English clitics analysis in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Digital Library IAIN Palangka Raya
9
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the previous after the through and in-depthsearch done
by the researchers. This will also present the review of clitic analysis, function of
clitics and types of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
A. Previous Study
Previous study is the position of the thesis that was done by the
researcher. It means, the researcher can know the research same or not, and
also previous study help the researcher to conduct research. So, the researcher
can do research better than before. The researcher has found a few previous
studies that are concerned with research above;
1.
Fahad Alotaiby, Salah Foda and Ibrahim (2010) entitled “Clitcs in Arabic
Language : A Stastical Study”. In this study, the researchers findings the a
statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic Language. The
researchers used tokenizer to examine the performance. There were 600
million words Arabic corpus, and when applying clitics tokenization the
corresponding lexicon size could be reduced by 25.54%.1
Differences from this study which researcher study were
specifically examined of clitic in Arabic, and from the writer had been
research is clitic in English. From the research problem, the previous study
the problems were statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic
Language. From this study the researcher problem were the types and
1
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/Y10-1068, November 3rd, 2016. 13.29
9
10
function of English English clitics in His Last Bow of Sherlock Holmes
Novel by Sir Arhur Conan Doyle.
Ana Alexandra Ribeiro Luis (2004) entitled “Clitics as Morphology” . The
2.
study represented the morphological behaviour of pronominal clitics in
European Portuguese (EP) and to develop an inflectional account of
cliticisation within the theory of Paradigm-Function Morphology (Stump
2001).2
Differences with this study were the clitics analysis was research
about morphological clitics in European Portuguese and inflectional to
theory Paradigm-Function Morphology, and the research problem about
type of clitics and function of English clitics in novel.
Research was from Stephen R. Anderson (2010) entitled “Clitics”. Result
3.
of previous study was clitics have the character of being incompletely
organized in prosodic terms: they are deficient in not constituting PWords,
as opposed to normal lexical items. Once that is taken into account, the
rest of their behavior follows from the prosodic phonology of the
language.3
Differences from this study and previous of the study, there won‟t
be any confusion to differenciate clitics and non-clitics. The researcher
analysis about clitics in novel with findings type and function about it.
Related to the previous studies above, the writer is interested to
conduct the study entitled “English Clitics Analysis in Sherlock Holmes
2
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.136.8557&rep=rep1&type=pdf
January 22nd, 2016. 07.57
3
cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/clitics_ms.pdf, April 26th, 2015. 17.52
11
Novel By Sir Arthur Conan Doyle”. The similarity of this study is about
analysis of type and function of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arhur
Conan Doyle.
B.
Nature of Clitics
In this sub-chapter, the researcher presented the definition of clitics
with some related theories.
Clitics in morphology is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics
of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase.4 In this
theories the clitics was part of morpheme in word with followed the
phonologically.
„Clitic‟ (from Greek κλίνειν „incline, lean‟) is the term in traditional
grammar for a word that cannot bear primary word stress and thus „leans‟ on an
adjacent stress-bearing word (the clitic host). 5 A clitic leaning on a following
word is a „proclitic‟; one learning on a preceding word is an „enclitic‟. Clitics
exhibit characteristics of both words and affixes and yet do not fall fully into
either category: they are “like single-word syntactic constituents in that they
function as heads, arguments, or modifiers within phrases,but like affixes in
that they are „dependent‟, in some way or another, on adjacent words.6
4
http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms/whatisacliticgrammar.htm (
Oct, 30. 2016 )
5
Robert D. Holmstedt(The University of Toronto) and Bezalel Elan Dresher(The
University of Toronto)
6
http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~dresher/papers/EHLL-Holmstedt_Clitics_proofs.pdf,
November 3rd, 2015. 10.04
12
Arnold Zwicky7, in his study of clitics, identified three classes: special
clitics, simple clitics, and bound words. Both special and simple clitics are
unaccented bound variants of stresse-free morphemes; both types share the
semantics and basic phonological core of their respective free forms, but
special clitics differ with regard to syntax from their free forms, whereas
simple clitics exhibit syntax identical to that of their free variants. Bound
words do not have a free variant: this type of clitic exists only in an unaccented
form with another word serving as its attachment host. Zwicky notes that
bound words are often “associated with an entire constituent while being
phonologically attached to one word of this constituent” and are typicallyattached “at the margins of the word, standing outside even inflectional
affixes”.8
Pradepp Kumar Das9, in his study a clitic is a type of obligatory bound
morph which is generally distinguished from affixes in the literature. The clitic
is called a bound morph and it seems to occupy an intermediate position
between an affix and a word.
Andrew Spencer and Anna R. Luis, from their book Clitic is in most
languages we find „little words‟ which resemble a full word, but which cannot
stand on their own. Instead they have to „lean on‟ a neighbouring word, like the
’d, ’ve and unstressed ’em of Kim’d’ve helped’em („Kim would have helped
7
Zwicky, Arnold M. 1977. On clitics . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University
Linguistics Club. 1985. “Clitics and particles”.
8
Anderson, Stephen R. 2005. Aspects of the theory of clitics. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. (www.euppublishing.com/doi/pdfplus/10.3366/E1750124509000348)
9
http://pkdas.in/MORPHO/clitics.pdf, April 26th, 2015. 17.52
13
them‟). These are clitics, and they are found in most of the world‟s languages.
In English the clitic forms appear in the same place in the sentence that the full
form of the word would appear in, but in many languages clitics obey quite
separate rules of placement.
From the defintion the researcher argues that clitics was the
classification of words in morpheme and part of bound morpheme in linguistic.
Where has two type (proclitic and enclitic) and two function (verbal function
and other function) of clitics.
C. Types Of Clitic
In this part the researcher will be declare about type of clitics with
other theories.
1.
According Pradep Kumar Das, the clitics is devided into two groups,
proclitic and enclitic. The diagram given below shows the place of „clitics
and its subtypes‟ :
Morpheme
Free
Morpheme
Grammatical
morpheme
Zero
morpheme
Lexical
morpheme
Bound
orpheme
Empty
morpheme
Clitics
Affixes
Proclitic
Enclitic
Portmanlead
morpheme
14
a.
Proclitic
A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the word to which it is
phonologically joined.10 Example : The English article the, when
unstressed and with a reduced vowel, is a proclitic, as in the
following:
the house
b. Enclitic
An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a
preceding word to form a single unit.11 Example : The English negative
morpheme not becomes an enclitic when de-stressed and joined to the
preceding auxiliary verb, as in the following:
2.
can’t
won’t
shouldn’t
According to Crystal, clitics fall into various categories depending on their
position in relation to the word to which they are connected. The clitics is
devided into four groups, proclitic, enclitic, mesoclitic and endoclitic.
a.
Proclitic : A proclitic appears before its host. It is common in
Romance languages. For example, in novel “I am glad you found the
note, since it corroborates my story,” said he. (Page 689)12
10
Crystal 1980 : 64
Mish, 1991 :409
12
Sherlock Holmes Novel (His Last Bow) : 689
11
15
b.
Enclitic : An enclitic appears after its host. For example, in novel “It
has been a long evening, and I don’t think my nerve is a good as it
was”. (page 694)
c.
Mesoclitic : A mesoclitic appears between the stem of the host and
other affixes. For example, in novel “ I am glad you found the
note”(page 689).
d.
Endoclitic : The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between
the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (or
Lexicalist Hypothesis) and so were long claimed to be impossible.
However, evidence from the Udi language suggests that they
exist.13The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between the
two pieces.
From some of the theory above, researcher found differences and
similarities in the type of clitics. For the first theory, there were two type of
clitics and for the second theory there were four type of clitics. But, the
analysis results, with the most widely used, only two types. While the rest, not
overused. From this, the researcher concluded in this research there were two
types of clitics. There were proclitic with the word the and enclitic with the
word don’t,didn’t, don’t .
13
Harris, Alice C. (2002). Endoclitics and the Origins of Udi Morphosyntax. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924633-5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitic#cite_note-3,
November 2nd 2016
16
D. Function of Clitics
In this chapter we give an overview of the main functions of clitics.
Most clitics are straight forward function words, and so their functions are
virtually the same as the functions of inflectional morphology and of fullform
function words generally across languages. The researcher will summarize the
major functions, concentrating on broadly verbal properties, clausal properties
(which are similar to the verbal properties), nominal properties and „other‟
properties. The researcher briefly illustrate the parity of function between
clitics and inflections by pointing up instances of inflection which parallel the
clitics we have discussed. One of the reasons why this comparison is important
is because inflections are generally thought to arise in historical language
change through a stage of cliticization.
Although the parallels between clitics and inflections are close, there
are one or two differences in patterning, too. One important class of words
which often become clitics is adverbials, with meanings such as here, there,
then, now, as well as still, yet, already, never, and many others. These tend not
to be grammaticalized as inflections. Similarly, many languages have discourse
particles which take the form of clitics. Discourse particles can be thought of as
a special class of adverb which have the function of helping the speaker
manage the structure of the conversation (examples are given below in Section
2.6.3). These, too, are rarely expressed by inflection.
17
a.
Verbal Function
The functional categories associated with verbs include tense,
aspect and mood marking as well as polarity (i.e., negation), in addition to
agreement properties derived from pronouns, such as person, number,
gender, animacy, definiteness and so on. Many languages have inflections
that indicate the speaker‟s attitude to the truth of a statement; for instance,
whether the speaker knows a fact from personal experience, from inference
or from hearsay. Some languages have different inflections on the verb
depending on whether are making a statement (declarative mood) or asking
a question (interrogative mood). These categories are also often realized by
clitics.
The English clitic auxiliary system is one of the most well-known
instances of a clitic system, and the researcher used the example of the
auxiliary ’s to introduce the notion of clitic . See examples of full form
auxiliaries and their clitic equivalents from the novel:
(1) Mr. Jabez Wilson‟s presence; in other word, that they had
completed their tunnel.14
(2) “You‟ll want it,”said young Alec Cunningham.15
(3) “Yes, I‟ve had a busy day,”I answered.16
In each case we have an auxiliary verb which can be expressed by a
phonologically reduced form consisting of a single consonant (possibly
syllabic, and possibly preceded by schwa). The position of the clitic in the
14
Loc.cit Page 48
Loc.cit Page 340
16
Loc.cit Page 351
15
18
phrase corresponds to the position of the full form auxiliary (it comes
immediately after the subject of the clause in these examples).
These reduced auxiliary forms don‟t resemble affixes very much.
First, it would be unusual (but not impossible) for a tense/aspect/mood
affix to attach to a noun. More importantly, however, we have seen that the
reduced form attaches to words of any category.
In the auxiliary attaches respectively to an adverb there, a
preposition to, a pronoun him, a verb (but part of a relative clause modifying
the subject noun) and an adjective responsible. True affixes are generally
very selective about the word class they attach to and never show this
degree of freedom.
From this brief survey of auxiliaries from four typical properties of
clitics:
1.
Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable). Even in languages
which lack a category of word stress, we find that clitics are elements
that cannot be focussed or emphasized by being given special emphatic
accent.
2.
Clitics require a host to attach to. Either the clitic attaches to the right
of a host (enclitic) or to the left (proclitic).
3.
Clitics attach promiscuously, that is, they do not select words of a
particular class.
4.
Clitics often have different syntax from fully-fledged words. In some
cases this means that the position of the clitic is determined by entirely
19
separate principles from the syntax of the rest of the language (special
clitics, for instance 2P clitics), in other cases the basic position of the
clitic is the same as that of a full-form word with similar function
(simple clitics), but in practice there may be restrictions that apply
specifically to clitics because of their need to attach to a host in a
particular direction.
b.
Clausal Properties
Examples of properties expressed by clitics that relate to the clause as
a whole, though to some extent it is artificial to distinguish these from verbal
clitics, because properties of the clause tend to be expressed on verbs in
inflection. In each case the researcher will provide just one or two properties
that distinguish the clitic from a full word or an affix.
c.
Nominal Function
Clitics can express typical nominal functions such as case,
definiteness, possessor agreement and (more rarely) number. In many
languages possession is indicated by means of an affix on the possessor noun,
usually known as a genitive case marker.
d. Argument Function
1. Argument and agreement marking
Even though agreement markers tend to be affixes and
arguments tend to be full words, there is no necessary correlation
between affixal status and agreement marking, on the one hand, and
word status and argument marking, on the other. That is why argument
20
marking and agreement can also be encoded by clitics. Clitics with this
function are called pronominal clitics and generally express person,
number, gender and case features.
2. Argument clitics
When pronominal clitics function as arguments they occur in
complementary distribution with overt subjects or objects, satisfying the
subcategorization properties of the verb they are semantically related to.
Subjects and objects often behave differently in one and the same
language, and look separately at object clitics and subject clitics. The
researcher first consider instances in which the clitics function more or
less like a pronoun in English, in that they express the argument of the
verb on their own, and cannot co-occur with a full-form word bearing
the same function.
e.
Other Function
The researcher conclude with a few examples of clitics subserving
functions which are not normally thought of as inflectional (though they can be
realized with inflections in other languages).
1.
Conjunction and Preposition
It‟s very common for highly frequent conjunctions such as
“and”, “or” and “but”. Some languages, however, have conjunctions
which" are always clitics.
21
2.
Adverbs
The y clitic is somewhat unusual, in that it is the only clitic in
French with such an adverbial function. There is no clitic form of ici
„here‟, for instance. Moreover, although the clitic systems of Romance
languages tend to be fairly uniform, with similar forms and functions,
some of the Romance languages lack such adverbial clitics. They are
lacking in Spanish and Portuguese, but Italian, Catalan and
Provençal/Occitan have a similar „there‟ clitic, and Sardinian has no
less than three locative clitics.17
3.
Discourse Function
Discourse particles are words which convey rhetorical effects,
emphasis, the attitude of the speaker and so on, often in ways that are
extremely difficult to pin down. In English they are represented by
about a hundred expressions of the kind actually, well, you know, sortof, then, in fact, after all, as in Well, they were actually going to leave
sort of earlier, you know. Such particles have been studied within the
rubric of pragmatics18 and especially in Conversation Analysis19 which
has devoted considerable research effort to unravelling the functions of
particles in turn-taking and in attitudinal factors in discourse. In some
languages, discourse particles play such an important role that their
study has entered the pedagogic tradition, and second-language learners
17
18
(Jones 1993).
Blakemore 2002
19
(Schegloff 2007)
22
are expected to study them as part of the grammar of the language. This
is true of Classical (though not Modern) Greek20 Russian21 and
especially German22.
In many languages, the conversational or discourse particles are
essentially adverbs. However, in many languages, words of this sort can
turn into clitics. This type of clitic is similar to the adverbial type in
many respects, and, like the adverbials, the discourse clitics tend not to
correspond to inflectional categories.
Variety of functions which can be expressed by full-form
function words, by affixes or other morphological devices, or by
something in between, namely clitics. The principal nominal properties,
clitics frequently express case, possession and definiteness. The verbal
categories, clitics regularly express Tense-Aspect-Mood (TAM)
categories, including such categories as interrogative mood and
negation. A particularly important category is that of pronominal
argument, which often turns into a kind of agreement system. This was
discuss pronominal clitics in a good deal of detail at various points in
this research. Finally, the researcher also seen that clitics often realize
meanings that are realized by locative or temporal adverbs or by various
kinds of discourse marker expressing evidentiality or other discourseand context-related meanings. All of these meanings and functions can
20
(cf. Denniston 2002)
(Vasil‟eva, 1974)
22
Modalpartikeln, Abraham 1991, or Abtönungspartikeln, Weydt 1969
21
23
be seen in inflectional systems, reflecting the well-known fact that
inflections generally arise when clitics become morphologized as
affixes.
1.
Clitics express functional (inflectional) categories or discourse
functions.
2.
Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable).
3.
Clitics require a host to attach to.
4.
Clitics show low selectivity towards their host (promiscuous
attachment).
5.
Clitics typically appear in rigidly ordered clusters (templates).
6.
Clitics and clitic clusters often have different syntax from fullyfledged words. A particularly common phenomenon is the 2P
clitic (cluster), in which the clitics have to be placed after the
first constituent (word/phrase) of the phrase or clause they
relate to.
7.
Pronominal clitics often serve as the argument of the verb, but
in some languages the clitics can be doubled by full noun
phrases, giving the appearance of subject-verb or object-verb
agreement.
In conclusion of this chapter, the researcher was finding two type of clitics.
There were proclitic and enclitic. Proclitic with the example : “But his narrative
was nipped in the bud” (page 684). From the sentence in word “the” categorized
in proclitic. Second type was, enclitic with example : “Don’t drop the instrument,
24
I beg” (page 723). From the sentence in word “Don’t” categorized in enclitic.
For the next was the function. The researcher findings two function of clitics,
there were verbal function and other function. Verbal function with example :
“That’s the agreement” (page 699). From the sentence in word “That’s”
categorized in verbal function. For the other function with example : “He swelled
and puffed in his anger (page 684). From the sentence in word “and”
categorized in other function.
E. Example of Clitics in a Novel
This is example of clitics in a Novel. The writer give other novel to
example and analysis.
Anna Karenina
225 of 1759
......light of the lamp post. She looked round, and the same instant recognized
Vronsky‟s face. Putting his hand to the peak of his cap, he bowed to her and
asked, Was there anything she wanted? Could he be of any service to her?
She gazed rather a long while at him without answering, and, in spite of the
shadow in which he was standing, she saw, or fancied she saw, both the
expression of his face and his eyes. It was again that expression of reverential
ecstasy which had so worked upon her the day before. More than once she
had told herself during the past few days, and again only a few moments
before, that Vronsky was for her only one of the hundreds of young men,
forever exactly the same, that are met everywhere, that she would never allow
herself to bestow a thought upon him. But now at the first instant of meeting
25
him, she was seized by a feeling of joyful pride. She had no need to ask why
he had come. she knew as certainly as if he had told her that he was here to be
where she was.
„I didn‟t know you were going. What are you coming for?‟ she said,
letting fall the hand with which she had grasped the door post. And
irrepressible delight and eagerness shone in her face.
Anna Karenina
349 of 1759
Chapter 14
As he rode up to the house in the happiest frame of mind, Levin heard the bell
ring at the side of the principalentrance of the house. „Yes, that‟s someone
from the railway station,‟ he thought, „just the time to be here from the
Moscow train...Who could it be? What if it‟s brother Nikolay? He did say:
„Maybe I‟ll go to the waters, or maybe I‟ll come down to you.‟‟ He felt
dismayed and vexed for the first minute, that his brother Nikolay‟s presence
should come to disturb his happy mood of spring. But he felt ashamed of the
feeling, and at once he opened, as it were, the arms of his soul, and with a
softened feeling of joy and expectation, now he hoped with all his heart that it
was his brother. He pricked up his horse, and riding out from behind the
acacias he saw a hired three-horse sledge from the railway station, and a
gentleman in a fur coat. It was not his brother. „Oh, if it were only some nice
person one could talk to a little!‟ he thought. „Ah,‟ cried Levin joyfully,
26
flinging up both his hands. „Here‟s a delightful visitor! Ah, how glad I am to
see you!‟ he shouted, recognizing Stepan Arkadyevitch.
Anna Karenina
1211 of 1759
„So you‟re not tired? Learn more on me,‟ said he.
„No, I‟m so glad of a chance of being alone with you,
and I must own, though I‟m happy with them, I do regret our winter evenings
alone.‟
„That was good, but this is even better. Both are better,‟ he said, squeezing
her hand.
„Do you know what we were talking about when you came in?‟
„About jam?‟
„Oh, yes, about jam too; but afterwards, about how men make offers.‟
„Ah!‟ said Levin, listening more to the sound of her voice than to the words
she was saying, and all the while paying attention to the road, which passed
now through the forest, and avoiding places where she might make a false
step.
„And about Sergey Ivanovitch and Varenka. You‟ve noticed?... I‟m very
anxious for it,‟ she went on. „What do you think about it?‟ And she peeped
into his face.
„I don‟t know what to think,‟ Levin answered, smiling.
„Sergey seems very strange to me in that way. I told you, you know..‟
„Yes, that he was in love with that girl who died...‟
27
Note : you‟re the red word of the box above, it is one example from the
writer to analysis clitics of novel.
F.
Framework of Thinking
This sub-chapter the researcher presented the framework of thinking
English Clitics Analysis of His Last Bow in Sherlock
Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Novel
Clitics
Type of clitics
Function of clitics
His Last Bow in
Sherlock
Holmes Novel
Proclitic
The house
Enclitic
I don’t like
you
Verbal
function
I’ll see it in my
dream
Other
function
He swelled and
puffed in his
anger
In framework of thinking above the researcher analysis in English
clitics and the tittle novel was His Last Bow in Sherlock Holmes novel by Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle. The researcher was findings problem of type were,
proclitic (the) and enclitic (don’t). For the function the researcher was finding
verbal function (‘ll ) and other function (and). In conclusion, there were two
types and two function of clitics by researcher.
28
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the previous after the through and in-depthsearch done
by the researchers. This will also present the review of clitic analysis, function of
clitics and types of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
A. Previous Study
Previous study is the position of the thesis that was done by the
researcher. It means, the researcher can know the research same or not, and
also previous study help the researcher to conduct research. So, the researcher
can do research better than before. The researcher has found a few previous
studies that are concerned with research above;
1.
Fahad Alotaiby, Salah Foda and Ibrahim (2010) entitled “Clitcs in Arabic
Language : A Stastical Study”. In this study, the researchers findings the a
statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic Language. The
researchers used tokenizer to examine the performance. There were 600
million words Arabic corpus, and when applying clitics tokenization the
corresponding lexicon size could be reduced by 25.54%.1
Differences from this study which researcher study were
specifically examined of clitic in Arabic, and from the writer had been
research is clitic in English. From the research problem, the previous study
the problems were statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic
Language. From this study the researcher problem were the types and
1
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/Y10-1068, November 3rd, 2016. 13.29
9
10
function of English English clitics in His Last Bow of Sherlock Holmes
Novel by Sir Arhur Conan Doyle.
Ana Alexandra Ribeiro Luis (2004) entitled “Clitics as Morphology” . The
2.
study represented the morphological behaviour of pronominal clitics in
European Portuguese (EP) and to develop an inflectional account of
cliticisation within the theory of Paradigm-Function Morphology (Stump
2001).2
Differences with this study were the clitics analysis was research
about morphological clitics in European Portuguese and inflectional to
theory Paradigm-Function Morphology, and the research problem about
type of clitics and function of English clitics in novel.
Research was from Stephen R. Anderson (2010) entitled “Clitics”. Result
3.
of previous study was clitics have the character of being incompletely
organized in prosodic terms: they are deficient in not constituting PWords,
as opposed to normal lexical items. Once that is taken into account, the
rest of their behavior follows from the prosodic phonology of the
language.3
Differences from this study and previous of the study, there won‟t
be any confusion to differenciate clitics and non-clitics. The researcher
analysis about clitics in novel with findings type and function about it.
Related to the previous studies above, the writer is interested to
conduct the study entitled “English Clitics Analysis in Sherlock Holmes
2
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.136.8557&rep=rep1&type=pdf
January 22nd, 2016. 07.57
3
cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/clitics_ms.pdf, April 26th, 2015. 17.52
11
Novel By Sir Arthur Conan Doyle”. The similarity of this study is about
analysis of type and function of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arhur
Conan Doyle.
B.
Nature of Clitics
In this sub-chapter, the researcher presented the definition of clitics
with some related theories.
Clitics in morphology is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics
of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase.4 In this
theories the clitics was part of morpheme in word with followed the
phonologically.
„Clitic‟ (from Greek κλίνειν „incline, lean‟) is the term in traditional
grammar for a word that cannot bear primary word stress and thus „leans‟ on an
adjacent stress-bearing word (the clitic host). 5 A clitic leaning on a following
word is a „proclitic‟; one learning on a preceding word is an „enclitic‟. Clitics
exhibit characteristics of both words and affixes and yet do not fall fully into
either category: they are “like single-word syntactic constituents in that they
function as heads, arguments, or modifiers within phrases,but like affixes in
that they are „dependent‟, in some way or another, on adjacent words.6
4
http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms/whatisacliticgrammar.htm (
Oct, 30. 2016 )
5
Robert D. Holmstedt(The University of Toronto) and Bezalel Elan Dresher(The
University of Toronto)
6
http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~dresher/papers/EHLL-Holmstedt_Clitics_proofs.pdf,
November 3rd, 2015. 10.04
12
Arnold Zwicky7, in his study of clitics, identified three classes: special
clitics, simple clitics, and bound words. Both special and simple clitics are
unaccented bound variants of stresse-free morphemes; both types share the
semantics and basic phonological core of their respective free forms, but
special clitics differ with regard to syntax from their free forms, whereas
simple clitics exhibit syntax identical to that of their free variants. Bound
words do not have a free variant: this type of clitic exists only in an unaccented
form with another word serving as its attachment host. Zwicky notes that
bound words are often “associated with an entire constituent while being
phonologically attached to one word of this constituent” and are typicallyattached “at the margins of the word, standing outside even inflectional
affixes”.8
Pradepp Kumar Das9, in his study a clitic is a type of obligatory bound
morph which is generally distinguished from affixes in the literature. The clitic
is called a bound morph and it seems to occupy an intermediate position
between an affix and a word.
Andrew Spencer and Anna R. Luis, from their book Clitic is in most
languages we find „little words‟ which resemble a full word, but which cannot
stand on their own. Instead they have to „lean on‟ a neighbouring word, like the
’d, ’ve and unstressed ’em of Kim’d’ve helped’em („Kim would have helped
7
Zwicky, Arnold M. 1977. On clitics . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University
Linguistics Club. 1985. “Clitics and particles”.
8
Anderson, Stephen R. 2005. Aspects of the theory of clitics. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. (www.euppublishing.com/doi/pdfplus/10.3366/E1750124509000348)
9
http://pkdas.in/MORPHO/clitics.pdf, April 26th, 2015. 17.52
13
them‟). These are clitics, and they are found in most of the world‟s languages.
In English the clitic forms appear in the same place in the sentence that the full
form of the word would appear in, but in many languages clitics obey quite
separate rules of placement.
From the defintion the researcher argues that clitics was the
classification of words in morpheme and part of bound morpheme in linguistic.
Where has two type (proclitic and enclitic) and two function (verbal function
and other function) of clitics.
C. Types Of Clitic
In this part the researcher will be declare about type of clitics with
other theories.
1.
According Pradep Kumar Das, the clitics is devided into two groups,
proclitic and enclitic. The diagram given below shows the place of „clitics
and its subtypes‟ :
Morpheme
Free
Morpheme
Grammatical
morpheme
Zero
morpheme
Lexical
morpheme
Bound
orpheme
Empty
morpheme
Clitics
Affixes
Proclitic
Enclitic
Portmanlead
morpheme
14
a.
Proclitic
A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the word to which it is
phonologically joined.10 Example : The English article the, when
unstressed and with a reduced vowel, is a proclitic, as in the
following:
the house
b. Enclitic
An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a
preceding word to form a single unit.11 Example : The English negative
morpheme not becomes an enclitic when de-stressed and joined to the
preceding auxiliary verb, as in the following:
2.
can’t
won’t
shouldn’t
According to Crystal, clitics fall into various categories depending on their
position in relation to the word to which they are connected. The clitics is
devided into four groups, proclitic, enclitic, mesoclitic and endoclitic.
a.
Proclitic : A proclitic appears before its host. It is common in
Romance languages. For example, in novel “I am glad you found the
note, since it corroborates my story,” said he. (Page 689)12
10
Crystal 1980 : 64
Mish, 1991 :409
12
Sherlock Holmes Novel (His Last Bow) : 689
11
15
b.
Enclitic : An enclitic appears after its host. For example, in novel “It
has been a long evening, and I don’t think my nerve is a good as it
was”. (page 694)
c.
Mesoclitic : A mesoclitic appears between the stem of the host and
other affixes. For example, in novel “ I am glad you found the
note”(page 689).
d.
Endoclitic : The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between
the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (or
Lexicalist Hypothesis) and so were long claimed to be impossible.
However, evidence from the Udi language suggests that they
exist.13The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between the
two pieces.
From some of the theory above, researcher found differences and
similarities in the type of clitics. For the first theory, there were two type of
clitics and for the second theory there were four type of clitics. But, the
analysis results, with the most widely used, only two types. While the rest, not
overused. From this, the researcher concluded in this research there were two
types of clitics. There were proclitic with the word the and enclitic with the
word don’t,didn’t, don’t .
13
Harris, Alice C. (2002). Endoclitics and the Origins of Udi Morphosyntax. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924633-5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitic#cite_note-3,
November 2nd 2016
16
D. Function of Clitics
In this chapter we give an overview of the main functions of clitics.
Most clitics are straight forward function words, and so their functions are
virtually the same as the functions of inflectional morphology and of fullform
function words generally across languages. The researcher will summarize the
major functions, concentrating on broadly verbal properties, clausal properties
(which are similar to the verbal properties), nominal properties and „other‟
properties. The researcher briefly illustrate the parity of function between
clitics and inflections by pointing up instances of inflection which parallel the
clitics we have discussed. One of the reasons why this comparison is important
is because inflections are generally thought to arise in historical language
change through a stage of cliticization.
Although the parallels between clitics and inflections are close, there
are one or two differences in patterning, too. One important class of words
which often become clitics is adverbials, with meanings such as here, there,
then, now, as well as still, yet, already, never, and many others. These tend not
to be grammaticalized as inflections. Similarly, many languages have discourse
particles which take the form of clitics. Discourse particles can be thought of as
a special class of adverb which have the function of helping the speaker
manage the structure of the conversation (examples are given below in Section
2.6.3). These, too, are rarely expressed by inflection.
17
a.
Verbal Function
The functional categories associated with verbs include tense,
aspect and mood marking as well as polarity (i.e., negation), in addition to
agreement properties derived from pronouns, such as person, number,
gender, animacy, definiteness and so on. Many languages have inflections
that indicate the speaker‟s attitude to the truth of a statement; for instance,
whether the speaker knows a fact from personal experience, from inference
or from hearsay. Some languages have different inflections on the verb
depending on whether are making a statement (declarative mood) or asking
a question (interrogative mood). These categories are also often realized by
clitics.
The English clitic auxiliary system is one of the most well-known
instances of a clitic system, and the researcher used the example of the
auxiliary ’s to introduce the notion of clitic . See examples of full form
auxiliaries and their clitic equivalents from the novel:
(1) Mr. Jabez Wilson‟s presence; in other word, that they had
completed their tunnel.14
(2) “You‟ll want it,”said young Alec Cunningham.15
(3) “Yes, I‟ve had a busy day,”I answered.16
In each case we have an auxiliary verb which can be expressed by a
phonologically reduced form consisting of a single consonant (possibly
syllabic, and possibly preceded by schwa). The position of the clitic in the
14
Loc.cit Page 48
Loc.cit Page 340
16
Loc.cit Page 351
15
18
phrase corresponds to the position of the full form auxiliary (it comes
immediately after the subject of the clause in these examples).
These reduced auxiliary forms don‟t resemble affixes very much.
First, it would be unusual (but not impossible) for a tense/aspect/mood
affix to attach to a noun. More importantly, however, we have seen that the
reduced form attaches to words of any category.
In the auxiliary attaches respectively to an adverb there, a
preposition to, a pronoun him, a verb (but part of a relative clause modifying
the subject noun) and an adjective responsible. True affixes are generally
very selective about the word class they attach to and never show this
degree of freedom.
From this brief survey of auxiliaries from four typical properties of
clitics:
1.
Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable). Even in languages
which lack a category of word stress, we find that clitics are elements
that cannot be focussed or emphasized by being given special emphatic
accent.
2.
Clitics require a host to attach to. Either the clitic attaches to the right
of a host (enclitic) or to the left (proclitic).
3.
Clitics attach promiscuously, that is, they do not select words of a
particular class.
4.
Clitics often have different syntax from fully-fledged words. In some
cases this means that the position of the clitic is determined by entirely
19
separate principles from the syntax of the rest of the language (special
clitics, for instance 2P clitics), in other cases the basic position of the
clitic is the same as that of a full-form word with similar function
(simple clitics), but in practice there may be restrictions that apply
specifically to clitics because of their need to attach to a host in a
particular direction.
b.
Clausal Properties
Examples of properties expressed by clitics that relate to the clause as
a whole, though to some extent it is artificial to distinguish these from verbal
clitics, because properties of the clause tend to be expressed on verbs in
inflection. In each case the researcher will provide just one or two properties
that distinguish the clitic from a full word or an affix.
c.
Nominal Function
Clitics can express typical nominal functions such as case,
definiteness, possessor agreement and (more rarely) number. In many
languages possession is indicated by means of an affix on the possessor noun,
usually known as a genitive case marker.
d. Argument Function
1. Argument and agreement marking
Even though agreement markers tend to be affixes and
arguments tend to be full words, there is no necessary correlation
between affixal status and agreement marking, on the one hand, and
word status and argument marking, on the other. That is why argument
20
marking and agreement can also be encoded by clitics. Clitics with this
function are called pronominal clitics and generally express person,
number, gender and case features.
2. Argument clitics
When pronominal clitics function as arguments they occur in
complementary distribution with overt subjects or objects, satisfying the
subcategorization properties of the verb they are semantically related to.
Subjects and objects often behave differently in one and the same
language, and look separately at object clitics and subject clitics. The
researcher first consider instances in which the clitics function more or
less like a pronoun in English, in that they express the argument of the
verb on their own, and cannot co-occur with a full-form word bearing
the same function.
e.
Other Function
The researcher conclude with a few examples of clitics subserving
functions which are not normally thought of as inflectional (though they can be
realized with inflections in other languages).
1.
Conjunction and Preposition
It‟s very common for highly frequent conjunctions such as
“and”, “or” and “but”. Some languages, however, have conjunctions
which" are always clitics.
21
2.
Adverbs
The y clitic is somewhat unusual, in that it is the only clitic in
French with such an adverbial function. There is no clitic form of ici
„here‟, for instance. Moreover, although the clitic systems of Romance
languages tend to be fairly uniform, with similar forms and functions,
some of the Romance languages lack such adverbial clitics. They are
lacking in Spanish and Portuguese, but Italian, Catalan and
Provençal/Occitan have a similar „there‟ clitic, and Sardinian has no
less than three locative clitics.17
3.
Discourse Function
Discourse particles are words which convey rhetorical effects,
emphasis, the attitude of the speaker and so on, often in ways that are
extremely difficult to pin down. In English they are represented by
about a hundred expressions of the kind actually, well, you know, sortof, then, in fact, after all, as in Well, they were actually going to leave
sort of earlier, you know. Such particles have been studied within the
rubric of pragmatics18 and especially in Conversation Analysis19 which
has devoted considerable research effort to unravelling the functions of
particles in turn-taking and in attitudinal factors in discourse. In some
languages, discourse particles play such an important role that their
study has entered the pedagogic tradition, and second-language learners
17
18
(Jones 1993).
Blakemore 2002
19
(Schegloff 2007)
22
are expected to study them as part of the grammar of the language. This
is true of Classical (though not Modern) Greek20 Russian21 and
especially German22.
In many languages, the conversational or discourse particles are
essentially adverbs. However, in many languages, words of this sort can
turn into clitics. This type of clitic is similar to the adverbial type in
many respects, and, like the adverbials, the discourse clitics tend not to
correspond to inflectional categories.
Variety of functions which can be expressed by full-form
function words, by affixes or other morphological devices, or by
something in between, namely clitics. The principal nominal properties,
clitics frequently express case, possession and definiteness. The verbal
categories, clitics regularly express Tense-Aspect-Mood (TAM)
categories, including such categories as interrogative mood and
negation. A particularly important category is that of pronominal
argument, which often turns into a kind of agreement system. This was
discuss pronominal clitics in a good deal of detail at various points in
this research. Finally, the researcher also seen that clitics often realize
meanings that are realized by locative or temporal adverbs or by various
kinds of discourse marker expressing evidentiality or other discourseand context-related meanings. All of these meanings and functions can
20
(cf. Denniston 2002)
(Vasil‟eva, 1974)
22
Modalpartikeln, Abraham 1991, or Abtönungspartikeln, Weydt 1969
21
23
be seen in inflectional systems, reflecting the well-known fact that
inflections generally arise when clitics become morphologized as
affixes.
1.
Clitics express functional (inflectional) categories or discourse
functions.
2.
Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable).
3.
Clitics require a host to attach to.
4.
Clitics show low selectivity towards their host (promiscuous
attachment).
5.
Clitics typically appear in rigidly ordered clusters (templates).
6.
Clitics and clitic clusters often have different syntax from fullyfledged words. A particularly common phenomenon is the 2P
clitic (cluster), in which the clitics have to be placed after the
first constituent (word/phrase) of the phrase or clause they
relate to.
7.
Pronominal clitics often serve as the argument of the verb, but
in some languages the clitics can be doubled by full noun
phrases, giving the appearance of subject-verb or object-verb
agreement.
In conclusion of this chapter, the researcher was finding two type of clitics.
There were proclitic and enclitic. Proclitic with the example : “But his narrative
was nipped in the bud” (page 684). From the sentence in word “the” categorized
in proclitic. Second type was, enclitic with example : “Don’t drop the instrument,
24
I beg” (page 723). From the sentence in word “Don’t” categorized in enclitic.
For the next was the function. The researcher findings two function of clitics,
there were verbal function and other function. Verbal function with example :
“That’s the agreement” (page 699). From the sentence in word “That’s”
categorized in verbal function. For the other function with example : “He swelled
and puffed in his anger (page 684). From the sentence in word “and”
categorized in other function.
E. Example of Clitics in a Novel
This is example of clitics in a Novel. The writer give other novel to
example and analysis.
Anna Karenina
225 of 1759
......light of the lamp post. She looked round, and the same instant recognized
Vronsky‟s face. Putting his hand to the peak of his cap, he bowed to her and
asked, Was there anything she wanted? Could he be of any service to her?
She gazed rather a long while at him without answering, and, in spite of the
shadow in which he was standing, she saw, or fancied she saw, both the
expression of his face and his eyes. It was again that expression of reverential
ecstasy which had so worked upon her the day before. More than once she
had told herself during the past few days, and again only a few moments
before, that Vronsky was for her only one of the hundreds of young men,
forever exactly the same, that are met everywhere, that she would never allow
herself to bestow a thought upon him. But now at the first instant of meeting
25
him, she was seized by a feeling of joyful pride. She had no need to ask why
he had come. she knew as certainly as if he had told her that he was here to be
where she was.
„I didn‟t know you were going. What are you coming for?‟ she said,
letting fall the hand with which she had grasped the door post. And
irrepressible delight and eagerness shone in her face.
Anna Karenina
349 of 1759
Chapter 14
As he rode up to the house in the happiest frame of mind, Levin heard the bell
ring at the side of the principalentrance of the house. „Yes, that‟s someone
from the railway station,‟ he thought, „just the time to be here from the
Moscow train...Who could it be? What if it‟s brother Nikolay? He did say:
„Maybe I‟ll go to the waters, or maybe I‟ll come down to you.‟‟ He felt
dismayed and vexed for the first minute, that his brother Nikolay‟s presence
should come to disturb his happy mood of spring. But he felt ashamed of the
feeling, and at once he opened, as it were, the arms of his soul, and with a
softened feeling of joy and expectation, now he hoped with all his heart that it
was his brother. He pricked up his horse, and riding out from behind the
acacias he saw a hired three-horse sledge from the railway station, and a
gentleman in a fur coat. It was not his brother. „Oh, if it were only some nice
person one could talk to a little!‟ he thought. „Ah,‟ cried Levin joyfully,
26
flinging up both his hands. „Here‟s a delightful visitor! Ah, how glad I am to
see you!‟ he shouted, recognizing Stepan Arkadyevitch.
Anna Karenina
1211 of 1759
„So you‟re not tired? Learn more on me,‟ said he.
„No, I‟m so glad of a chance of being alone with you,
and I must own, though I‟m happy with them, I do regret our winter evenings
alone.‟
„That was good, but this is even better. Both are better,‟ he said, squeezing
her hand.
„Do you know what we were talking about when you came in?‟
„About jam?‟
„Oh, yes, about jam too; but afterwards, about how men make offers.‟
„Ah!‟ said Levin, listening more to the sound of her voice than to the words
she was saying, and all the while paying attention to the road, which passed
now through the forest, and avoiding places where she might make a false
step.
„And about Sergey Ivanovitch and Varenka. You‟ve noticed?... I‟m very
anxious for it,‟ she went on. „What do you think about it?‟ And she peeped
into his face.
„I don‟t know what to think,‟ Levin answered, smiling.
„Sergey seems very strange to me in that way. I told you, you know..‟
„Yes, that he was in love with that girl who died...‟
27
Note : you‟re the red word of the box above, it is one example from the
writer to analysis clitics of novel.
F.
Framework of Thinking
This sub-chapter the researcher presented the framework of thinking
English Clitics Analysis of His Last Bow in Sherlock
Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Novel
Clitics
Type of clitics
Function of clitics
His Last Bow in
Sherlock
Holmes Novel
Proclitic
The house
Enclitic
I don’t like
you
Verbal
function
I’ll see it in my
dream
Other
function
He swelled and
puffed in his
anger
In framework of thinking above the researcher analysis in English
clitics and the tittle novel was His Last Bow in Sherlock Holmes novel by Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle. The researcher was findings problem of type were,
proclitic (the) and enclitic (don’t). For the function the researcher was finding
verbal function (‘ll ) and other function (and). In conclusion, there were two
types and two function of clitics by researcher.
28