Dolce&Gabbana Official Website. Dolce&Gabbana, 2011. Web. 10 May 2011.

“If the Shoe Fit.” Alternative Mindsets: A journey through BDSM Objectification and Dehumanisation. N.p. 17 April 2011. Web. 23 June 2012.

Jones, Terry. 100 Contemporary Fashion Designers, A-K. China: Taschen GMBH, 2009. Print..

48 Maranatha Christian University Lowe, Miriam Rachel. “Research into the Representation of Gender and Body Image on the Press.” Dissertation for MA in Communications Studies (2007): 1-98. Web. 16 May 2011.

“Making the Lips Alluring with a Red Lipstick.” Article Click. ArticleClick.com. Web. 26 June 2012.

Michael, George. “Standard Hair Length.” N.p. n.d. Web. 16 May 2011.

Norris, Hanna. “Sexual Violence in Advertisements: Constructing Gender & Sexuality.” Google Sites. 6 July 2011. Web. 23 June 2012.

Pairan, Bob. “The Effects of Color in Your Advertising Using Four Color Process Printing.” ABC Article Directory. ABC Article Directory. 29-30 June 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

Papadaki, Lina. “Feminist Perspective on Objectification.” Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. N.p. June 2011. Web. 25 August 2011.

Pease, Alan. Body Language. London: Sheldon Press, 1984. Print.

Pragya. “Eye Body Language.” Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com®. 10 October 2011. Web. 18 February 2012

Puvia, Elisa. “A Feminine Look at Female Objectification: Makeup and Self-Objectification, Sexy Women and Their Dehumanization.” Università Degli Studi di Padova (2011): 1-111. Web. 23 June 2011

Rhoads, Roxanne. “Why Wear Lingerie?” Yahoo Voices. Yahoo Inc. 29 June 2006. Web. 14 May 2011.

49 Maranatha Christian University Rodrigues, Larry. “Women’s Flirting Body Language Revealed!” N.p. 2005. Web. 22

May 2011.

Sanchez, Diana T. and Tara L. Broccoli. “Self-Objectification and Relationships.” Department of Psychology. Rutgers University:1-32. Web. 18 February 2012.

Scheflen, Dr. Albert. “Body Language and the Social Order.” West Side Toast Masters. N.p. n.d. Web. 4 December 2011.

“Sex Symbol.” Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary. Merriam-Websters Online, 2011. Web. 30 November 2011

“Sexual Assault.” The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Farlex, Inc. 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

“Sexual Objectification”. MyBodyBeautiful. my Body Beautiful. n.d. Web. 26 June

2012.

“Sexy.” Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary. Merriam-Websters Online, 2011. Web. 30 November 2011.

Shukla, Ishani Chatterjee. “List of Human Races”. Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com®. 1 September 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Print.

Sioux, Tracee. “Self Objectification and Low Self-Esteem.” The Girl Revolution. N.p. 30 July 2009. Web. 18 February 2012.

50 Maranatha Christian University Spiller, Vanessa. “Young People’s Perceptions and Experiences of Their Physical

Bodies” Faculty of Arts, Education and Human Development Victoria

University (2009): 1-451. Web. 23 June 2012.

Synnott, Anthony. The Body Social: Symbolism, Self and Society. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.

Szymanski, Dawn M. “Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.” Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee (2011):6-38. Web. 23 June 2012.

45 Maranatha Christian University women. Men may see a woman as a sex object to be enjoyed, not as human being with feelings and personality.

Sanchez and Broccoli state in their research entitled Self-objectification and Relationship that self-objectification done by women are also linked to “numerous mental health and interpersonal costs including lower self-esteem, more symptoms of eating disorder, depression, more sexual problems and dysfunction, poorer performance on academic tasks, and greater shame and anxiety ...” (3). My experience supports their statement. When I was a teenager, I had the tendency to believe in women’s self-objectification. I read a lot of magazines which promoted the idea that a girl must be pretty and slim to attract boys. It made me lose my confidence in my physical appearance. I thought that I had to be slim and pretty, so the boys would like me. I went through some diet that made me feel sick. Thus, I know that self-objectification done by women results in the negative way of thinking and is even dangerous not only to women’s personality, but also to their health.

A semiotic analysis suggests that there is no absolute truth in a sign system. Another analysis may be done on the advertisement, which results in different meaning and concept. For the researchers who are interested in doing an analysis on the similar topic or data, I suggest that they find reliable theories to support their analysis. It is also advisable for the researchers to always use their logical thinking and appropriate approach in doing a semiotic analysis.

46 Maranatha Christian University

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Data

Dolce&Gabbana Spring/Summer 2007 Ready-to-Wear Collection. Advertisement. If It’s Hip It’s Here. 2007. Web. 1 May 2011.

References

A., Angela. “Dolce & Gabbana Cancel Controversial Ad Campaign.” Think Fashion.

N.p. 7 March 2007. Web. 10 April 2012.

“Advertisement.” Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 7th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

Barthes, Roland. “Mythologies”courses.nus.edu.sg. N.p. n.d. Web. 7 June 2012.

Bartz, Bianca. “Dolce & Gabbana Gets Overly Sexual in New Controversial Ads.” Trend Hunter. Trend Hunter Inc. 8 August 2007. Web. 10 April 2012.

Calogero, Rachel M. and John T, Jost. “Self-Subjugation among Women: Exposure to Sexist Ideology, Self-Objectification, and the Protective Function of the Need to Avoid Closure.” American Psychological Association (2001): 211-228. Web. 18 February 2012.

47 Maranatha Christian University Cobley, Paul. and Lita Janz. Introducing Semiotics. Royston: Icon Books Ltd., 2004.

Print.

“Do You Know the Amazing Secret of Sexy High Heels?” My Sexy Highheels. N.p. 2008. Web. 16 May 2011.

Fast, Julius. The Body Language of Sensuality, Power and Aggression. New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc., 1977. Print.

Frederick, David A., and Martie G. Haselton. “Why is Muscularity sexy? Tests of the Fitness Indicator Hypothesis.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (2007): 1167-1183. Web. 16 May 2011.

Frederickson, Barbara L. and Tomi-Ann Roberts. “Objectification Theory” Cambridge University Press (1997): 173-206. Web. 18 August 2011.

“'Gang rape' Dolce and Gabbana Advert Banned.”news.com.au. N.p. 7 March 2007. Web. 14 May 2011.

Gordon, W. T. Saussure for Beginners. New York: Writers and Readers Publishing Inc., 1996. Print.

“Group Profile.” Dolce&Gabbana Official Website. Dolce&Gabbana, 2011. Web. 10 May 2011.

“If the Shoe Fit.” Alternative Mindsets: A journey through BDSM Objectification and Dehumanisation. N.p. 17 April 2011. Web. 23 June 2012.

Jones, Terry. 100 Contemporary Fashion Designers, A-K. China: Taschen GMBH, 2009. Print..

48 Maranatha Christian University Lowe, Miriam Rachel. “Research into the Representation of Gender and Body Image

on the Press.” Dissertation for MA in Communications Studies (2007): 1-98. Web. 16 May 2011.

“Making the Lips Alluring with a Red Lipstick.” Article Click. ArticleClick.com. Web. 26 June 2012.

Michael, George. “Standard Hair Length.” N.p. n.d. Web. 16 May 2011.

Norris, Hanna. “Sexual Violence in Advertisements: Constructing Gender & Sexuality.” Google Sites. 6 July 2011. Web. 23 June 2012.

Pairan, Bob. “The Effects of Color in Your Advertising Using Four Color Process Printing.” ABC Article Directory. ABC Article Directory. 29-30 June 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

Papadaki, Lina. “Feminist Perspective on Objectification.” Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. N.p. June 2011. Web. 25 August 2011.

Pease, Alan. Body Language. London: Sheldon Press, 1984. Print.

Pragya. “Eye Body Language.” Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com®. 10 October 2011. Web. 18 February 2012

Puvia, Elisa. “A Feminine Look at Female Objectification: Makeup and Self-Objectification, Sexy Women and Their Dehumanization.” Università Degli Studi di Padova (2011): 1-111. Web. 23 June 2011

Rhoads, Roxanne. “Why Wear Lingerie?” Yahoo Voices. Yahoo Inc. 29 June 2006. Web. 14 May 2011.

49 Maranatha Christian University Rodrigues, Larry. “Women’s Flirting Body Language Revealed!” N.p. 2005. Web. 22

May 2011.

Sanchez, Diana T. and Tara L. Broccoli. “Self-Objectification and Relationships.” Department of Psychology. Rutgers University:1-32. Web. 18 February 2012.

Scheflen, Dr. Albert. “Body Language and the Social Order.” West Side Toast Masters. N.p. n.d. Web. 4 December 2011.

“Sex Symbol.” Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary. Merriam-Websters Online, 2011. Web. 30 November 2011

“Sexual Assault.” The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Farlex, Inc. 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

“Sexual Objectification”. MyBodyBeautiful. my Body Beautiful. n.d. Web. 26 June 2012.

“Sexy.” Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary. Merriam-Websters Online, 2011. Web. 30 November 2011.

Shukla, Ishani Chatterjee. “List of Human Races”. Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com®. 1 September 2012. Web. 26 June 2012.

Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Print.

Sioux, Tracee. “Self Objectification and Low Self-Esteem.” The Girl Revolution. N.p. 30 July 2009. Web. 18 February 2012.

50 Maranatha Christian University Spiller, Vanessa. “Young People’s Perceptions and Experiences of Their Physical

Bodies” Faculty of Arts, Education and Human Development Victoria University (2009): 1-451. Web. 23 June 2012.

Synnott, Anthony. The Body Social: Symbolism, Self and Society. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.

Szymanski, Dawn M. “Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.” Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee (2011):6-38. Web. 23 June 2012.